Running head: BIOLOGY DISCUSSIONS 1

Biology Discussions

Name

Institution
BIOLOGY DISCUSSIONS 2

Chapter 17

1. Identify the contributions of the endocrine system to homeostasis

The endocrine system regulates metabolisms through the release of hormones that

appetite, hair and skin. 

2. Discuss the chemical composition of hormones and the mechanisms of hormone action

Hormones reproduced by the endocrine glands. They bind to specific receptors, and their

target is specific. Hormones are made of proteins or steroids. They can act through a fixed

receptor or mobile receptor mechanism. In a fixed receptor mechanism, the hormones bind to

their extracellular receptors because they are water-soluble, which makes them not to pass

through a cell membrane made up of lipid layer. After binding, a series of reactions take place,

which leads to the production of adenyl cyclase enzyme.

3. Summarize the site of production, regulation, and effects of the hormones of the

pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands

Hormone-producing cells, or endocrine cells, can be found in isolation in organs such as

the gonads, kidney, digestive tract or liver. The endocrine glands are usually heavily irrigated by

blood capillaries, and their secretory cells are organized in islets or forming ropes. The pituitary

gland is located in the basal part of the brain. It is connected to the hypothalamus physically and

functionally. The pituitary gland is a mixed gland formed by an anterior lobe or

adenohypophysis and another posterior or neurohypophysis.

4. Discuss the hormonal regulation of the reproductive system

Cyclic secretion of hormones in the ovary is regulated by adenohypophysis

gonadotropins (FSH and LH), which, in turn, are controlled by GnRH synthesized in the
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hypothalamus. On the other hand, spermatogenesis is regulated by axis hypothalamus-pituitary.

Under the influence of signals from other areas of the brain, the hypothalamus secretes

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) into the blood, which transports it to the anterior

pituitary gland, where it stimulates the release of two hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone

(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) or stimulating hormone is also known interstitial cells

(ICSH). FSH stimulates Sertoli cells increased spermatogenesis.

 5. Explain the role of the pancreatic endocrine cells in the regulation of blood glucose

Pancreatic endocrine cells produce insulin and glucagon, which regulates the levels of

sugar in the body. When the blood sugar is low, glucan is released to bring it t normal levels. On

the other hand, when it is low, insulin is produced to normalize it. 

6. Identify the hormones released by the heart, kidneys, and other organs with secondary

endocrine functions

The heart produces hormone atrial natriuretic peptide. The kidneys produce

erythropoietin, calcitriol, and renin. Adipose tissue produces leptin. 

7. Discuss several common diseases associated with endocrine system dysfunction

Parathyroid problems

When occurs hyperparathyroidism, the amount of calcium that circulates through the

bloodstream increases, which can also be seen in the urine, which can record extremely high

rates of this element. This can lead to the formation of kidney stones and a loss of calcium from

the bones.

Diseases of the gonads

These organs can suffer alterations as a result of a malfunction of the pituitary gland or its

glands. In the case of men, the decrease in the function of the testicle causes male
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hypogonadism, which can cause, in turn, the eunucoidism, whose consequences are: high stature,

absence of hair on face and body, acute tone of voice, poor muscle and genital development of

tiny size. For women, alterations of the sexual glands are closely linked to disorders of menstrual

cycles, since these are the effect of the interaction of hormones and similar chemicals, produced

in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and ovaries.

8. Discuss the embryonic development of, and the effects of ageing on, the endocrine system

With age, the concentration of most of the hormones, although some remain in the

characteristic values of young people and others increase. Even if the values do not decrease, the

Endocrine activity usually declines with age because hormonal receptors become less sensitive.

In women, the reduction of oestrogen levels leads to menopause. In men, testosterone levels

usually decrease gradually.

Chapter 18

1. Identify the primary functions of blood, its fluid and cellular components, and its

physical characteristics

The primary function of the blood is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from

the lungs, protect the body from external attacks and regulation of glucose and water levels. The

blood is composed of plasma fluid, platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. The physical

characteristics of blood include; it is thicker than water and flows slowly. It PH is neutral, and it

has a temperature of 1004 degrees Celsius. Also, it makes 8% of the body weight. 

2. Identify the most important proteins and other solutes present in blood plasma
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Serum albumin is the most important protein present in plasma. Other proteins include

globulins, fibrinogen, regulatory proteins and clotting factors. 

3. Describe the formation of the formed element components of blood

The process of hemopoiesis is used in the formation of formed element components of

the blood. The formed elements continuously get produced where they replace the used platelets,

leukocytes, and erythrocytes. This process beings from the bone marrow where there is

differentiation of the lymphoid and myeloid lineages. 

4. Discuss the structure and function of red blood cells and haemoglobin

  In mammals, the interior of the erythrocyte consists of haemoglobin, since it has lost all

subcellular compartments, including the nucleus. Haemoglobin is a complex protein with a

quaternary structure synthesized in erythrocytes and is the fundamental element of these cells.

Haemoglobin is a molecule of a protein nature and is the quintessential oxygen transporter. The

most important function of erythrocytes is to house the haemoglobin inside to ensure the supply

of oxygen to all tissues and organs of the body, thanks to the transport and exchange of oxygen

and carbon dioxide.

5. Classify and characterize white blood cells

White blood cells can be classified as granulocytes, monocytes or lymphocytes based on

their functions. 

6. Describe the structure of platelets and explain the process of hemostasis

Platelets

Platelets or thrombocytes are in the number of 150,000 to 400,000 per mm3 of blood.

Platelets are the smallest form of blood elements. They have a diameter of about 2μ. They are a

nucleated corpuscle with a multitude of cytoplasmic granules that are segregated during
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activation. They are formed in the bone marrow, through a process called thrombopoiesis. Under

normal conditions, 40,000, mm3/ day are formed.

Process of Hemostasis

Hemostasis is the set of phenomena that leads to the formation of the platelet plug, the

first step in stopping bleeding, preventing the exit of blood elements. After the rupture of the

vascular endothelium, platelets adhere to subendothelial structures, mainly to collagen fibers that

emerge from the broken surface and come into contact with platelets. In this process the platelets

lose their discoid form, becoming spherical and emitting spicules through which they adhere to

the surrounding tissue.

 7. Explain the significance of AB and Rh blood groups in blood transfusions

Someone can get a blood transfusion from anybody when they have AB or Rh blood

group.

8. Discuss a variety of blood disorders

Some of the blood disorders include leukaemia, anaemia and thrombosis. Leukaemia is

considered as blood cancer, while anaemia is the lack of enough red blood cells in the body. 

Leukaemia. Thrombosis, on its part, is the vein blood clot. 

Chapter 19

1. Identify and describe the interior and exterior parts of the human heart

The heart has some species of chambers, which are called atria and ventricles. They are 4

in total, two for the right side, and two for the left side. And this has come to be known as the 4

(four) parts of the heart. These are. Left atrium. Left ventricle. Right atrium. Right ventricle.
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Description of the internal parts of the human heart

Left atrium or left atrium.

This is one of the largest parts or chambers of the heart, and it is located in the upper part

of the left side of this organ. Once the blood is in this area, it is transmitted to the left ventricle.

Left ventricle.

This camera is located on the lower left of the heart. And its function is to receive the

blood rich in nutrients, oxygen and cellular food, which has passed from the lungs to the left

atrium; to send it to the whole body. This is done with the help of the Aorta artery.

Right atrium or right atrium.

Like the left atrium, it is located at the top. But, in this case, for the right side of the heart

muscle tissue. Its function is also to receive blood; but in this case, the blood comes from our

entire organism, without nutrients, or oxygen because he has left all the food in the cells.

Once the right atrium has received the non-oxygenated blood, thanks to the vena cava, it will

send it to the right ventricle.

Right ventricle.

Similarly, this part of the heart is located on the right side, at the bottom. And it has the

function of receiving the blood that has been collected in the right atrium, from our entire

organism. Once the blood, which no longer carries any nutritional benefit, is in this

compartment, it will be propelled into the lungs, with the help of the pulmonary artery.

2. Describe the path of blood through the cardiac circuits

Deoxygenated blood moves into the superior vena cava into the right atrium. Then it

moves into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. After that, it moves into the lungs
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through pulmonary artery where it gets oxygenated, and from the lungs, it moves into the right

atrium via pulmonary vein than to the right atrium before it leaves through iota. 

3. Describe the size, shape, and location of the heart

The heart is located below the sternum. Its size is between 230-350 grams. It is shaped

like an inverted cone. 

4. Compare cardiac muscle to skeletal and smooth muscle

Both skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated in appearance while the smooth muscle is

not. Skeletal muscles are voluntary while the smooth and cardiac muscle is not. 

5. Explain the cardiac conduction system

A group of specialized cardiac muscles forms the cardiac conduction system. Their

function is sending signals to the muscles of the heart that cause contraction. 

6. Describe the process and purpose of an electrocardiogram

The purpose of the electrocardiogram is to monitor the heart rhythm for problems. The

process involves connecting a person's heart to electrodes that which record the heartbeat to the

computer as a graph. 

7. Explain the cardiac cycle                                          

The Cardiac cycle is a set of sequences that take place in the heart, which cause a change

in the volume and pressure of the heart. These changes are called systole (contraction) and

diastole (relaxation), being similar to the movements produced by a water pump

(hydropneumatic). The processes mentioned above (systole and diastole) are the stages of the

heart cycle, where each is subdivided into two phases.

Systole
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This is the stage where the walls of the heart contract, resulting in atrial and ventricular

systole. The earpiece is where the atria on both sides contract; directing blood to the ventricles

through two heart valves (mitral and tricuspid). contraction and expulsion.

Isovolumetric ventricular contraction

It is a partial ventricular contraction that occurs once the ventricular pressure exceeds the

atrial; causing the heart valves to close and no blood entering or leaving the heart.

Expulsion

Refers to the ejection of blood from the ventricles through the arteries; being the product

of ventricular pressure that exceeds that of the arteries. In this case, the valves open and

approximately 75 ml of blood is expelled.

Sistole and Diastole of the Heart

Diástole

It is called diastole to relax the walls of the heart. This is also divided into two phases,

which are the isovolumic relaxation phase and the filling phase.

Isovolumetric ventricular relaxation

It is the beginning of diastole, where the ventricle relaxes due to the expulsion of blood

and with it, the ventricular pressure drops.

Passive atrial filling

As the other stages occur, the atria keep receiving blood passively. In it, the atrial

pressure increases compared to the ventricular one; causing blood to travel from the atria to the

ventricles and allowing the tricuspid and mitral valves to open.

 8. Calculate cardiac output

Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the heart rate.
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9. Describe the effects of exercise on cardiac output and heart rate

During exercise, there increase in cardiac output as well as the heart rate due to a

decrease in the total resistance.  

10. Name the centers of the brain that control heart rate and describe their function

The centres in the brain that control the heart rate are vasomotor, cardiac, respiratory, vomiting.

They regulate blood pressure and breathing which have a direct impact on the heart rate. 

 Identify other factors affecting heart rateDehydration 

 Emotions and anxiety

 Body Temperature

 Diminishing glycogen stores

 Insufficient nutrition

 Medication 

12. Describe fetal heart development

 The heart f the feat starts to develop after 18 days. The heart starts to beat and pumb blood at

day 21.

Chapter 20

1. Compare and contrast the anatomical structure of arteries, arterioles, capillaries,

venules, and veins

The arteries are very thin but larger than arterioles. The arterioles are larger than

capillaries. Venules are slightly larger than capillaries but smaller than the veins which are larger

than all and have veins. 

2. Accurately describe the forces that account for capillary exchange

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There are three modes of transport through the capillary wall: diffusion, pinocytosis or

vesicular transport and Ultrafiltration or distribution of liquids. Diffusion is the most important

mechanism of the three. All exchanges between blood and cells use the interstitial fluid as an

intermediate route. Gradients for the correct diffusion of respiratory gases, nutrients and waste

products are created by the cellular metabolism that consumes some and produces others, leading

to increases or decreases in their concentration in the interstitial fluid. In the case of pinocytosis

or vesicular transport, the vesicles allow endo and exocytosis processes to constitute true

transcellular transport channels. Finally, Ultrafiltration involves the distribution of liquids. This

type of transport has as its basic function the redistribution of extracellular fluids.

3. List the major factors affecting blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance

 vessel diameter (or radius), 

 vessel length, 

 the viscosity of the blood

4. Describe how blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance interrelate

The movement of blood through an organ, tissue or vessel, it is referred to as blood flow. As

the resistance of blood flow increases, the blood pressure also increases, resulting in the

reduction of blood flow. 

5. Discuss how the neural and endocrine mechanisms maintain homeostasis within the

blood vessels

The neural and endocrine signals the kidney, which reabsorbs more water. The blood

volume and pressure are restored through this process, thus maintaining homeostasis within the

blood vessels. 

6. Describe the interaction of the cardiovascular system with other body systems
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In addition to "feeding" the cells, the cardiovascular system contributes to the regulation

of body temperature by dilating blood vessels. When the body is hot it makes the hot blood go to

the superficial capillaries of the skin and the heat goes out through it, cooling the body; On the

contrary, if the body drops a lot of temperatures, it contracts the capillaries preventing the blood

from reaching the surface of the skin and losing heat, although it also does so by causing the

heart to pump more blood to the vital organs.

7. Label the major blood vessels of the pulmonary and systemic circulations

8. Identify and describe the hepatic portal system

Hepatic portal system is a venue's system that joins the stomach and the blood

system. It returns blood from the digestive system to the liver. In this system, raw

materials are processed before they are returned to the heart. 

9. Describe the development of blood vessels and fetal circulation

The development of the blood begins to form in an embryo from the embryonic

mesoderm. Blood is diverted to the systemic circuit through shunts, namely ductus arteriosus and

foramen ovale. 

10. Compare fetal circulation to that of an individual after birth

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The foetal depends on getting oxygen from the host mother. Their lungs are not working

since they do opt breath in the womb. Once the baby is born, he or she takes the first breath,

which makes the lungs start functioning, which leads to blood start to flow like an adult.