A STUDY ON THE EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT NATURAL

GREYWATER TREATMENT METHODS

FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in the Subject

CE Project Study (CE 520)

A Project Study

Presented to

College of Engineering and Architecture

NORSU, Main Campus II, Dumaguete City

By:

Melon, Shariah Brittany F.

Montecalvo, Mary Ann R.

Tuayon, Jomaica M.

June 2020
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Irrigation is an important component of the agricultural system. It raises land productivity by

providing sufficient water to crops to increase yield and ensure the stability of production, even under

extreme weather conditions. In the Philippines, the government has established irrigation systems

however farmers living in remote areas lack access to established irrigation systems and use fresh water

to water their farm instead.

About 80% of water in the country that is provided to households becomes wastewater in which

only 10% is treated while 58% of the groundwater is contaminated (Claudio, E.L., 2015). United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have predicted that by 2025 water shortage

will be a serious worldwide problem (The Water Kit, 2003). As the population in Dumaguete City,

Negros Oriental continues to grow, demand for fresh water along with the water rate have increased and

are expected to further increase in the upcoming years (The Negros Chronicle, 2015). Governments and

water bodies in water management have promoted greywater treatment systems as a possible solution for

reducing water scarcity (Edwin et al., 2013).

Greywater is defined as wastewater without any contributions from toilet water. It is considered

high volume, low strength wastewater with high potential for reuse and application. There are a number

of problems related to the reuse of untreated grey wastewater. The risk of spreading of diseases, due to

exposure to micro-organisms in the water, will be a crucial point if the water is to be reused for e.g. toilet

flushing or irrigation. The risk for pollution of soil and receiving waters due to the content of different

pollutants is another question that has been raised concerning infiltration and irrigation with grey

wastewater (Erickson et al. 2001).

 Greywater reuse is a promising alternative water source, which could be exploited on a

continuous basis and treated for non-potable uses (Chong et al., 2015). Systems for greywater treatment

and reuse are a form of water resource management .Once treated, greywater can be reused in a number

of ways such as irrigation, cooling systems, fire suppression systems among others (Edwin et al., 2013).

Based on an interview conducted by the researchers, some of the farmers residing in Purok

Kasagingan, Barangay Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City have experienced limited access to irrigation water

due to poorly characterized and unmonitored irrigation systems, while others experienced no access at all.

This study aims to treat domestic greywater for irrigation purposes using the following natural

treatment methods; Subsurface Treatment Method Using Canna Indica Plant, Surface Treatment Method

Using Duckweed, and Vertical Flow Treatment Method Using Corncobs.

1.2 Statement of the Problem: (kulang, huna hunaon sa nako HAHAHA)

The farmers in Purok Kasagingan, Barangay Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental

have experienced scarcity of water for irrigation. To address this problem, the proponents came up with

the idea of treating domestic greywater using natural treatment methods and using it for irrigation based

on the following questions:

A. What are the physico-chemical characteristics of the greywater based on the following

parameters?

a. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

b. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

c. pH

d. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

e. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

 f. Transparency

g. Color

h. Temperature

B. What is the efficacy rate of the following greywater treatment methods?

a. Subsurface Treatment Method Using Canna Indica Plant

b. Surface Treatment Method Using Duckweed

c. Vertical Flow Treatment Method Using Corncobs

C. How are the physico-chemical properties of the treated greywater compared to the standards

for irrigation set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)?

1.3 General Objectives:

In order to address the current problem on irrigation water of the farmers in Purok Kasagingan,

Barangay Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, the proponents sought to treat domestic

greywater using natural treatment methods to be used for irrigation purposes. The proponents aimed to:

A. Determine the physico-chemical characteristics of the greywater based on the following

parameters:

a. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

b. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

c. pH

d. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

e. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

f. Transparency

g. Color
 h. Temperature

B. Determine the efficacy rate of the following greywater treatment methods:

a. Subsurface Treatment Method Using Canna Indica

b. Surface Treatment Method Using Duckweed

c. Vertical Flow Treatment Method Using Corncobs

C. To know how the physico-chemical properties of the treated greywater are compared to the

standards for irrigation set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in

terms of yield variance?

1.4 Significance of the Problem (past tense)

This study will be utilized to help the farmers in the Philippines, specifically Barangay

Bajumpandan, to nourish their crops with treated greywater. The treated greywater would vastly affect the

demand of freshwater for irrigation purposes. Different treatment methods will be analyzed in order to

ensure which suits the best for irrigating.

The researchers only focused on natural filtration methods because of its low price and can be easily

found. The study would help provide the farmers a supply of water for their agricultural use anytime of

the year especially during drought season. Conservation of Fresh Water and Reduction of Water Wastage

are two benefits in the application of greywater system. Through this study, the reusing of greywater to

irrigate the crops would drastically reduce the water demand as to positively impact the environment. By

reusing greywater for another function before it is dumped into the sewage, the amount of water wasted

can be halved, increasing water use efficiency.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

This study only focused on using natural treatment methods for greywater such as aquatic plants

like Duckweed (Lemnoideae) and Cana Indica (Indian Shot) and an organic material such as Corn Cob.

For the physical parameters of testing greywater, only temperature, color, transparency, Total

Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) were tested. For the chemical parameters of

testing greywater, only pH, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) were

tested. Biological parameters of testing greywater were excluded such as Nitrogen, Phosphorous and

microorganisms such as Ecoli, Salmonella and Campylobacter.

Moreover, the period of study was limited only to 7 days and perhaps insufficient to measure the

long term efficacy of the treatment methods. In the field experiment of this study, variables such as

ambient atmospheric conditions and rainfall were also excluded. Processes such as the leaching effects of

elements due to rainfall events were not determined.

1.6 Definition of Terms

To understand and clarify the terms used in this study, the following are hereby defined:

Aerobic – relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) – a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen used by bacteria

to degrade organic matter in a wastewater sample over a 5-day period at 20 ºC (expressed in

mg/l).

Blackwater – wastewater from toilets containing urine and fecal matter.

Color – a physical quality such a red, blue, green, yellow, etc., that you see when you look at something.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, expressed as: (i) mg/l –

which is the absolute amount of oxygen dissolved in the water mass, or (ii) as percentage of

oxygen-saturated water (% sat).

Efficacy – or effectiveness is the ability of something to produce a desired or intended result.

Effluent – a general term denoting any wastewater, partially or completed treated, or in its natural state,

flowing out of a manufacturing plant, industrial plant or treatment plant.

Greywater – wastewater from lavatory sinks, showers, bathtubs, and laundry machines collected from

dwelling units, commercial buildings and institutions of the community.

pH – A logarithmic scale determining whether a solution is acid, neutral or basic, and derived from the

number of hydrogen ions present. The pH scale commonly in use ranges from 0 to 14, where

7 indicates a neutral solution, less than 7 an acidic one and more than 7 a basic solution.

Potable water – also known as drinking water and is safe to drink or to use for food preparation.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) – The sum of all dissolved colloidal and suspended solids (volatile and

non-volatile) in a liquid. Any particle passing a 1.2µm filter is defined as dissolved.

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) – amount of insoluble solids floating and suspended in wastewater. They

are determined by filtration or centrifugation followed by drying and expressed in mg/l.

Transparency – having the property of transmitting rays of light through it substance so that bodies

situated beyond or behind can be distinctly seen.

Treatment – refer to any method, technique, or process designed to alter the physical, chemical,

biological, or radiological character or composition of any waste or wastewater to reduce

or prevent pollution.

Wastewater – a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that is intended to be removed from a

community

Yield Variance – is a measure of differential between output that should have been produced for the

given level of input (standard value) and the level of output actually achieved (effluent test

results) during a period.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents literatures – both from local and foreign authors, which were gathered by

the researchers. The information obtained is from articles, journals, and other studies relevant to this

study.

2.1 Related Literature

2.1.1 Greywater

Greywater, also spelled greywater or gray water and also known as sullage, is defined as

wastewater from lavatory sinks, showers, bathtubs, and laundry machines collected from dwelling units,

commercial buildings and institutions of the community (Pachkor, R.T. & Parbat, D.K., 2017). It

excludes wastewater from dishwashers, kitchen sinks, and toilets/urinals. Grey water is distinct from

black water in the amount and composition of its chemical and biological contaminants which are feces or

other toxic chemicals generally flushed into septic tanks .The definition of greywater, however, can vary

depending on regulatory jurisdictions. Some agencies have elected to include kitchen wastewater in the

definition of greywater, yet the most recent greywater literatures recommend excluding wastewater from

kitchen sinks due to the negative impact on greywater quality (Glenn, R.T., 2012).

Greywater from kitchen sink and dish washer should not be reused as these can contain heavy

loads of organic materials, fats and caustic additives in high concentrations that are not readily broken

down by soil organisms and could adversely affect plants (Ukpong E.C. & Agunwamba, J.C., 2012).

Kitchen sink and dish wastewater are also often the most highly contaminated due to the presence of food

and grease particles and warn of high salmonella counts in which when used to irrigate edible crops can

impose risks to human health (Eriksson et al., 2002). Oil and grease in the greywater that contained

kitchen wastewater could also lead to increased odor and undesirable appearances. Besides, they are

hazardous pollutants for aquatic environments due to the consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) that is
necessary for the forms of life in water . For this reason, the least contaminated streams of household

greywater – showers, bath tubs, laundry and non-kitchen sinks, are usually prioritized for reuse (Friedler,

E., 2004).

Greywater got its name from its cloudy or grey color appearance and from its status as being

neither fresh nor heavily polluted. As the country’s water resources slowly decline, greywater can be used

as alternative water for toilet flushing, firefighting, other non-potable uses, and most importantly for

irrigation (source). Aside from that, the ecological benefits of greywater recycling includes reduced

freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers, less environmental impact from septic tanks and water

treatment plants, reduced energy use and chemical pollution from water treatment, and groundwater

recharge and reclamation of nutrients.

2.1.2 Greywater Characteristics

The composition of greywater varies, and it is largely a reflection of the lifestyle and the type and

choice of chemicals used for laundry, cleaning and bathing. The quality of the water supply and the type

of distribution network also affect the characteristics of greywater (Oteng-Peprah et. al, 2018). The

characteristics of greywater can be evaluated through its quality by physico-chemical parameters and its

quantity.

2.1.2a Greywater Quality

Greywater constituents include salts, pathogens, household pharmaceutical and personal care

products and organics/nutrients (detergents are main source). When greywater is compared to domestic

wastewater, greywater has lower contaminant concentrations of organics, solids, nutrients and pathogens

(Bergdolt, 2011).

Generally, greywater contains high concentrations of easily biodegradable organic materials and

some basic constituents which are largely generated from households. These include nutrients such as
nitrates and all its derivatives, phosphorus and its derivatives, but others include xenobiotic organic

compounds (XOCs) and biological microbes such as faecal coliforms, salmonella and general

hydrochemical constituents. Research performed by Rose et al., (1991) identified bacterial differences

between greywater sources and household composition. Recent studies have however found

pharmaceuticals, health and beauty products, aerosols, pigments and toxic heavy metals such as Pb, Ni

Cd, Cu, Hg and Cr in appreciable concentrations in greywater (Erik sson et al., 2010). In general, the

domestic water source has certain water quality characteristics as presented in Table 1 showing a list of

potential constituents for each source.

Table 1. Greywater Characteristics by Source

Source
Automatic Clothes Washer
Automatic Dish Washer
Bath tub and Shower
Evaporative Cooler
Sinks, including kitchen
Characteristics
Bleach, Foam, High pH, Hot Water, Nitrate, Oil and
Grease, Oxygen Demand, Phosphate, Salinity, Soaps,
Sodium, Suspended Solids, and Turbidity
Bacteria, Foam, Food Particles, High pH, Hot water,
Odor, Oil and Grease, Organic Matter, Oxygen
Demand, Saliniy, Soaps, Suspendeed Solids, and
Turbidity
Bacteria, Hair, Hot Water, Odor, Oil and Grease,
Oxygen Demand, Soaps, Suspended Solids and
Turbidity
Salinity
Bacteria, Food Particles, Hot water, Odor, Oil and
Grease, Organic Matter, Oxygen Demand, Soaps,
Suspended Solids, and Turbidity

Source: New Mexico State University Safe Use of Household Greywater Guide (1994)

2.1.2b Greywater Quantity

The amount of greywater produced in a household can vary greatly ranging from as low as 15 L

per person per day for poor areas to several hundred per person per day. Factors that account for such

huge disparities are mostly attributed to geographical location, lifestyle, climatic conditions, type of
infrastructure, culture and habits, among others. Greywater accounts for up to 75% of the wastewater

volume produced by households, and this can increase to about 90% if dry toilets are used. It has also

been estimated that greywater produced accounts for about 69% of domestic water consumption (Jamrah

et al. 2011).

In developed countries, greywater makes up about 60-70% of domestic wastewater volume. It is

estimated that the volume of greywater generated from a household in an informal settlement varies from

between 25 and 75 litres per household per day (l/c/d) (Carden et al., 2007). In the Philippines, 74 % of

the total water supply is used for agricultural purposes, 9% for industrial processes, and 17% for domestic

consumption. This means that water is used abundantly for raising livestock and for irrigating crops.

2.1.3 Natural Greywater Treatment Methods

Treatment methods have been used to reduce the level of contamination in greywater before reuse

or final disposal. They exist in many forms, varying in their complexity, treatment method, and location

within or outside the house. They range from natural treatment methods (using natural materials such as

gravel, sand, and aquatic plants for filtration, etc.) which are very simple and low-cost, to complex high-

tech treatment methods (using rotating biological contactors and membrane filtration such a

microfiltration, reverse osmosis, UV radiation for disinfection, etc.) which are commonly used in large

sewerage networks and treatment plants. Though high-tech treatment methods are highly efficient, they

are also technically complex, expensive, and require skilled labor to install and maintain. Thus, natural

treatment methods are recommended for treating domestic greywater for non-potable purposes such as

irrigation because these methods are low cost, no skilled personnel are required, easy to handle and also

have high treatment efficiency. Moreover, natural treatment methods are eco-friendly for they do not use

chemical additives or toxic by-products in treating greywater (Morel, A. & Diener, S., 2006).
 The natural treatment methods used in this study are subsurface treatment method using Canna

Indica Plant, surface treatment method using Duckweed Plant, and vertical flow treatment method using

Corncobs. The aforementioned natural materials are locally available and have been found to have

satisfactory results in treating greywater. However, there are insufficient studies and information to

support the accuracy of such materials as greywater treatment for irrigation. Therefore, the efficacy of the

Canna Indica plant, Duckweed, and Corncob as treatment for different pollutants present in greywater

which will be used for irrigation purposes will further be proven and assessed through this study.

2.1.3a Subsurface Treatment Method Using Canna Indica Plant

Subsurface treatments are generally constructed with a porous material (e.g. soil, sand, or gravel)

as a substrate for growth of rooted wetland plants. They are designed to keep the water level below the

top of the soil, rock or gravel media, thus minimizing human and ecological exposure, and demonstrate

higher rates of contaminant removal per unit of land (see Fig.1). Bed depth for subsurface treatment is

generally less than 2 ft or 0.6m. The water could either flow horizontally or vertically through the

substrate (Halverson, N.V., 2006). In this study, the Canna Indica is used as the rooted plant for the

subsurface treatment.

Canna Indica, commonly known as Indian shot, African arrowroot, edible canna, purple

arrowroot, Sierra Leone arrowroot, is a plant species in the family Cannaceae. It is native and naturalized

in much of Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. It has thick, cylindrical and creamy

white or pinkish color roots and rhizomes which are about 2–5mm in diameter with numerous root hairs

and secondary lateral roots (see Fig.2). The Canna Indica plant supplies oxygen to the soil in the root

zones. Using this oxygen, soil bacteria break down organic compounds in greywater and render it clean. It

absorbs heavy metals such as aluminum, iron, and phosphorous and helps purify the greywater by

decomposing the suspended solid particles and the active microbes in the soil. Moreover, it is effective
for the removal of high organic load, color and chlorinated organic compounds found in greywater

(Kumbhar et. al., 2018).

Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of a Subsurface Treatment Method

Fig. 2 Canna Indica plant and its roots

2.1.3b Surface Treatment Method Using Duckweed Plant

A Surface Treatment consists of a basin or channels with a barrier layer to prevent seepage,

floating plants, and relatively shallow water flowing through the system (see Fig. 3). It is designed to

keep the water level above the top of the soil along with rooted plants on the surface. It is generally used
to collect water, provide aeration, and retain the water long enough that metals in the greywater can

precipitate. In this study, duckweeds are used as floating plants for the surface treatment.

Duckweed, also known as lemna minor, is a floating aquatic macrophyte belonging to the

botanical family Lemnaceae, which can be found worldwide on the surface of nutrient rich fresh and

brackish waters. It can grow to waters only millimeters deep to depths of 3 meters. Its roots are usually

short but depend on species and environmental conditions and vary from a few millimeters up to 14cm

(see Fig. 4). There are no exact values for water depths to produce high treatment performance but

shallow ponds are likely to be better than deep ponds in order to minimize temperature gradients over the

depth of the pond, but increase the land area required. Reported pond depths range from 0.3 to 2.7 meters up to

even 5 meters. Duckweeds have insecticidal properties that can control the development of mosquitoes in

the water making it suitable for surface treatment (Eid et.al., 1992).

Duckweed removes nutrients, soluble salts, organic matter, and heavy metals in the greywater.

The nutrients taken up by duckweed are assimilated into plant protein. It eliminates suspended solid by

sedimentation and biodegradation of the organic particles and a minor fraction is absorbed by the roots of

the duckweed fronds, where organic particles undergo aerobic biodegradation by microorganisms, and

part of the degraded products is assimilated by the plants (Iqbal 1999). Duckweed also eliminates algal

abundance and total and fecal coliform densities (Chaudhary, E. & Sharma, P., 2014).

Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of a Surface Treatment Method

 Fig. 4 Duckweed and its roots

2.1.3c Vertical Flow Treatment Method Using Corncobs

A Vertical Flow Treatment is constructed so that water moves uniformly downward (by gravity)

or upward (by using pumps) through the substrate (see Fig. 5). It can have a single substrate or have

multiple substrates or layers of material. Its typical depth ranges from 0.8m to1.2 m (Sasse, 1998). In this

study, corn cobs are used as the substrate material.

Corn cob, also called cob of corn, is the central core of an ear of corn (also known as maize in

Spanish-speaking countries). It is the part of the ear on which the kernels grow (see Fig. 6). Corn cob is a

biopolymer waste which represents an interesting alternative as a low cost adsorbent because of its

abundant, renewable and biodegradable raw resources and properties such as its chemical stability, oil

absorption, surface area, iodine value and high reactivity. Corn cobs were proven to be an excellent

adsorbent in the recent past.

Since the Philippines is a tropical country, it is very abundant of corn. It is consumed as staple

food and also production. Cultivation of corn or maize generates large amount of corn cobs as agricultural
waste. The local cultivators consume immature corn cobs. But the large quantity of mature corn cob

waste remains as such, because even animals avoid consumption of corn cobs due to threat of choking.

Owing to the rigidity and high porous structure, corn cobs possess adsorption properties (Janani et al.

2019). It can used for building a filter in different forms such as, longitudinal sections of dried corn cobs,

small pieces of corn cobs, powdered corn cobs, etc.

Detergents, colored dyes, salts, suspended particles, oil, grease and even some heavy metals like

lead, chromium get adsorbed onto the surface of corn cobs. It is possible to separate about 70-80% of

contaminants from wastewater at household level itself, by connecting a drain pipe to a chamber having

various layers of corn cobs. Corn cob waste can be converted into activated charcoal thus taking a step

towards biomass utilization and bio resource recycling. The charcoal thus has appreciably high surface

area and is a promising adsorbent for pollution control (Janani et al. 2019).

Fig. 5 Schematic illustration of a Vertical Flow Treatment Method

 Fig. 6 Corn cobs in its whole state and powdered state

Figure 6 shows an actual corn cob which is the central core of an ear of corn. The corn cob can

either wholly be used or chopped into tiny pieces or even powdered depending on the researches’

preference.

2.1.4 Physico- Chemical Parameters of Greywater

Everything that is in the water will eventually make its way into the soil, potentially affecting it

including the growth, appearance and health of plants. The only way to determine if the water is suitable

for irrigation use is to have it tested. The characteristics of the greywater will be based from the following

physico-chemical parameters: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, Total

Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Transparency, Color, and Temperature.

2.1.4a Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and

other microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic conditions at a specified

temperature. It is an important water quality parameter because it provides an index to assess the effect

discharged wastewater will have on the receiving environment. It permits an estimate of the waste

strength in terms of the amount of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) required to breakdown the wastewater. The

BOD test is carried out by determining the dissolved oxygen on the wastewater or a diluted mixture at the

beginning of the test period, incubating the wastewater mixture at 20°C, and determining the dissolved

oxygen at the end of 5 days. The difference in dissolved oxygen between the initial measurement and the

fifth day measurement represents the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

Generally, when BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is because the demand

for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that oxygen from the oxygen dissolved in the water,

which means that the water is polluted. On the contrary, if there is no organic waste present in the water,

there won't be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the BOD will tend to be lower and the

DO level will tend to be higher indicating a good water quality.

The formula used to determine Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is:

DO1 −DO5
BOD= (Eq. 1)
P

where:

DO1 = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L

DO5 = DO of diluted sample immediately after five days incubation at 20°C, mg/L

P = Percent of sample added

2.1.4b Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

 Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water or any

other liquids. It is an important parameter in assessing water quality because of its influence on the

organisms living within a body of water. People need the right amount of oxygen in the atmosphere to

survive and thrive and so as aquatic life and plants. In limnology (the study of lakes), dissolved oxygen is

an essential factor second only to water itself. A dissolved oxygen level that is too high or too low can

harm aquatic life and affect water quality. Sufficient dissolved oxygen in irrigation water prevents

problems, increases quality and plant growth, reduces cropping time and improves the overall health of

plants and crops. The root system requires oxygen for aerobic respiration, an essential process that

releases the energy required for healthy root growth and a health plant.

2.1.4c pH

The term pH technically refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a medium. In practical

terms, it is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the growing medium and as such indicates the

availability of nutrients to plants. The main use of pH in a water analysis is for detecting abnormal water

which can cause a nutritional imbalance of plants or may contain a toxic ion. Water or a soil solution with

a pH that is too high can result in nutrient deficiencies, mainly micronutrients such as iron. On the other

hand, pH that is too low might result in micronutrient toxicities and damage the plant’s root system.

pH is measured most accurately with a pH meter containing a glass electrode. Most machines,

like conductivity meters, will have temperature compensation controls. If not, adjustments must be made.

Electrical conductivity measurements should be done before pH because the pH electrode contains

potassium chloride, which can cause an over-estimation of the electrical conductivity.

2.1.4d Total Suspended Solid (TSS)

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are particles that are larger than 2 microns found in the water

column. Anything smaller than 2 microns (average filter size) is considered a dissolved solid. Most
suspended solids are made up of inorganic materials, though bacteria and algae can also contribute to the

total solids concentration. These solids include anything drifting or floating in the water, from sediment,

silt, and sand to plankton and algae. Total Suspended Solids also give information about the content of

particles and colloids that could cause clogging of soil pores and installations. Generally highest values

are found in greywater generated in kitchen sinks and washing machines. In greywater, suspended solids

will be contributed by food particles, hair, dust matter and the like.

The formula used to determine the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in water is:

TSS A−B
mg = x 100 (Eq. 2)
L sample volume , mL

where:

A = weight of filter plus dried residue, mg

B = weight of filter, mg

2.1.4e Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)

Total dissolved solids, also known as TDS, is an estimate of the mass of dissolved solids within

the solution and is typically expressed as mg/L or parts per million (ppm).It is the measure of the amount

of material dissolved in water including carbonate, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate,

sodium, calcium, magnesium, organic ions, etc. The density of the water can be harmful due to increase

in TDS concentrations. Moreover, the high concentrations of TDS may also reduce water clarity,

contribute to a decrease in photosynthesis, combine with toxic compounds and heavy metals, and lead to

an increase in water temperature.

The two principal methods of measuring total dissolved solids are gravimetric analysis and

electrical conductivity. Gravimetric methods are the most accurate and involve evaporating the liquid
solvent and measuring the mass of residues left. This method is generally the best, although it is time-

consuming. If inorganic salts comprise the great majority of TDS, gravimetric methods are appropriate.

Electrical conductivity of water is directly related to the concentration of dissolved ionized solids in the

water. Ions from the dissolved solids in water create the ability for that water to conduct an electric

current, which can be measured using a conventional conductivity meter or TDS meter. When correlated

with laboratory TDS measurements, conductivity provides an approximate value for the TDS

concentration, usually to within ten-percent accuracy.

2.1.4f Transparency

Transparency of water relates to the depth that light will penetrate water. The transmission of

light into a body of water is extremely important since the sun is the primary source of energy for all

biological phenomena. Transparency reduction is due to the presence of particles in the water. When light

attenuates, it alters or limits the capacity of life of some of the biological communities that live in the

water. It reduces the possibility of photosynthesis, a process that produces the oxygen vital to the

ecosystem. It implies as well a reduction of visibility which prevents fishes and zooplankton to see their

prey and their predators. It has also some considerable effects on human perception of recreational water

bodies, fishing or even health. When there is a harmful alga bloom for example, mussels cannot be

collected because it would be dangerous for the health. This has important economic consequences. There

are four levels of transparency namely, clear, hazy, cloudy and turbid. Water transparency is therefore

often used as indicator of water quality.

2.1.4g Color

The color of water indicates the presence of a range of chemical and organic pollutants such as

copper from plumbing systems, rust from iron pipes, algae, bacteria, and so on. It is one of the key

methods to ensure that the water is clean and safe to consume or use. This means that color testing is an

effective way to determine the nature of water pollution. Fresh wastewater is usually a light brownish-
gray color. However as the travel time in the collection system increases and more anaerobic conditions

develop, the color of the wastewater changes sequentially from gray to dark gray and ultimately to black.

When the color of the wastewater is black the wastewater is often described as septic. In most cases, the

gray, dark gray, and black color of wastewater is due to the formation of metallic sulphides, which form

as the sulphide produced under anaerobic conditions reacts with the metals in the wastewater . Color in

water can be measured by eye. This process involves comparing a sample to a series of slides or tubes of

various hues. It can also be measured using sophisticated color measurement equipment such as the

photometer.

2.1.4h Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the particles in a substance . It

is a critical water quality and environmental parameter because it governs the kinds and types of aquatic

life, regulates the maximum dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of the water, and influences the rate of

chemical and biological reactions. In greywater, the temperature is often higher than that of the water

supply and varies within a range of 18°C to 30 °C. These rather high temperatures are attributed to the use

of warm water for personal hygiene and discharge of cooking water . These temperatures are not critical

for biological treatment processes (aerobic and anaerobic digestion occurs within a range of 15–50 °C,

with an optimal range of 25– 35 °C (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998) . On the other hand, higher

temperatures can cause increased bacterial growth and decreased CaCO3 solubility, causing precipitation

in storage tanks or piping systems.

2.1.5 DENR Water Quality Guidelines for Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock Watering

(Class C)
 Based on the water quality guidelines set by the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) through Administrative Order No. 34 series of 2016, the water which will be used for

agriculture, irrigation and livestock watering (Class C) must conform with the values presented in

Table 2.

Table 2. DENR Water Quality Guidelines for Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock Watering

(Class C)

Parameter Unit Values

Color PCU No abnormal discoloration from unnatural causes

Temperature °C 25 - 31

pH (range) 6.5 - 9.0

Dissolved Oxygen mg/L >5

(DO)
5-Day 20°C Biochemical mg/L <7
Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) mg/L < 80

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/L < 1,000

Source: Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 2016-08

From the table above, it should be noted that the samples for the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) test

shall be taken from 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM. For temperature, the natural background temperature as

determined by the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) shall prevail if the temperature is lower or

higher than the Water Quality Guidelines; provided that the maximum increase is only up to 10 percent

and that it will not cause any risk to human health and the environment.
2.2 Related Studies

According to the study of Matos et. al (2010) entitled “Greywater Use in Irrigation:

Characteristics, Advantages and Concerns”, one of ways by which we can reduce the pressure on town

water supplies is to reuse greywater for irrigation around household. The use of domestic greywater for

irrigation is becoming increasingly common in both developed and developing countries to cope with the

water scarcity. It is estimated that the total amount of greywater corresponds to 50-80% of the wastewater

drained from a house constituting the largest potential source of water saving, if considering the

possibility of reuse. Although conceived to be clean, greywater is polluted and contaminated. Greywater

contributes significantly to wastewaters parameters such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),

chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), ammonium (NH4 +), total phosphorous,

boron, metals, salts, surfactants, synthetic chemicals, oils and greases, xenobiotic substances, and

microorganisms (Friedler, 2004). There is some research on the typical quality of greywater and its

variation by source and within source type as presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Typical values for physico-chemical parameters and nutrients in untreated greywater.

Parameters Bath Non- kitchen Washing Machine

Hand wash
Turbidity (NTU) 92(2) 102 50-210(1)
28-96(3) (Mean of 150 108(2)
49-69(4) samples) 14-296(3)
658(2)
Total Suspended Solids TSS 76(2) 40(2) 68(2)
54-303(5) 259(5) 65-280(5)
(mg/L) 120(6) 181(7) 120-280(6)
54-200(7) 165(7)
pH 7.6(2) 8.1(2) 9.3-10.0(1)
6.7-7.4(4,5) 7.0-8.1(5) 8.1(2)
7.5-10.0(5)
5-Day 20°C Biochemical 216(2) 252(2) 48-290(1)
170(6) 33-236(5) 472(2)
Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 424(5) 236(10) 280-470(5)
192(10) 150-380(6)
 282(10)
(13) (12)
Temperature (°C) 32 29 28(14)

Table 3 shows the typical qualities of untreated greywater from different literatures. It can be seen

that the values vary in every greywater source and are unsurprisingly high. This is because untreated

greywater is contaminated with different kinds of soluble and insoluble substances. Contaminants in

greywater include traces of dirt, hair, grease, and certain household products (e.g. shampoos, soaps,

detergent, etc.) that can affect the characteristics of greywater.

Based on the study of Karibasappa, H. et. al (2017) entitled “An Experimental Investigation on

Recycling of Grey Water Naturally by Using Canna Plants”, the issue of grey water management is

gaining more and more importance, especially in developing countries where improper wastewater

management is one of the most important causes for environmental pollution and fatal diseases. In this

experiment, the grey water is collected and arrangement is made such that the collected water flows over

the Canna plant bed for its treatment process. The experiment was carried out from July 2016 to

September 2016 and two pilot scale units – Canna indica and Canna flaccida were fed with fresh water

for a period of one month. The untreated wastewater from Adhiyamaan College of Engineering campus

were collected and analyzed for various parameters. Then, the greywater is allowed to flow over the

canna plant bed for its treatment. From the tests conducted for BOD, COD, and TSS, it is found that all

the organic and inorganic composition in the treated grey water using Canna plants are in the minimum

specific limit and safe for re-usage of water for domestic use. Among the both plants (Canna indica and

Canna flaccida) it is found that Canna indica is more effective and the BOD (3 days @ 27°C) content

consecutively decreases from 22 mg/l to 5 mg/l and COD removal was from 100 mg/l to 28 mg/l and TSS

was from 12 mg/l to 5 mg/l which is safe composition for domestic re-usage. Greywater treated naturally

by using Canna plants and natural soil can be used for treating the residential greywater instead of treating

the greywater by using treatment plants, as it shows decreased composition of organic and inorganic

compounds which is completely safe for the domestic re usage such as gardening, flushing of toilets as
per the water quality standards for domestic usage. This type of treatment which is done at low cost will

be very economical and safe for re-usage for domestic purpose and this process can reduce 50 to 60% of

fresh water usage and maintains good water level in the ground water table around the surrounding and

reduces water scarcity problems.

A study conducted by Abou el- Kheir et al. (2007) entitled “Assessment of the Efficiency of

Duckweed in Wastewater Treatment”, illustrated the efficiency of duckweed as an alternative cost

effective natural biological tool in wastewater treatment and in eliminating concentrations of both

nutrients and soluble salts. Duckweed plants were inoculated into primary treated sewage water systems

(from the collector tank) for aquatic treatment over eight days retention time period under local outdoor

natural conditions. Samples were taken below duckweed cover after every two days to assess the plant’s

efficiency in purifying sewage water from different pollutants and to examine its effect on both

phytoplankton and total and fecal coli form bacteria. Total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen

demand, chemical oxygen demand, nitrate, ammonia, ortho-phosphate, Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd decreased by:

96.3%, 90.6%, 89.0%, 100%, 82.0%, 64.4%, 100%, 100%, 93.6% and 66.7%, respectively.

Phytoplankton standing crop decreased by 94.8%. Total and fecal coliform bacteria decreased by 99.8%.

Dry and wet weights and protein content of duckweeds increased with increasing treatment period. The

duckweed-based wastewater treatment systems provided genuine solutions to the problems regarding the

treatment of domestic wastewater at both the village and urban level in developing countries. They are

inexpensive to install as well as to operate and maintain, and do not require expensive technologies.

The study of Singh, A.K, et.al (2017) entitled “Corncobs as Low Cost Bio-Adsorbent for Water

and Waste Water Treatment” deals with the filtration of wastewater using corncobs which are generally

used as fuel which creates air pollution and global warming. Corn cobs are one of the most plentiful and

important agricultural wastes in maize cultivation. Thus, a matter of primary concern is the economical

and efficient utilization of these corn cobs for a purpose. As they are porous, they can be used as water

filtrates. In the experiment, the corn cobs were collected from local farmers, washed thoroughly with
water, sun dried for one month, cut into long and small pieces and ground to powder and burnt in suitable

conditions to form activated charcoal. Further, these different forms of corn cobs were arranged in a

sequence in arranged manner. Then, 50 ml of domestic effluent collected from kitchen drain pipe was

allowed to pass slowly through the central hole of the cob and the filtrate was collected. The filtrate was

subjected to physical and chemical tests - determination of pH, BOD, COD, TSS, turbidity, chloride,

presence and absence of oxides of salts, detergents, oils, colored dyes, and suspended particles. Results

show that there is a decrease in the values of the said parameters which is an indicator that the corn cob

treatment is effective. It is effective in removing Ni (II) from aqueous solution, for cleaner production of

carbon adsorbents and for removal of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution by agriculture waste

biomass. This study revealed a novel and cheap method of cleaning waste water from domestic and

industrial sources by utilizing one of the most under-utilized agricultural wastes. The study is based on

the scientific principles of Adsorption by immobilizing the contaminants with the help of corn cobs. In

this project an attempt was made to utilize this less-utilized plant part to clean one of the most precious

natural resources, water.

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY (ulusbon)

3.1 Research Environment

The site of investigation of the proposed wastewater treatment is located at Purok Kasagingan,

Brgy. Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City. The proponents only focused on a lot of an area 6200 sq.m. with 3

houses and a total population of 26. The said lot was watered with an irrigation system before, but has

now been watered with tap water due to insufficiency of supply. The effluent water will be discharged to

a lot of an area 1280 sq.m. and the proponents will be determining whether the effluent water is good as a

supply for water. The figures below show the site of the proposed wastewater treatment facility.
Figure 7. Location Map of Purok Kasagingan, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental

3.2 Flow of the Study

The study of the proposed wastewater treatment facility of Brgy. Bajumpandan started with the

sample collection of the wastewater influent and effluent. The samples will undergo tests to determine its

Total Dissolve Solids (TDS), pH level and Salinity. The researcher explains how necessary data and

information to address the research objectives and questions was collected, presented and analyzed. The

flowchart below shows the process involved in the collection of data required for analyzing the water

quality of the treated greywater.

 Figure 8. Flowchart

3.3 Procedures

3.3.1 Gathering of Primary Data

Ocular inspection and actual survey in the study will be conducted by the proponents. Adopting

interviews and distribution of questionnaires will be done in order to upraise awareness to the local

farmers of Dumaguete City, particularly Barangay Bajumpandan. Greywater will be collected from 2

farmer houses in the said Barangay. These houses were selected because of the insufficiency of irrigation

water for their crops. The greywater which is generated from bathrooms and sinks will be used. Kitchen
wastewater will not be utilized because of the oil and grease in contains, increasing the organic loading of

the greywater.

3.3.2 Greywater Treatment Set-up

A. Subsurface Treatment Method Using Canna Indica

The experimental setup will be built in open air. The size of the tub will be

0.6mx0.4mx0.3m and vertical bucket were used to hold the wastewater that has been collected

from 2 farmer houses in Barangay Bajumpandan. The capacity of each vertical bucket was 20

litres. To enable the flow of wastewater gravitationally from inlet to outlet, a longitudinal slope

was provided. A vertical pipe was placed above the tub in the inverted ‘T’ shape for equal flow of

wastewater, which was connected with flexible pipe to the inlet of holding tank for the sample.

The length of PVC pipe was 0.4m and the holes were provided on the plastic pipe at equal

interval of 5cm for equal flow and the taps were adjusted by manually. The unit was “filled

(from bottom to top) first layer of 0.1m consisted of coarse aggregate gravel, second layer of

0.1m consisted of fine aggregate sand”. 3x3 rows of Canna Indica were planted on the pot.

B. Surface Treatment Method Using Duckweeds

The duckweeds will be placed in a container with a dimension of 1.2m x 0.6m x0.6m and

a vertical bucket was used to hold the gathered greywater samples. Water depths between 0.6 and

1.5 m are likely to be most suitable to minimise temperature gradients over the depth of the pond

(Edward, 1992). A vertical pipe will be used to transport the sample to the container with

duckweeds. Tap will be adjusted manually to mimic a 0.1m/s flow of water to prevent the
 disturbance of the duckweeds. To enable the flow of wastewater gravitationally from inlet to

outlet, a longitudinal slope was provided.

C. Vertical Flow Treatment Method Using Corncobs

For this treatment, the filtration system will be placed vertically. The greywater will be

poured on top of the layers of corncobs. Starting from the topmost layer, whole corncobs will be

placed inside a plastic bottle that has a capacity of 0.75L. Another bottle will be placed below the

top layer and corncobs cut in half will be put in. Cobs burned into charcoal will be placed on a

0.5L bottle while cobs crushed into powder will be right below the layer. The last layer of the

filtration system will be the fine sand that filters the final debris of greywater. To hold the

charcoaled cob, powdered and fine sand, a piece of cheesecloth will be placed on the bottom of

the container. The plastic bottles will cut with 2 sides of it being open. The mouth of the bottle

will be placed upside down. Greywater will be pass through all the layers before analyzing.

3.3.3 Sampling

The samples retrieved from the 3 treatment methods will be analyzed by the proponents. The

statistical design consists of getting effluent from three sources of filtration; Subsurface using Canna

Indica, Surface using Duckweeds and Vertical using Corncobs. The greywater water will be treated and

analyzed for 21 days, checking the samples every 7 days. For the Canna Indica filtration, the greywater is

fed over the plant and the water collected after treatment. Samples will taken below duckweed cover to

assess the plant’s efficiency in purifying sewage water from different pollutants. To ensure acceptable

pathogen removal and treatment efficiency, comparatively long retention times in the range of 20 to 25

days are postulated for duckweed (Metcalf and Eddy 1991). The drips from the vertical filtration of

corncobs will be collected by the researchers. The time span from the start of treatment until it ends will

be noted by the proponents and will do ocular inspection on the samples upon testing.
 3.3.4 Testing

The researchers conducted an experiment to study the efficiency of 3 materials; Canna

Indica, Duckweed and Corncobs as an alternative cost effective natural biological tool in wastewater

treatment in general and eliminating concentrations of both nutrients and soluble primary treated sewage

water systems. Each sample will be tested every 7 days and will be analyzed for 21 days. The researchers

will be collecting 100mg per test. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) will be weighed by a digital scale while

Temperature of the water will be measured with a thermometer. Transparency and Color will be analyzed

by the researchers through their senses. The pH level and Total Dissolved Solids will be measured with a

pH and TDS meter respectively. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Dissolved Oxygen tests will

be conducted at the Negros Oriental State University Chemistry Laboratory. Results will be analyzed in

order to identify what treatment method/s would best suit in filtering greywater for irrigation purposes.

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