Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
1.5 Review
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 2

Section 1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically
Actuated PDMS Fingers

Problem Description
[1] The pneumatic
[2] A single fingers are part of a
finger is surgical parallel robot
studied in this system remotely
case. controlled by a
surgeon through the
Internet.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 3

[4] The strain-

[3]
stress curve of
Geometric
the PDMS
model.
elastomer used
in this case.

Workbench Elements
[6] Undeformed
shape.

[5] As air pressure

applies, the finger bends
downward.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 4

Static Structural
Simulations

[1] Prepare [4] Set up

material loads and
properties. supports.

[2] Create [5] Solve the

geometric model.
model.

[3] Generate [6] View the

finite element results.
mesh.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 5

[8] Strains.

[7]
Displacements.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 6

Buckling and Stress-

Stiffening
Stress-stiffening: bending stiffness increases with increasing axial tensile
stress, e.g., guitar string.
The opposite also holds: bending stiffness decreases with increasing axial
compressive stress.
Buckling: phenomenon when bending stiffness reduces to zero, i.e., the
structure is unstable. Usually occurs in slender columns, thin walls, etc.
[2] The upper
Purpose of a buckling surface
analysis is to find buckling loads and buckling modes.
would undergo
compressive stress. It [1] If we
in turn reduces the apply an
bending stiffness. upward
force here...
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 7

Dynamic Simulations

When the bodies move and

deform very fast, inertia
effect and damping effect
must be considered.
When including these
dynamic effects, it is called
a dynamic simulation.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 8

Modal
Analysis

A special case of dynamic

simulations is the simulation of
free vibrations, the vibrations of
a structure without any loading.
It is called a modal analysis.
Purpose of a modal analysis is
to find natural frequencies and
mode shapes.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 9

Structural Nonlinearities
[2] Solution of
the linear
Linear simulations assume simulation pf the
PDMS finger.
that the response is linearly
proportional to the loading.
When the solution deviates
from the reality, a nonlinear
[1] Solution of the
simulation is needed. nonlinear
simulation of the
Structural nonlinearities PDMS finger.

come from large deformation,

topology changes, nonlinear
stress-strain relationship, etc.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 10

Section 1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

Engineering simulation: finding the responses of a problem

domain subject to environmental conditions.
Structural simulation: finding the responses of bodies subject
to environmental conditions.
The bodies are described by geometries and materials.
Environment conditions include support and loading
conditions.
Responses can be described by displacements, strains,
and stresses.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 11

Displacement
s
[3] An arbitrary [5] The displacement
particle of position (X, vector {u} of the
Y, Z), before the particle is formed by
deformation. connecting the
positions before and
after the deformation.

[1] The body [4] After the

before deformation, the
deformation. To particle moves to
ta a new position.
lly
15
qu
an
tit
i es
[2] The body after
deformation.
 Failure Criteria of Materials
Section 1.4
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 12

[3] An arbitrary particle of position (X, Y, Z), before the deformation.

Stresses

atio
[3] This face is

equ
called negative X-
face.

rium
[2] This face is
called X-face, since
the X-direction is

uilib
normal to this face.

e eq
[ ]
[5] The1Y-Th

l l th
component ofe bod
the stress on X- yb .
ce
ls
efo t

nd a
re -fa l to
face. d efo on X a
i a
er
rm
sr
es mati no
at
s

n, a
s t r on n i
the
. tio
e M
to
f irec

ritte
til
n en e X-d
c
po th
Du
om ce

ew
-c s in
[4] The X- eY e,
Th r ac
component of the ]
fo f

an b
[5 -
d X [6] The Z-
stress on X-face. s lle component of the
oi nt
[1] The
ei
sc
a

nt c
reference frame c stress on X-face.
e P XYZ.
Th
i s fa

ur

eme
[2]
il
Fa

h el
eac
 ns
atio
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 13

equ
[4]e To compare with original configuration, rotate to a new configuration .

iu m
[3] After
Strains

ilibr
deformation, [4] To compare with
[5] Translate so ABC moves original configuration,

equ
thatcoincides with A. to . rotate to a new
The new configuration
configuration .

hat
is . Now is the amount

so t
of stretch of ABC in Y-
face.

n ts ,
occ
yielding

eme
at t he
s th
[1] The e th e ory state
. Th

d el
reference
til e m aterials
frame. g of duc

alle
he y ieldin
hysical meaning of strains:
dic t ingt [7] And the vector
r p re

s, c
h fo
eorystrain
describes the twist
Thed a t
normal is the percentage of stretch of a fiber which lies along X-direction.
ose of ABC in X-face.

odie
The shear strain is the angle t is (in radian) of two
change [2] Original
fibers lying on XY-plane and originally form
u n iaxial tes configuration
y in

le b
We can define eother g
ner strain components in a similar way. ABC.
iatoric
ng dev [6] The vector BD

imp
describes the stretch
of ABC in X-face.
es is lly s
l 3D cas
.
ge ne r a ices
trica
vert
m
 ges
d
ll an
' ed
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 14

sma
ents
n to
lem
dy i
he e
Physical meaning of strains:

l bo
on t
The normal strain is the

ura
percentage of stretch of a

te d
ruct
fiber which lies along X-

oc a
e st
direction.

es l
e th
The shear strain is the angle

nod
change (in radian) of two

ivid
fibers lying on XY-plane and

d by
originally forming a right to d
ecte
s is
angle.
hod
onn
We can define other strain
met

components in a similar way.

be c
ent
d to
le m
ume
i te e
ass
f fin
are
 id
e
elem
sic
A ba
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 15

Th e
Governing Equations

Totally 15 quantities

Equilibrium Equations (3 Equations)

Strain-Displacement Relations (6
Equations)
Stress-Strain Relations (6 Equations)
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 16

Stress-Strain Relations: Hooke's

Law

For isotropic, linearly elastic

materials, Young's modulus (E) and
Poisson's ratio () can be used to
fully describe the stress-strain
relations.
The Hooke's law is called a material
model.
The Young's modulus and the
Poisson's ratio are called the
material parameters of the material
model.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 17

If temperature changes (thermal

loads) are involved, the coefficient
of thermal expansion, (CTE, ) must
be included.
If inertia forces (e.g., dynamic
simulations) are involved, the mass
density must be included.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 18

Section 1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual
Introduction
Basic
Ideas
A basic idea of finite element methods is to divide the structural body
into small and geometrically simple bodies, called elements, so that
equilibrium equations of each element can be written, and all the
equilibrium equations are solved simultaneously
The elements are assumed to be connected by nodes located on the
elements' edges and vertices.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 19

Another idea is to solve unknown

discrete values (displacements at
the nodes) rather than to solve
unknown functions (displacement
fields).
In case of the pneumatic finger, the
structural body is divided into 3122
elements. The elements are
connected by 17142 nodes. There
are 3x17142 unknown displacement
values to be solved.

Since the displacement on each

node is a vector and has three
components (in 3D cases), the
number of total unknown
quantities to be solved is three
times the number of nodes.
The nodal displacement
components are called the
degrees of freedom (DOF's) of the
structure.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 20

In static cases, the system of equilibrium equations has

following form:

The displacement vector {D} contains displacements of all

degrees of freedom.
The force vector {F} contains forces acting on all degrees of
freedom.
The matrix [K] is called the stiffness matrix of the structure.
In a special case when the structure is a spring, {F} as
external force, and {D} as the deformation of the spring, then
[K] is the spring constant.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 21

Basic Procedure of Finite Element Method

Given the bodies' geometries, material properties, support conditions, and

loading conditions.
Divide the bodies into elements.
Establish the equilibrium equation: [K] {D} = {F}
3.1 Construct the [K] matrix, according to the elements' geometries and
the material properties.
3.2 Most of components in {F} can be calculated, according to the
loading conditions.
3.3 Most of components in {D} are unknown. Some component,
however, are known, according to the support conditions.
3.4 The total number of unknowns in {D} and {F} should be equal to the
total number of degrees of freedom of the structure.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 22

Solve the equilibrium equation. Now, the nodal displacements {d} of

each element are known.
For each element:
5.1 Calculate displacement fields {u}, using an interpolating method,
{u} = [N] {d}. The interpolating functions in [N] are called the shape
functions.
5.2 Calculate strain fields according to the strain-displacement relations.
5.3 Calculate stress fields according to the stress-strain relations (Hooke's

tress-strain relations.
law).

.
ucture
ns.
conditio
the str
 edom
used to fully describe t

supp
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 23

s of fre
to the
o are called the material parameters of the material model.
Shape Functions

s.

cording

e
.

ropertie
ditions

f degre
[1] A 2D 4-node
quadrilateral

wn, ac
ing con
element

mber o
erial p
Shape functions serve as

ns.
knobe
onditio
interpolating functions, allowing

recan
he mat
nd load

otal nu
the calculation of displacement Failure Criterion for Brittle Ma

ratioa()
ading c
fields (functions of X, Y, Z) from

s and t

wever,
o the t
ions, a
nodal displacements (discrete

F} sho(E) and Poisson's

lo
values).

ent, ho
metrie

equal t
t condit

to the
ount of
. N o w is the am
is
uration
For elements with
A direction nodes the
in which at shear stress vanishes is e w configa principal direction.
called

ts' geo
h e n

ompon
T
with A.

cording

uld be
suppor
o th a t coincides [2] This
vertices, the interpolation
The corresponding
] Tra n slate must
s
normal be
stress is called a principle stress. element's
[5
nodes locate at

elemen
linear and thus the shape

Some c
vertices.

ted, ac
erties,

g's modulus
functions are linear (of X, Y, Z).

{F}

} and {
to the
{D} =

calcula
al prop

nown.
 For isotropic, linearly elastic materials, Y

The Young's modulus and the Poisson's r

at

s in
n:
, accor

The Hooke's law is called a material mo

} can
D} are
ries, m
ents.
quatio

known
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 24

ts in {F
matrix
o elem

nts in {
eomet

rium e

r of un
n
t

the [K]
For elements with nodes at vertices as well as at middles of edges, the

mpone
dies in
dies' g

equilib

mpone
numbe
interpolation must be quadratic and thus the shape functions are

the bo
the bo

st o f c o
quadratic (of X, Y, Z).

nstruct

st of co
sh the

e total
Elements with linear shape functions are called linear elements, first-

Divide
Given

Establi
order elements, or lower-order elements.

3.1 Co
3.2 Mo
3.3 Mo
3.4 Th
Elements with quadratic shape functions are called quadratic elements,
second-order elements, or higher-order elements.
ANSYS Workbench supports only first-order and second-order elements.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 25

Workbench Elements

[
[4] Tetrahedron.
3D Solid 2
]
F
Bodies r Tre
Strai a
c sca
[1] 3D 20- ns [1] t [3]

S Cri
node Stress u Quadrilateral-
structural state. r based pyramid.
solid. Each
node has 3
e
ter[4]
Other
Gover p stress
oion
e
translational
degrees of pairs
freedom: DX, ning 3D [2] This [4] [
i could
nfor
[ element's The
be 8 [2] Triangle-
Equati Solid
DY, and DZ. 1nodestlocateX- ]
drawn based prism.
. Du
ct
] at vertices.
com .
ons Bodie pone P
[7] Andctil
S nt of o
t
s the the i

evector e
r

io
stres n
s on t
describe
s
s s the Ma
X-
face.o
-twist of
 r
n
tX-face.
ial m
a
a
s
1.
i x
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual
i Introduction 26
n
m
c u
2D Solid Bodies m

2
u
r
v s
e h

Str
e
f a
o r

[5] 2D 8-node
structural [4] After the
r

a
uct s
t
deformation, the
solid. Each
node has 2 particle moves
to a new
d ura r
e [6]
translational u s
position. Degenerated
degrees of
freedom: DX
c
t l
[1] 3D 20-
s
.
Triangle.

and DY. i
Me
node
l
structural
e
solid. Each

ch
node has 3
m
translational
a
degrees of
t
e ani
freedom: DX,
Dr Y, and DZ.
i
a
l
cs:
.
A
 Qu
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: Aick
Conceptual Introduction 27

3D Surface Bodies
Re
vie [8]
Degenerated
[7] 3D 4-node
structural shell.
w Triangle

.
Each node has
ons
3 translational ti
and 3 rotational n di
degrees of l co
freedom: DX, DY, nta
e
DZ, RX, RY, and nm .
iro o ns
RZ. v ti
en n di
3D Line Bodies o
c tt l co
je t a
s ub en
m
n[9] 3Don2-Node
ai beam. i r Each
m v
do ennode has 3
m o
b le c t t translational and
o je 3 rotational
pr ub . ofes.
a s ns
degrees
f s . io D s, D ,
s
s o odie rials
freedom:
it
e d tre X Y
s n D , R s, R , R .
on o fb at
e co Z dX
n Y Z
s p s m g a
re se in s,
e n and oad a in
th o l r
sp es d st
 : fi ng t eo p po eme
n i g u c
io nd by s la
l at fi e p
u : ed clud di
s
Chapter on crib
sim 1tiIntroduction in b y Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 28
g a es ons
r in ul d ed
e sim are iti ib
i ne l nd s cr
g ra ie
s co e de
En tu
Section 1.4
c d t
ru bo en b
St h e n m can
T
viro ses
En pon
Failure Criteria of Materials
Re
s

Ductile versus Brittle

Materials
A Ductile material exhibits a large amount of strain
before it fractures.
The fracture strain of a brittle material is relatively
small.
Fracture strain is a measure of ductility.
 Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 29

Failure Points for Ductile

Materials
Mild steel is a typical ductile material.
For ductile materials, there often exists [2] Fracture
[3] Yield point.
an obvious yield point, beyond which point.
the deformation would be too large so
that the material is no longer reliable
or functional; the failure is
[1] Stress-
ous yield point, beyond which
accompanied the deformation
by excess would be too large sostrain
deformation. that curve
the material is no longer re
for a ductile
cerned aboutTherefore,
whether the
for material reaches we
these materials, theare
yield point . material.
most concerned about whether the
material reaches the yield point .
 Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 30

Failure Points for Brittle

Materials
[2] Fracture
point.
Cast iron and ceramics are two

atic finger, the examples of brittle

structural body materials.
is divided into 3122 elements. The elements are connected by 17142 nodes. There are
For brittle materials, there usually
[1] Stress-
doesn't exist obvious yield point, and strain curve
for a brittle
we are concerned about their fracture material.

point .
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 31

Failure Modes

The fracture of brittle materials is mostly due

to tensile failure.
The yielding of ductile materials is mostly due
to shear failure
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 32

Principal
[8] Point [4] Other
Stresses of stress pairs

Materials
[5] Mohr's maximum could be
A direction in which the shear circle. shear drawn.
stress.
stress vanishes is called a
Materials [2] Stress in
principal direction. [7] Point the base
of direction.
The corresponding normal
minimum
stress is called a principle normal
Ductile

stress.
3D Surface Bodies

stress.
Brittle

[1] Stress [6] Point

state. of
maximum
Points forfor

[3] Stress in normal

the direction stress.
that forms [9] Another
Criterion

with the base Point of

direction. maximum
shear stress.
 Mise
VonFailur
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 33

At any point of a 3D solid, there are three principal

directions and three principal stresses.
The maximum normal stress is called the maximum
principal stress and denoted by .
The minimum normal stress is called the minimum
principal stress and denoted by .
The medium principal stress is denoted by .
The maximum principal stress is usually a positive value, a
tension; the minimum principal stress is often a negative
value, a compression.
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 34

Failure Criterion for Brittle Materials

The failure of brittle materials is a tensile failure. In other

words, a brittle material fractures because its tensile
stress reaches the fracture strength .
We may state a failure criterion for brittle materials as
follows: At a certain point of a body, if the maximum
principal stress reaches the fracture strength of the
material, it will fail.
In short, a point of material fails if
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 35

Tresca Criterion for Ductile

Materials
The failure of ductile materials is a shear It is easy to show (using
failure. In other words, a ductile material Mohr's circle) that
yields because its shear stress reaches
the shear strength of the material.
We may state a failure criterion for Thus, the material yields if
ductile materials as follows: At a certain
point of a body, if the maximum shear
is called the stress
stress reaches the shear strength of the
intensity.
material, it will fail.
In short, a point of material fails if
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 36

Von Mises Criterion for Ductile

Materials
In 1913, Richard von Mises proposed a theory for predicting the yielding
of ductile materials. The theory states that the yielding occurs when the
deviatoric strain energy density reaches a critical value, i.e.,

It can be shown that the yielding deviatoric energy in uniaxial test is

And the deviatoric energy in general 3D cases is

Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 37

After substitution and simplification, the criterion reduces to that the

yielding occurs when

The quantity on the left-hand-side is termed von Mises stress or

effective stress, and denoted by ; in ANSYS, it is also referred to as
equivalent stress,

The equivalent strain, or effective strain is defined by

Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials 38

End paper