Name : Aura Rositafani

Institution : Universitas Negeri Malang (Student)

Department : English Department
Program : English Language Teaching 2017
Title : Summary of Research Methods Class

The Importance of Research……………………………………………………… 2

Variables of Educational Research………………………………………………. 3
Research Problems and Objectives in Language Learning……………………… 4
Research Assumptions and Hypothesis in Language Learning ………………… 5
Experimental Research Design……………………………………………………. 6
Correlation Research Design………………………………………………………. 8
Classroom Action Research Design……………………………………………… 9
Educational Research and Development Design………………………………… 11
Survey Research Design…………………………………………………………… 12
Validity Research Data on Language Learning…………………………………… 13
Reliability of Research Data on Language Learning …………………………… 15

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 THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

As the same as a plant, they need water every day to be alive and grow. When it grows
higher, blooms, and to bear fruit, it can be useful for others such as humans and animals. However,
when it is short of water, it will die and be useless for others. Human and research are the same as
plants and water. To convince ourselves that research is important, we should analyze the benefits
of doing research.

The first reason why we need to do research is because it has benefit for us. In believing
that God creates all of the things in the world, we are difficult to be grateful sometimes. We need
to be more critical in thinking, so that doing research is the sincere answer. This is also the reason
why God gives us a special thing that is mind or brain to think about things around us. We need
to find out the rules of thing that can be called as knowledge to upgrade ourselves. When we do
research, it means that we will know something new, then we can develop our competence, and
we can be somebody. The simple example is that we know people talk, write, and read. We find
out what is going on and how they become like that. We do a research to observe it. As a result,
the answer is that they learned to know alphabets, read a word, and so on. After we are able to
read, talk, and write, we cannot stop on it, we should learn about the use of writing, how to write
some good things, and so on. Then, we will be somebody who will be able to do something useful.
When we stop learning how to write good things, we just be able to write a word, but we cannot
write something. That is the analogy when fertile plants stop finding water.

The second reason why research is important is because it can be useful for others. We do
a research is not only for ourselves, but it also needs to be shared for others. When we find out a
rule of being a good writer, then we should share to others. So, they also know about it and be able
to develop their competence. We do research to be shared to others. Then, they will know about
something, upgrade themselves, and become somebody too like us. However, as the same as plants
which are lack of water, they will die and be useless. We will be useless for other if we do not find
out about the things. If all of human do a research, they will find out a lot of different things that
they can share each other.

To make it strong argument that research is important. We should know that the general
goal of research is finding out what are actually going on to get knowledge to upgrade ourselves
and others. Researcher doing an analysis to find out more detail about the information. As a result,

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it becomes a law. However, a book writer doing a synthesis that means collect the data and make
it a good order to be read to be a book as a result.

Indeed, research is important for both us and other people. We will be nothing if do not do
a research. If we want to be somebody who can upgrade what are inside us and also be useful for
others, we must think the importance of research and start to do it with no doubt.

VARIABLES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Variables are things that has variation. They are very important in research because they
become the focus that we should know what are they to be success in doing research. Variable
must be clearly defined and measurable. Cleary defined means can be elaborated into certain
assignment. For instance, “School children’s achievement in English at the end of second semester
in Malang” refers to certain subject achievement that is English. Measurable means can be
measured objectively by anyone. “Beauty”, for example, is not measurable because it is difficult
to get objective measures of “Beauty”. Weight, height, and speed are the examples of measureable
variables.

Variables are divided into two types that are continuous variables and discrete variables.
First, continuous variables are used to rank something from high to low. There are two types of
continuous variables design that are correlation design and causal comparative design. The object
of correlation design is to investigate the correlation between X-variable and Y-variable. It can be
formulated as Do the higher IQ the students have, the higher capability of public speaking? For
instance, the correlation between student’s IQ and their achievement in learning English, the result
of the research can be “The Higher IQ that students have the better their score in learning English”.
Causal comparative design is used to compare two level of X-variable to Y-variable. It can be
formulated as Do students with high IQ achieve better in mathematics than students with low IQ?

Second, discrete variables are used to group or classify X-variable based on the assignment.
Discrete variables are divided into two types that are discrete manipulated and discrete non-
manipulated variable. Discrete manipulated variable means the researchers are grouping X-
variables by themselves by doing an experiment. It can be formulated as Do the children who are
taught sustained silent reading since three years old better in writing than the children who are

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taught sustained silent reading since seventeen years old? It can called as experimental design. The
researchers are grouping based on the assignment that are children who are taught sustained silent
reading since three years old and children who are taught sustained silent reading since seventeen
years old. Discrete non-manipulated means the X-variables are grouping naturally such as gender
and marital status. It can be formulated as Do female writer achieve better in writing novel than
male writer? However, researcher cannot claim that the difference is caused by gender difference
at the end.

RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Some people are misunderstood about the meaning of research problem. We should not
think literally but in an abstract way. Research problem does not mean the difficulties while doing
research. It means the question that will be answered by doing a research to find out the law or
pattern.

Research problem is not just any question. It is very unique and specific. It is different from
journalist question or instructional question that will be obtained by asking for information. The
result will contain factual information. Also, it is different from reader question that the answer
contains of the information which is obtained from reading something. All of those are obtained
by the process of synthesis. However, research problem will be answered through analysis of the
information collected.

The characteristics of good research problems are divided into eight. First, it should be
stated clearly and not ambiguously. It means that the reader should understand what the researcher
means. Second, the answers do not just contain factual information. It means that the answer should
explain more detail based on the analysis process. Third, variables involved in the research are
indicated clearly in the research problem. It should be easy to indicate which are the X-variable
and Y-variable through looking at the statement of research question. Fourth, the designs should
be reflected the research problems. We should understand well the research problem that is stated
and what kind of designs that we use in doing research. Fifth, it relates to the hypothesis. It should
be appropriate between the question and the answer of the research. Sixth, it should be related to
researcher’s majoring. If it is related to researcher’s majoring, it will be helpful to develop the

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knowledge of specific science. Seventh, the variables indicated must be observable. It means that
the variables should not be something that cannot be observed such as beauty, feeling, and so on.
Last, it should be convincing. It should make the reader being promising significant things.

RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

In doing research, the first thing that we have to do is deciding the variable. The variable
should relate to our interest so that we can participate in developing knowledge with the result of
our research. We also should understand about the right design that we are going to use so that the
research will be in a right track. Then, we start to make a research problem with some rules that I
have written in the previous summary.

If there is a research problem which is a question, it means that we will have an answer in
the end of the process. Before we start the process of doing research, we should make a prediction
about the answer that is called as hypothesis. There is also something that we call as assumption.
What makes them different is that assumption means our believing if there is a correlation between
X and Y as variables. For instance, If the research problem is "Do the students who have reading
habit are better in writing class than those who do not have reading habit?" An assumption will be
"There is a correlation between students' reading habit and their achievement in writing class.
However, hypothesis is a statement that says the prediction of the answer of research problem
according to the source at that time. For instance, if we have the same research problem that I have
mentioned previously, the hypothesis will be "Students who have reading habit are better in
achieving a good score in writing class than those who do not have reading habit."

Then, we will have two possibilities of the result in the end. The first one may support the
hypothesis while the second one may not support it. For instance, the first possibility says that the
writing score of students who have reading habit are bigger than those who do not have reading
habit. The second possibility says that the writing score of students who have reading habit are not
bigger than those who do not have reading habit. The second possibility means smaller or the same.
We will have a verification in the end to prove whether our result of doing research is the same as
the hypothesis or not.

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 The first possible result that supports the hypothesis is called significant and the second
possibility result that does not support the hypothesis is called null. If it is significant, it means that
it has a small chance of being wrong in concluding the research while null means the opposite. We
will know about that when we are helped by statistician. Even though we come to the statistician
for a help, we have to understand what we want to get from the statistician. We have to know the
level of significant that if the risk is less than 5%, we will take it, but if the risk is more than 5%,
we will not take it as the conclusion. To say that the result is significant, we also should consider
that the difference is big enough. For instance, if the average score of students who have reading
habit is 80 and the average score of students who do not have reading habit is 85, it will be ignored
because the difference is too small. The example are differences that is big enough is that if the
one is 70 and the other one is 85 or more.

There are two kinds of hypothesis that are one-tailed test (directional alternatives
hypothesis) and two-tailed test (non-directional alternatives hypothesis). One-tailed means that
there is only one alternative question that is raised. For example “Do the students who are taught
by native teacher are better in speaking than students who are taught by local teacher?” Two-tailed
means that there are two alternative questions that are raised. For example “Do the students who
are taught vocabulary through poems achieve better than those taught vocabulary using songs?”

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN LANGUANGE LEARNING

Experimental research is a research method to discover cause-effect relationship involving

two or more variables. The independent (X) variable becomes the cause and the dependent variable
(Y) becomes the effect. For conducting this research method, there are some rules that should be
followed: understanding the knowledge about it, preparing what should be experimented, and
avoiding the threats. There are five steps that could be the ideal process of experimental research.
Firstly, we should do random sampling to select a number of population as the sample. Secondly,
we should conduct random grouping or assignment as dividing into two groups or more. Thirdly,
we should decide which group belongs to experimental and controlled group. Fourthly, we treat
them as we planned before during the research process. Last, we will verify the result of the
research.

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 There are some types of experimental research that are different one another. First, in a true
experimental research, we have access to select the sample and assignment randomly. As in the
ideal process, we should select a number of the members of the population (e.g. 100 students out
of all the first grade Senior High School One students in Malang). Then, we should divide them
into two groups and assign them into group A and B one and a half respectively (e.g. 50 students
of group A and 50 students of group B). After that, we need to analyze their level of knowledge
by giving a pre-test for each group. Then, we give the experimental treatment to the experimental
group and control treatment to the control group. Last, we give them a post-test to assess the result
of the treatments of both group and compute the difference between the average scores.

The second type of experimental research is close similar to the first one that called quasi-
experimental research. What makes them different is the way they select the sample. We cannot
select the sample randomly from all of the population and it happens very often in educational
settings. Sometimes, a school provides just two classes for the researcher. It means that we should
decide one class as the experimental group and the other class as the control group. Then, we treat
them as their function (e.g. We give experimental treatment for class A as experimental group and
give control treatment for Class B as control group). The rest of the process is the same as the first
type that are assess the result of both groups and compute the difference between their average
scores.

In contrast to both types of experimental research, pre-experimental research is conducted

without a control group. We have only one class to be observed. So, we do not compare between
two groups, but we will compare between before and after the process. We should conduct pre-
test to assess their level of knowledge. Then, we go directly to treat them in the same way during
the process of the research. After that, we give them post-test to see their achievement. Finally, we
will compare the average score of the pre-test and post-test.

The fourth type of experimental research is factorial design. The process is close the same
as true experimental research. However, the difference is that we are not only comparing the
average score between two groups, but also comparing other aspects between two groups (e.g. the
cause of gender and intelligence of each group).

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 In doing different types of experimental research, there are the effectiveness and the
weaknesses for each type. What we need to do is be careful with the threats that could spoil our
research such as the difference is more than one; not only the cause that we have designed but also
the quality of the teacher, the quantity of the students, and the age of the students. Also, we need
to understand the different steps of conducting each type of experimental research.

CORRELATION RESEARCH DESIGN IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Correlation research design is one of research designs that is used to measure the
relationship between X-variable and Y-variable. The variables that can be used in correlation
research design is continuous variable which has some characteristics in the previous chapter. The
examples of variables in correlation design are student’s IQ, intelligence, self-esteem, academic
achievement, and language skill. The research problem in this research design can be stated as “Do
the higher score the students have in reading the better achievement they make in writing?”

In doing this research, there are some steps that must be followed by the researchers. First,
they have to verify that they have enough correlation to reject the null hypothesis. Using the same
research problem in the first paragraph, they will verify whether our conclusion of The higher
score the students have in reading the better achievement they make in writing, is significant or
null. If it is significant, it means that the chance of being wrong in concluding that result is not
more than 5%.However, if the level of significant of the correlation (the chance of being wrong)
is more than 5%, it means that we cannot take it as our conclusion because it is null.

The second step that we have to do is knowing the direction. There are two direction:
positive and negative. Positive means that if the amount of one variable increases, the amount of
a second variable also increases. For instance, the students who get 20 in reading, they get 40 in
writing and those who get 50 in reading, they get 70 in writing (constantly increasing). Besides,
negative means that if the amount of one variable increases, the amount of a second variable
decreases. The negative direction shows that the higher their knowledge in reading, the lower their
writing skill is. To make it easier to understand, here are the scatter diagram of each direction:

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 After we know the direction of the correlation, the next step is measuring the degree of the
correlation (r). We need to measure how closely they are related; high or low. The index of the
correlation is around zero until one (0-1). The higher the correlation they have a lot of sharing and
they are more accurate. If we look the scatter diagram to know the degree of the correlation, we
can observe whether the meeting point of the data are close or far from the line of the direction.
There are some possibilities of the correlation; high-positive, high-negative, low-positive, low-
negative, and no correlation.

The last step is measuring the accuracy. The way to measure it is that the square of (r). If
the degree of the correlation (r) is (-6), the accuracy will be 64%. In the correlation design, there
is no possibility of the accuracy 1%. It means that we compare the same thing. So, the index (0-1)
just show the range of the degree of the correlation. It does not mean that there is (r = 1/-1) because
in correlation design we never compare the same thing that is less-purpose.

CLASSROOM ACTION RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Different from the two previous research designs, experimental and correlation research
that the aim of the research is to predict the correlation or to verify the effectiveness of something.

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Classroom action research is an effective way to solve the class’ problem. The objective of this
research is to develop the strategy process approach through improving the skill. As the teacher,
we should not be easily satisfied by the students’ achievement. We need to see the chance to be
better in the future by reflecting what needs to be improved. We should be aware of student’s high
skill; their achievement and student’s soft skill; their learning motivation and classroom
atmosphere.

There are some steps that must be followed in doing this research. The first step is planning.
Planning does not mean just our intention of doing something, but we need designing the scenario
of the way to improve the learning methods in class. This process takes time. We should analyze
the class’ problems, think about learning methods that will be applied, and provide the justification
to argue if it is appropriate.

The second step is implementing as called as action. In this step, the researcher may apply
their scenario to the class. Something that have planned by the researcher will be applied in this
step. If the researchers have a class as a teacher, they just apply it to their. However, if the
researchers do not have a class, they need the coordinator working together with the researchers.

After the second step is done, the researchers are doing the observing step. In this step, the
researchers will observe whether their strategy shows the success. They indicate the progress of
the target. For instance, the researchers find the problem that students’ achievement in writing
class is around 70. Then they have a target to improve the skill by defining some strategies so that
their score will be increased in the range of 90-100. In observing the step, the researchers observe
if the students’ score have reached. What we need to observe is the students’ skill, not the way the
teacher taught. It must be done by the researcher before doing the action. The common mistake
that researchers do is not be able to distinguish between the observing step and the data collecting.
Both of them are actually talking the same thing.

The following step is reflecting. The researchers have to analyze whether or not the result
achieve the target. If it is failed, they need to be back revising the planning and continue to the
next step as the previous explanation; planning- implementing- observing- reflecting- revising.
The cycle is repeating again and again until they target is reached. However, if somebody ask how
many cycle in classroom action research is, the answer will be just one cycle. The researcher should
make the best sacrifice in planning so that the strategy will be success in the end.

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 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Different from the classroom action research (CAR) that aims to produce innovating
strategies, this research development aims to develop the instructional media. If there is an
inappropriate textbook, syllabus, or media that used in the classroom and it can influence students’
learning activities, it must be developed by the researchers in educational research and
development (R&D).
As the same as CAR, there are some steps that must be followed by the researchers. The
first step is needs analysis. In this first step, the researchers should analyze what kind of problem
or media that must be improved. For instance, there is English textbook for kindergarten that is
full of text, the researchers may be develop into the new English textbook that contains more
pictures to make the students are easy understanding the material.
Moving to the next step that is developing the product. In CAR, the most important step is
planning because it takes time. However, in this research development, the most important part
that also takes time around 60% is developing product. We need to design what is appropriate in
improving the media. We should write all the specifications depending what is needed such as
suitable pictures and explanations. We can ask other people to contribute in this step. For example,
as English teachers, we are not able to make a good picture in textbook, so we need graphic
designer for a help.
The following step is also important that called as theoretical validation or expert
validation. In producing the new innovation, surely, there are some weaknesses that must be
upgraded. So, we must consult to the expert to give comments and advices for the better result.
Anybody whose expertise such as those knowledgeable about the related curriculum or those good
at picture drawing is needed to improve the quality of the product.
The last step is empirical validation. There are some choices if we want to validate whether
the product can be applied successfully or not. We can do an experiment by providing pre-
experiment and post-experiment to find out the weaknesses so that we can revise and make it
better. Another way is dissemination. When the textbook or the media have already applied there
is still possibilities to accept the comments or advices revising the product. The most effective way
is doing the try out. We can give a part of our product to be applied and analyze the weakness that
should be revised.
By doing those steps, as the researcher, we can solve the problem in the class. We can help
in developing the media that is used by the students. So, the acceptability of the product is
measured by the evidences that the product has proved to be able to solve the problems of the
media that used by students and have achieved the behaviorally defined objectives (Latief, 2017).

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 SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Survey research design differs from the experimental research design that investigates the
effect of a manipulated independent variable to the dependent variable because there is no such
manipulation in this research design. As the researcher, they just describe opinions, attitudes,
preferences, and perceptions. The objective of the survey research design is to compare the
proportion of the data. For instance, the researcher want to know how many students of English
Department that agree with the construction of university head building that was the faculty of
letters building. So, in this case, the researchers should do nothing to persuade the students to
approve the construction. They really want to know the accurate data of the students’ opinions of
something. The instruments of this research could be a questionnaire, tests, observation, etc.

The qualifications of the survey research design are the good sample and enough scope.
When they do random sampling, they should provide the representative data that a part of the
sample has already represented the whole of the population. For instance, the subject of the
research is the students of the English Department. The researcher should not give the
questionnaire just for the first semester classes because it does not represent the whole population
that included the third, fifth, and seven semesters. Also, we should give the questionnaire balanced
to the male and female students because it represents the whole population.

In this research, we can use descriptive research including opinion data. Opinion data means
the range we rate; really good, good enough, not good enough, really bad. However, we may not
manipulate the data survey called the bias data. Also, we can measure directly using factual
information. For instance, we would like to measure how many students who agree with the new
rules on the campus. However, we often misunderstood of doing this research design by providing
the factual information by using all population as the subject of the research, so it could not be the
survey research design. For instance, in a real count of the president election, we use all the data
of constituents we could not call it as the sample of the population.

Last, to analyze the data collection of this research, the researcher usually only uses simple
basic statistical techniques. Means showing average score, Medians showing the middle point in
the score distribution, and Modes showing a point where most scores are obtained (Latief, 2017).

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 VALIDITY RESEARCH DATA ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

Everything we do in our life must have a high quality including doing the research. As the
researchers, we must provide a high quality of research that means it can be proved a validity
result. In every step of the research such as data collecting, observing, and so on must be done in
high quality. If there is one or two steps that is done with low quality, it can influence the other
process that makes the result of the research is not valid (wrong, inappropriate, incorrect).

When the researchers say that their result of students’ writing assessment is valid, it means
that they can convince the readers that the writing assessment result reflects the students’ writing
skill correctly. In other word, if the researchers want to reach the validity of the research, they
should be correct to arrange the data by choosing the right instrument. For instance, if the
researchers want to measure the students’ ability of speaking, they should provide the appropriate
test that can help them knowing the students’ ability (speaking-speaking). They can test the
students to speak for two minutes, then they record and analyze how many mistakes that they have
made. So, if the instrument and the data being assessed have already matched, we can call it as a
construct validity evidence. However, there may be some mistakes in designing the instruments
and the activity to assess the students’ skill. For instance, the researchers want to assess the
students’ writing skill, but they direct the students to speak for one topic in two minutes. So, there
is an obscurity between their purpose of assessment and the activity of data collecting. They cannot
know how well the students’ writing skill if they do not asked to write. We can called it as construct
validity problem.

From the assessment instrument, not only the construct validity that can be provided but
we can also derive the content validity. In the construct validity, the evidence is about the
suitability of the task and the purpose of assessment. While in content validity, we should know
how enough the task that provided to assess the students’ skill. For instances, the researchers want
to assess the students’ speaking skill, but they just ask the students by using yes/no question. We
cannot know how well they can speak English for example if they just say ‘yes’ and ‘no’. So, we
called it as content validity problem. In contrast to content validity problem, we have content
validity evidence which means the researchers provide enough material of doing assessment. For

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instances, the researchers want to assess the students’ of junior high school achievement in learning
grammar. They provide the test for students which contains all topics of grammar for junior high
school. So, at the end, we can conclude that the data is valid because we have a high quality of
doing the process especially about the content.

After discussing about assessment instrument, we move to the empirical data. From the
empirical data, we can provide concurrent validity evidence and predictive validity evidence. If
we talk about the concurrent validity, we can take a look of the data currently. For instance, the
student who get the high score from TOEFL that is trustworthy because it has been internationally
standardized should have a good score in classroom learning. If the students who get the high rank
of TOEFL then they get low score (C, D, or E) in the class, it means that the data has low validation
or we can called it as concurrent validity problem. But if the students who get high rank of TOEFL
and also they get high score in classroom learning, it means that the data is valid or we can called
it as concurrent validity evidence.

The predictive validity is an assessment that is conducted to predict how well someone will
perform in a different time (Latief, 2017). Very often someone predict the condition of someone
else between in the current time and the future time. For instance, the students who are good in
biology are predicted to be a doctor in the future. If the prediction goes wrong in the future (the
students who are good in biology are not be able to enter the medical faculty), we can call it as
predictive validity problem because it has low validity of prediction. On the contrary, we have a
predictive validity evidence if we have enough evidence or high validity of prediction. For instance,
the researchers predict that students who get low score in Intensive Course in the first semester
will be late to graduate from the English Department. In the future, the prediction can be proved
that there are 50 students who get low score in Intensive Course in the first semester also graduate
from the English Department lately. It means that the prediction is valid or correct. It shows the
predictive validity evidence.

In conclusion, there are four kinds of supporting validity evidence; construct, content,
concurrent, and predictive supporting evidence. For each supporting evidence, we divide into two
possibilities; problem and evidence. If there is data that is invalid or does not follow the rule, it
means that the data has a problem. If there is a strong evidence to say that the data is valid, we can
say that it has a strong evidence or strong validity.

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 RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH DATA ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

Different from the previous chapter that discussed how do we know the quality of the data
by looking at the degree of the validity (the degree of correctness), reliability refers to the
preciseness of the assessment result in representing the actual level of the skill of the examinees.
The result of the assessment has high reliability if the result represents the true level of skill being
assessed that means it is close to or gives a good estimate. For instance, the true level of writing
skill assessment is actually 80, but the rater give the lower or the higher (50/95), it means that the
reliability of the result is low. If the rater gives the score higher than the true result, we can call it
as overestimated while the rater gives the score lower than the true result, we can call it as
underestimated. As in the true-score theory,

X=T+E

X = The language skill assessment result

T = The true level of the skill being assessed

E = The errors

The formula explains that every result contains the true assessment and the error that
might influence the result. The bigger the accuracy of the (X), the smaller the errors that influence
the assessment result, similarly, the smaller the accuracy of the (X), the bigger the errors that
influence the assessment result.

There are some factors that make the errors. First, the factor comes from the examinees.
There is a possibility that the examiners did not perform well. This can be because of their
condition; sick, tired, hungry, not concentrating, sleepy while the raters assess them. Also, there is
a possibility that examinees were cheating. It will provide the low reliability of the data result.
Second, the factor comes from the raters that did not provide objective judgment. This can be
because of the raters’ condition; they are sick, sleepy, emotionally disturbed, and so on. Also, it
can be because of the relationship between the raters and the examinees. For instance, if the raters
and the examiners were having a family relation, so the raters did not focus on the examinees’

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performance. They will assess them subjectively. Third, the factor comes from the assessment
instrument. The instrument might be too short (not providing the content validity evidence), not
too focus on one object that being assessed, too easy or too difficult, and the low quality that has
already explained in the previous chapter. Forth, the factor comes from the situation around the
place that assessment being held or the right time that being chosen. If the room is too hot, too
cold, too windy, too crowded, and so on, the examinees will be disturbed and do not perform well.
Also, if the time of the assessment activity is in the middle of the night, it will not be conducive.

If there are a lot of possibility errors that appear during the assessment, we should have a
lot of solution to make it having a good reliability data and called it as the valid data. How do we
estimate the degree of reliability depends on the errors (E). If the errors come from the examinees,
we should repeat the assessment so that the examinees will perform better. If the errors come from
the raters that are lack of objective judgment, we should find out the true result by discussing and
making an agreement.

Sources :

Latief, Mohammad Adnan. 2017. Research Methods on Language Learning An Introduction.

Universitas Negeri Malang. Malang

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