BIOLOGY 1 Chapter Thirteen XI-Year

Gaseous Exchange
Short Question Answers

Q. What is the importance and factors require for the exchange of gases?

Living organisms require energy to regulate their body functions actively. They obtain energy by the
oxidation of ATP molecules which are continuously supplied through the process of respiration. In plants gaseous
exchange is essential for the process of photosynthesis and in this process they obtain CO 2 from the environment
and release O2 in the surroundings gaseous exchange depends upon the following factors.
1. Maintenance of Diffusion gradient
2. Large surface area in relation to the volume of organism and,
3. Presence of moist membrane or respiratory surface for exchange of gases.

Q. What are the respiratory media for exchange of gases?

The environment in which organism live and acquire oxygen is called respiratory media.
 Aquatic organisms obtain oxygen in dissolved form from water, when fully saturated contain 5% oxygen.
 Terrestrial organisms obtain oxygen from atmospheric air which contains 21% oxygen.

Q. Describe the gaseous exchange in plants.

Gas exchange in lower plants and unicellular organisms takes place by diffusion through their general
body surface and moist cell membrane respectively.
Gaseous exchange through leaves and stem
In higher plants it takes place through stem and leaves.
Exchange through leaves
Leaves contain small openings in lower epidermis surrounded by guard cells called stomata (Singular-stoma).
Stomata can be open or closed depending upon the turgidity of guard cells. When stomata open gas exchange
occur.
Exchange through stem
In stem gas exchange occur by small numerous pores called lenticels. Lenticels consist of a loose mass of small
thin walled cells through which gases can move freely in and out of stem.
Gas exchange also occurs in roots by diffusion through epidermal cells and root hair in presence of moisture in the
soil.

Q. Describe the Photorespiration in plants.

“This is process occur in the day light in which plants consume O 2 and release CO2 hence it is called
Photorespiration”. It is a metabolic process and commonly occurs in C 3 plants like rice, sugar etc.
 During hot condition O2 combine with an enzyme Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase or rubisco and
form a molecule of phospho-Glyceric Acid (PGA) and one molecule of Phosphoglycolate.
 Later compound break and release CO2.
RuBP + O2 ----------------PGA + Phosphoglycolate
Phosphoglycolate ---------> Serine + CO2.
 In this process ATP is not produced therefore it is useless process and adversely affects the crop yield.

Q. Describe the structure of gills in fishes.

Respiratory organs in fishes are called gills which develops form the pharyngeal evaginations. The general
structure of a mature gill in Pisces is composed of several parts:
 Gill rakers are cartilagenous or bony parts on the pharyngeal margin of the gill and function in preventing food
particles from entering the gill chambers.
 Gill rays are found within the interbranchial septa and provide support for the gill.
 Gill filaments are the feather-like projections of the gills across which diffusion of gases occurs.
 Gill filaments also possess gill lamellae, which are small crevices through which water passes for diffusion.
Lamellae are situated parallel to the stream of water through the gills to maximize efficiency of diffusion.
The blood flow through the gills opposes the flow of water through the lamellae called countercurrent flow and
maximizes the efficiency of diffusion - this is important because water has about 1/30th the oxygen concentration
then air. Gills can also be used in excretion of nitrogenous wastes (in the form of ammonia) and regulation of salts
in the body.
Swim bladders
Swim bladders are similar to lungs, but are found in fishes that live in more oxygen-rich environments.

Q. Describe the pulmonary respiration in frog.

Frog can live in both water and land hence called dwellers. Frog respire by three ways,
1) Through integument called cutaneous respiration.
2) Through buccal cavity called buccal respiration.

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BIOLOGY 2 Chapter Thirteen XI-Year

3) Through lungs called pulmonary respiration.

Although frog larvae respires by gills. Mostly frogs respire by pulmonary respiration

Pulmonary respiration:
An adult frog respires by pharyngeal out growths called lungs. This mode of respiration is called pulmonary
respiration.
 The main organs of aerial respiration are lungs which are sac like structures with shallow internal folds.

Respiratory passage:
 The respiratory tract is consists of external nostrils, nasal chambers, internal nostrils, buccopharyngeal cavity,
glottis, laryngo-tracheal chamber, and two bronchi, bronchioles and air sacs or alveoli.
 The median slit like glottis on the floor of pharynx opens in to a small opening called larynx a sound producing
organ consists of a pair of vocal cords.
 Larynx is connected by a short trachea with mucous secreting goblet cells which divide in to two bronchi that
open in to the lungs.
 Each lung is connected to out side by system of hollow tubes called bronchus which are further divided in to
fine branches bronchioles and these are connected with air sacs.
Lungs:
 These are soft spongy and highly vascularized structures.
 Each lung is enclosed by two membranes known as pleural membranes.
 With in membrane there is a fluid filled narrow cavity called pleural cavity.
 The alveoli are considered as the respiratory surfaces of lungs which are provided by thin layer of fluid
containing surfactant.
 It reduces the internal surface tension to prevent it from collapsing during gas exchange.

Q. Describe the mechanism of respiration in birds.

Birds ventilate their lungs not by expanding the lungs themselves, but by expanding the air sacs,
a uniquely avian anatomical feature. The air sacs are balloon-like structures at the "ends" of the airway
system, each with a wall of squamous epithelium.

Inspiration:
 At the moment of inspiration, air enters via the trachea and is routed to the mesobronchus.
 Half of the incoming air goes directly into the lung, and the other half goes directly (via the
mesobronchus) into the caudal air sacs. The "resting" air that was in the lungs now moves out of them
and into the cranial air sacs.
 They're inflated by muscular movements, as the chest expands and the ribs move ventrally and
cranially.
 Gas exchange occurs during this phase of the cycle, as half of the inspired air moves into the lung
directly.
 The bird takes two breaths to move air completely through the system of air sacs and lungs. First
breath draws fresh air in to the lungs. The second breath pushes the first breath into anterior air sacs
of the body.

Exhalation:
 At the beginning of the exhalation, the air in the caudal air sacs (which are beginning to deflate) moves
into the lungs.
 The air that was in the lungs and the cranial air sacs now moves out via the trachea. This movement
results from compression of the chest and abdomen by muscle movement, and it's the reverse of the
previous step.

Q. Write a note on lung cancer.

Lung cancer basically caused by cigarette smoking. Smoke contains nicotine and SO 2 which causes damage to
cilia of the epithelial cells in respiratory tract. So dust particles and germs are not cleared from respiratory tract.
Then cells with abnormal nuclei appear and divide rapidly, consequently an abnormal growth appears which
invade the adjacent structures causing cancer.
Preventive measures
 Proper disposal of industrial waste products.
 Stop smoking
 Safe trees and plants
 Avoid unnecessary burning of trees and wood
 Planting more trees
 Avoidance of exhaust fumes from motor vehicles.

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BIOLOGY 3 Chapter Thirteen XI-Year

Q. Describe the lung capacities of air.

 The total average of lung capacity in humans is about 5 liters of air.
 In normal breathing a person inspire and expire air is about half of a liter this is called tidal volume.
 The maximum air comes in and out of the body in respiration is called vital capacity which averages about 4
liters.
 The remaining one liter of air is termed as residual volume.

Q. Write a note on Hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin is a [α (2): β(2)] tetrameric hemeprotein found in erythrocytes where it is responsible for
binding oxygen in the lung and transporting the bound oxygen throughout the body where it is used in aerobic
metabolic pathways. Each subunit of a hemoglobin tetramer has a heme prosthetic group identical to that
described for myoglobin. RBC’s contain 250 million haemoglobin molecules in each cell and combines with 1
billion O2 molecules. As oxyhemoglobin circulates to deoxygenated tissue, oxygen is unloaded and used in further
metabolic biochemical reactions to obtain energy.

Q. Write a note on Myoglobin.

Myoglobin and hemoglobin are hemeproteins whose physiological importance is principally related to
their ability to bind molecular oxygen. Myoglobin is a monomeric hemprotein found mainly in muscle tissue
where it serves as an intracellular storage site for oxygen. During periods of oxygen deprivation oxymyoglobin
releases its bound oxygen which is then used for metabolic purposes.
Each myoglobin molecule contains one heme prosthetic group inserted into a hydrophobic cleft in the
protein. Each heme residue contains one central coordinately bound iron atom that is normally in the Fe 2+, or
ferrous, oxidation state. The oxygen carried by hemeproteins is bound directly to the ferrous iron atom of the
heme prosthetic group. Oxidation of the iron to the Fe 3+, ferric, oxidation state renders the molecule incapable of
normal oxygen binding.
Q. Describe the Carbondioxide Transportation in respiration

Carbondioxide Transportation
Hemoglobin also transport about 35% CO 2 from tissue to alveolar blood capillaries in alveoli. CO2 diffuses out from the
tissues to the blood due to concentration differences then it comes into the alveoli here this complex breaks and CO 2 diffuses
out in to alveoli. The 5% CO2 is transported by water of plasma and 60% by water present in R.B.C. during these reaction
an enzyme Carbonic anhydrase participates to speed up the reaction.

CO2 + H2O------------------>H2CO3
H2CO3 ------------------>HCO3 +H+

HCO3 +K+ ------------------>KHCO3

Water of Plasma also transport CO2

CO2 + H2O------------------>H2CO3

H2CO3------------------>HCO3 + H+

HCO3 + Na+---------------->NaHCO3

Descriptive question and answers

Q. Explain the mechanism of breathing in man.

Mechanism of breathing in man:

Human breathing process is the same as other mammals performed. This mechanism is termed
as negative pressure breathing because the thoracic cavity pressure is reduced in relation to
atmospheric pressure and air then flows into the lungs. Breathing consists of two following processes.

Transport of gasses in Man:

 Exchange of gases occurs in alveoli of lungs.
 The concentration of O2 inside the lungs is greater as compare to the concentration in the blood as a result O 2
diffuse in the blood in the capillaries of moist surface alveoli.
 CO2 moves out in to the lungs where its concentration is low.

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BIOLOGY 4 Chapter Thirteen XI-Year

 Blood takes and transport O2 more rapidly then water and supply to the tissues where it is required.

Inspiration (Inhalation):
Inspiration is the process of taking air in to the lungs. This involves the following changes.
 Contraction of diaphragm and inter-coastal muscles.
 This causes the upward and outward movement of ribs and sternum.
 This result the enlargement of thoracic cavity and negative pressure developed.
 The air rushes in to the lungs through respiratory passage and exchange of gases occurs in to the
alveoli.

Expiration (Inhalation):
Expiration is the process of giving out of air form the lungs and it is just reverse of inspiration. This
involves the following changes.
 Relaxation of diaphragm and inter-coastal muscles.
 This causes the downward and inward movement of ribs and sternum.
 The diaphragm is also relaxes which makes it dome shaped thus reducing the volume of the thoracic
cavity.
 As a result the lungs are compressed air along with water vapors exhaled out side through respiratory
passage.

Rate of Breating:
The rate of breathing can be controlled by voluntary or involuntary means but it is mostly it is controlled
automatically or by involuntary mean.
 This involuntary control is maintained by coordination of respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
 The concentration of CO2 and H+ is controlled by chemoreceptors known as aortic and carotid bodies
situated in aorta and carotid arteries respectively.
 The medulla oblongata is the check point which detects any change in the concentration of ions and
controls the rate of breathing accordingly.
Q. Describe the disorders of respiratory tract.
Lung cancer
Lung cancer is the dangerous disease of lungs caused by the following factors

A) Cigarette smoking
Cigarette smoke contains nicotine and SO 2 which causes damage to cilia. So dust particles and germs are
not cleared from respiratory tract. Then cells with abnormal nuclei appear and they divide rapidly,
consequently an abnormal growth appears which invade the adjacent structures causing cancer.
B) Industrial carcinogens
 Arsenic glass workers
 Asbestos insulation, textile, asbestos mining
 Coal dust road work, coke workers
 Ionizing radiation X-rays
 Chromium leather, ceramics, metal
 Vinyl chloride plastic workers

C) Air Pollution

D) Existing lung damage (emphysema, chronic bronchitis, lung fibrosis)

Preventive measures
 Proper disposal of industrial waste products.
 Stop smoking
 Safe trees and plants
 Avoid unnecessary burning of trees and wood
 Planting more trees
 Avoidance of exhaust fumes from motor vehicles.
Emphysema
“Abnormal and permanent dilatation of air spaces (alveolar ducts and alveoli) with destruction of their valves is
known as Emphysema”.
Causes
 Inhalation of toxic substances like SO2 and NO ( air pollution)
 Airway infections
 Cigarette smoking ( most important)

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BIOLOGY 5 Chapter Thirteen XI-Year

 Familial (Genetic)
 Allergy
Asthema
“Intermittent attacks of breathlessness chest tightness and un wheezing resulting from intermittent narrowing of
bronchial air ways are called Asthma”.
Causes:
 Pollens
 House dust mites
 Feathers
 Animal dander
 Fungal spores
 Allergens present in food (fish, milk, egg)
 Familial
 Exposure to cold
 Exercises
 Emotions
 Air pollution
 Aspirin
 Abrupt changes in weather

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North Nazimabad Campus Prepared By: Prof. Navaid Rab