BIOLOGY 1 Chapter Seven XI-Year

THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

Short Question And Answers

Q. Briefly describe the Kingdom Protoctista.

This kingdom contains eukaryotes that are having true nucleus. This includes two groups, the algae
and protozoan. Algae are found in the ocean, fresh water and on land. These are of different types,
like brown algae, red algae etc. and important part of the producers in the ecosystem. Protozoans are
generally heterotrophic unicellular organisms and are a part of zooplanktons in the oceans and fresh
water. This kingdom also includes oomycota or oomycetes which are now regarded as ancestors of
fungi. The water molds and slime molds both resemble to the fungi however their life cycle set them
apart from fungi. Water molds are well known for parasitizing both aquatic and terrestrial forms.

Q. Write a note on chlorella.

Introduction

It is fresh water algae found in reservoirs of stagnant water like ponds, pools, ditches etc.
It has vast economic importance as an alternate source of food according to the recent investigations and as an
experimentation organism. It is of great economic importance as recently an antibiotic called chlorellin useful
for the control of bacterial diseases has been prepared from the plant.
Structure

The body is unicellular, spherical and solitary. It contains a single nucleus and a cup shaped chloroplast usually
without a pyrenoid.
Reproduction

Reproduction is generally performed by aplanospores. This involves the division of protoplast into 8-16
daughter protoplasts. Each daughter protoplast secretes a wall to produce a nonmotile aplanospore. On
release from the parent cell each aplanospore forms a new vegetative cell. Zoospores and gametes are
unknown.
Q. Describe the structure of ulva.
Ulva is a multicellular, Eukaryotic thalloid algae commonly known as Sea-Lettuce. Each thallus is a blade like
wrinkled structure almost 20 to 30 cm in length. The lower part of thallus remains attached with rocks by
means of “Hold Fast” having elongated cells. Thallus is composed of two layers of cells i.e. outer epidermal
layer of cells containing chlorophyll and an inner layer of cells i.e. Medulla serving as storage tissue.
Q. How does the asexual reproduction takes place in Ulva?

It takes place by means of quadriflagellate zoospores produced by asexual diploid (2n) plant called
Sporophyte. Zoospores are produced in all cells of plant by means of Meiosis. Usually each cell produces 8 – 16
zoospores. Each zoospore on germination gives rise to a new haploid (n) plant.
Q. How does the asexual reproduction takes place in Ulva?

In ulva the haploid plants are developed called Gametophyte. They are morphologically similar to
Sporophyte except their number of chromosomes. They produce two isomorphic gametophytes regarded as
negative and positive strains. Both gametophytes produce haploid gametes; these gametes are smaller than
the zoospores and biflagellate. Similar looking negative and positive gametes or isogametes fuse to form a
quadriflagellate zygote i.e. isogamy takes place. The zygote after rest and repeated divisions gives rise to a new
diploid sporophytic plant.
Q. How alternation in generation takes place in ulva?
Sporophyte

In Ulva Sporophyte bears diploid number of chromosomes which is 26. This plant develop spores by
means of Meiosis, Each spore has haploid (n) or 13 chromosomes. On germination spores give rise to
gametophyte plants which are similar to Sporophyte in morphology but differ in the number of chromosomes.

Gametophyte

Gametophyte produces isogametes which fuse to form zygote having Diploid (26) chromosomes.
Zygote gives rise to zoospores which germinate to form Diploid Sporophyte and thus whole cycle is repeated.

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In Ulva, Sporophyte and Gametophytes are of the same morphology therefore, life cycle is called Isomorphic
alternation of Generation.

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q. Explain in detail the structure and reproduction in ulva.
Introduction

It is a multicellular, Eukaryotic thalloid algae commonly known as Sea-Lettuce. Ulva is a marine algae which
grows attached to rocks in intertidal pools. It is a thallophytic algae which cannot be differentiated into root,
stem or leaf. Being an algae, it is autotrophic in nature.
Structure

Each thallus is a blade like wrinkled structure almost 20 to 30 cm in length. The lower part of thallus remains
attached with rocks by means of “Hold Fast” having elongated cells. Thallus is composed of two layers of cells
i.e. outer epidermal layer of cells containing chlorophyll and an inner layer of cells i.e. Medulla serving as
storage tissue.
Reproduction (life cycle):
It is of two types namely:
(c)  A sexual Reproduction
(d)  Sexual reproduction
(a) A Sexual Reproduction

It takes place by means of quadriflagellate zoospores produced by asexual diploid (2n) plant called
Sporophyte. Zoospores are produced in all cells of plant by means of Meiosis. Usually each cell produces 8 – 16
zoospores. Each zoospore on germination gives rise to a new haploid (n) plant.
(b) Sexual Reproduction

The haploid plants of ulva called Gametophytes. Two similar looking gametophytes are produces. They
are also morphologically similar to Sporophyte except their number of chromosomes. Two Isomorphic
gametophytes are regarded as negative and positive strains.
Both gametophytes produce haploid gametes; these gametes are smaller than the zoospores and
biflagellate. Similar looking negative and positive gametes or isogametes fuse to form a quadriflagellate zygote
i.e. isogamy takes place. The zygote after rest and repeated divisions gives rise to a new diploid sporophytic
plant.
Alternation in Generation

Definition
“The phenomenon in which a plant completes its life cycle in two phases i.e. haploid gametophyte
and diploid sporophyte which come in an alternate manner is called alternation of Generation.”

Explanation

In Ulva Sporophyte bears 2n i.e. Diploid Chromosomes which are 26. This plant reproduces by means of spores
produced by means of Meiosis, Each spore bears haploid (n) or 13 chromosomes. On germination spores give
rise to Gametophyte plants which are similar to Sporophyte in morphology but differ in the number of
chromosomes.
Gametophytes produces isogametes which fuse to form zygote having Diploid (26) chromosomes. Zygote gives
rise to zoospores which germinate to form Diploid Sporophyte and thus whole cycle is repeated.
In Ulva, Sporophyte and Gametophytes are of the same morphology therefore, life cycle is called Isomorphic
alternation of Generation.

FUNGI LIKE PROTOCTISTS

There are some organisms which are fungi like and included in this kingdom Protoctista. These are non
chlorophyllus
Q. Explain Phylum Protozoa with its classes and example of each.

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General characteristics of Phylum Protozoa

 Habitat
Protozoa are generally found in aquatic environment and live in fresh and marine water. During unfavorable
conditions protozoa form cyst that can be dried and transferred from one habitat to another.

 Body organization:
Small, usually microscopic organisms simplest and most primitive animals with protoplasmic grade of body
organization. Body unicellular containing one or more nuclei which are monomorphic or dimorphic.

 Body symmetry
Body symmetry may be bilateral, radially, none or spherical.

 Body covering
Body bounded by pellicle or cell membrane some times exoskeleton is also found in the form of shell.

 locomotor organelles
Locomotor organelles if present are finger like pseudopodia or whip like flagella or hair like cilia or absent.

 Respiration
Respiration occur through general body surface.

 Excretion
Excretion through the general body surface but in forms through a temporary opening in the ectoplasm or
through a permanent pore called cytopyge.

 Reproduction
Reproduction commonly occurs by sexual or asexual means.
All the physiological activities are performed by a single cell.
There are about 30,000 species of Protozoa are recorded and this phylum is divided in to five classes on the basis
of locomotory organelles.
1. Class Flagellata ( Mstigophora)
2. Class Sarcodina (Rhizopoda)
3. Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)
4. Class Suctoria
5. Class Sporozoa
1. Class Flagellata ( Mstigophora)

These organisms are commonly called flagellates.

 Habitat
Organelles of locomotion in adults are flagella which are minimum 1 or maximum 8 in numbers.
 Body covering
Body is covered by pellicle.
 Reproduction
They reproduce asexually by fission.
 Mode of life
They are mostly free living while some are parasites
 Autotrophs
Many members of this class have photosynthetic pigment chloroplast.
 Phylogeny
These are considered as the ancestors of different groups of plants and animals.
Examples Trypanosoma, Euglena, Chlamydomonas, Trichomonas (six flagella) etc.
2. Class Sarcodina (Rhizopoda)
 Habitat
They are usually found in fresh water reservoir
 Exoskeleton
Marine sarcodinians have shell as exoskeleton and their deposition in the sea make layers called
“Radiolarian Ooze or Globigerina Ooze”.
 Symmetry
These protozoans are asymmetrical.
 Body covering
Their have thin elastic cell membrane with projecting finger like irregular locomotory structures called
Pseudopodia, Lobopodia, Filopodia, Axopodia or Reticulopodia.
 Mode of life

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These organisms are free living or parasites.

 Nutrition
They obtain food by the process of Phagocytosis in which they engulf food particles.
Example: Amoeba, Entamoeba, Actinophyrus
3. Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)

 Body covering
All organisms of this class posses ectoplasmic outgrowths cilia on their pellicle (cell membrane) for
locomotion.
 Cilia
The cilia are thousands in number.
 Nucleus
These organisms have micro and mega nucleus.
 Reproduction
They reproduce sexually by fission and asexually by conjugation.
 Nutrition
 Nutrition is heterotrophic they usually have a cytostome or gullet for ingestion of food.
Examples: Paramecium, Opalina, Balantidium.
4. Class Suctoria
 Body covering
These organisms are closely related to ciliates in young ones having cilia on their cell membrane.
 Nucleus
Suctorians also have one micro and one macro nucleus and numerous short cilia.
 Attachment
These organisms are stalked and sessile.
 Tentacles
With distal end bearing few to many toxic material secreting tentacles which are used to paralyze their
prey.
 Ciliature
Adults do not have any ciliature.
 Reproduction
Reproduction is asexual by budding.
Example Acineta, Nyctotherus, Haltaria, Ephelota etc.
5. Class Sporozoa
 Mode of life
Most of these Protozoans are intracellular parasites and incapable of active life outside their hosts.
 locomotion
The adults have no external organelles of locomotion. Cilia or flagella may be present in their gametes.
 Fertilization
Fertilization of male and female gametes takes place after which many spores are formed.
 Sporozoites
The spores are simple and contain one to many sporozoites which are the infective stage of parasite.
Example Plasmodium, Monocystis etc.
Q. Explain in detail the Life cycle of plasmodium in Man and Mosquito with labeled diagram.

Geographical Distribution.
Malarial parasites are found in all countries extending from 40 0S to 600N. The tropical zone is endemic home for
all malarial parasites.
Habitat.
Plasmodium is a digenic endoparasite protozoan passes its life cycle in to two different hosts.
Primary host: A Man in which it passes its immature asexual infective stages.
Secondary host: A Female mosquito in which it passes its mature sexual reproductive stages.

Life cycle in man

The malarial parasite asexual cycle in man is comprises of following stages.

Pre-erythrocytic phase:
It starts when a female anopheles mosquito bite a healthy man in order to suck the blood then also
transmit plasmodium infective spindle shaped sporozoites which are present in the salivary glands of
mosquito. These sporozoites then enters in to liver parenchyma cells of man passes their developmental

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stages and turned in to cryptozoites some of them reside in to the liver cells while some enters in to
blood RBC and called metacryptozoites.
Erythrocytic phase:

Each metacryptozoite modified in to trophozoite in RBC. As it grows in size a central vacuole developed
and the nucleus is pushed to one side this stage is called signet ring stage. The trophozoite ingest the
haemoglobin protein and turned into amoeboid trophozoite. After this stage it becomes a rounded shizont
inside that it undergoes further division called schizogony and produces merozoites.
Post-Erythrocytic phase:

Some merozoites produced in erythrocytic phase reach the liver cells and undergo schizonic
development while some remains inside the RBC and turned in sexual forms this is known as post erythrocytic
phase.
Gamogony:

In RBC merozoites becomes gamocytes; the male microgamocytes and female macrogamocytes these
forms does not divide and remain in the blood until the mosquito bites and taken up along with blood.

Life cycle in Mosquito

Sexual life cycle of plasmodium is completed in the gut of female Anopheles mosquito which comprises of the
following stages.
Gametogony:
In this stage the gametocytes soon becomes gametes. A single male gamocyte forms 6-8 sperms like
flagellated motile microgametes and female turned into a single non motile macrogamete.
Syngamy:
The newly developed gametes of the opposite sexes fused together to form a zygote this process is
called syngamy. The zygote becomes worm like Ookinete. It penetrates the stomach wall to settle down just
under the midgut here after absorbing the nutrients it becomes rounded and encyst to form oocyst.

Sporogony:
In 6-7 days the nucleus of the oocyst divides and forms numerous slender sporozoites by the process
of sporogony. The cyst burst and the liberated sporozoites migrate towards the salivary glands where they
await transfer to a human host.
Symptoms of Malaria:
The first symptom of malaria appears after few days of infection in man.
 The symptoms are nausea, loss of appetite, constipation and insomnia soon headache, muscular pains, aches
in the joints.
 The malarial patient feels fever suffers from shaking chill and sweating the body temperature may rise as
high as 106 0F.

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