Pulse width modulation

1 Introduction

In most PWM inverters, a large number of pulses per cycle are used in order to synthesize a
voltage wave that has a dominant fundamental sine-wave component and small harmonic
components. A simple example is shown in Fig 1 where the relative widths of the pulses are
made approximately proportional to the desired sine wave.

Fig 1 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation

The higher the switching frequency, the better will be the quality of the sine wave because of
higher resolution. The switching frequency is called the carrier frequency. The frequency of the
fundamental sine wave is called modulation frequency. The frequency ratio:
carrier frequency f
p= = c
modulation frequency f m
The ratio of the carrier frequency to the fundamental sine wave is as high as possible. For 50Hz
required frequency, if the carrier frequency is 12kHz, this gives p=240 which could have a very
low harmonic waveform.

2 Natural sampling

Fig 2 Natural sampling switching pattern

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In Fig 2, sinusoidal pwm was generated by comparing a sinusoidal modulating signal and
triangular carrier. This technique is known as natural sampling. The idea is sensible: consider
one ramp of the triangular waveform; the value of the ramp will represent the average value of
the half pulse as its width is varied. The pulse width, δ1k and δ2k can be proved to be:
δ 1k = δ o (1 + M sin( α k - δ 1k ))
δ 2k = δ o (1 + M sin( α k + δ 2k ))
It would be seen that each ramp of the triangular wave is a plot of average pulse value against δk
which is being solved simultaneously by a graphical method with the required sine wave.

In terms of microprocessor implementation, this calculation of equations is difficult. It is being

used less and less for generating PWM waveforms because these equations can only be solved
iteratively. Also an analogue technique susceptible to the usual problem of noise, drift,
imbalance, offset, etc. Digital techniques of various sorts are now commonplace. We will
develop our analysis of PWM through a power engineer route.

Tutorial 1: Derive the PWM equation of the natural sampling using the following diagram:

Fig. 3 Diagram to derive the equation of natural sampling

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3 Regular sampling

3.1 Characterisation of modulating pulses

Fig 4 Regular sampling

Fig 4 shows one modulating pulse. The kth pulse is shown expanded and is defined by a number
of parameters:

Χ the middle of the pulse is situated at angle αk within the period of fundamental.

Χ each modulating pulse extends over Δ where Δ = 2 π/p.

Χ the position of the leading edge of the pulse is defined by δ1k, and that of the trailing edge
by δ2k. We assume that both edges are modulated, hence this is double edge modulation
and they can be modulated differently so that it is asymmetrical double edge modulation.
( If δ1k= δ2k= δk, this would be symmetrical double edge modulation) This type of
modulation enables us to achieve the best approximation to a sine wave, for any given
number of switches per cycle and it is therefore most suitable for use in power
applications, where device switching losses must be controlled.

The average value of the voltage during the leading and trailing halves of the modulating pulse

3
are:
V ( δ 1k - (2δ o - δ 1k ))
V 1k =
2 2δ 0
V ( δ 1k - δ o )
=
2 δo
Therefore,
V
V 1k = β1k
2

Similarly,
V
V 2k = β 2k
2
where:
( δ 1k - δ o )
β 1k =
δo
(δ -δ )
β 2k = 2k o
δo
β is a convenient function which is in the form of normalised angle, that relates the average
voltage over a half pulse to the pulse amplitude. β has values in the range -1 <= β<= +1.

3.2 Modulation strategy

The general aim of sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) is to modulate so that the
average value of each half pulse tracks as closely as possible the sine wave to which it is meant
to be approximating. As power engineers we might reasonably want to ensure the volt-seconds
of each half-wave pulse of the pwm waveform equal to the volt-seconds of the fundamental sine
wave required. This is because volt-seconds are the dimensions of the flux which means that
motors driven by the inverter would be operated at correct flux levels. With this as our aim, take
the sine wave and modulating pulse shown in Fig 4. Consider the leading half pulse, subscript 1,
only:
αk
As1 = ∫ Vm sin θ dθ
Δ
αk −
2

which simplifies to:

As1 = 2Vm sin δ o sin(α k − δ o )
when δo is small, sin δo --> δo.

Hence
As1 ≈ 2δ oVm sin(α k − δ o )
For the modulating pulse:

4
 V
A p1 = β 1k 2δ o
2
Hence for Ap1 = As1

Vm
β1k = sin(α k − δ o )
V
2

Rewrite into:
β 1k = M sin( α k - δ o )
Similarly,

β 2k = M sin( α k + δ o )
where M is the depth of modulation.

The depth of modulation is usually defined as the peak value of the modulating wave to the peak
value of the carrier wave. This is the same for the present case. ie

peak value of the fundamental sine wave V m

M= =
peak of the carrier wave V/2
The above equations are often expressed in terms of δ1k and δ2k as:
δ 1k = δ o [1 + M sin( α k - δ o )]
δ 2k = δ o [1 + M sin( α k + δ o )]

Thus, after chosen frequency ratio p, which defines Δ and hence δo and required M, the
modulating angles for each of the pulse, k=1,2,........p, can be calculated. This method is also
called uniform sampling and is more suitable for real time computation and generation of pwm
waveforms.

If symmetrical double edge modulation were implemented, so that δ1k = δ2k =δk and β1k = β2k =βk
it is perhaps clear that the above equations can be reduced to:
δ k = δ o [1 + M sin α k ]
and
β k = M sin α k

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4. Harmonics analysis

4.1 Simple pulse

Consider a single-phase inverter as shown in Fig 5. Assuming the switching sequence of one leg
is γ advanced with reference to the negative voltage of the other leg. The switching waveform is
shown in fig 6. The output voltage VRY, now has zero voltage states as well as ∀V. It is
interesting to examine this waveform analytically to determine the relationship between γ and the
fundamental amplitude.

Fig 5. A typical single phase inverter

Fig 6. Switching waveforms

We first start with a simple pulse as shown in fig 7. The amplitude of the nth harmonic can be
calculated using exponential form of the Fourier series:

6
 Fig 7. Simple pulse analysis

1 2π - jnθ dθ
An = ∫ f(v) e
2π o
and
f(v) = Σ∞ jnθ
n=- ∞ An e
Hence
An = k n e-jnα
δ sin nδ
where k n = v
π nδ
and kn relates to the dimensions of the pulse. The exponential denotes the position, or phase of
the pulse.

Hence for VRG in Fig 5:

AnRG =
2 π nπ / 2
(
V 0.5π sin nπ / 2 − jnπ / 2 − jn3π / 2
e −e )
sin(nπ / 2) ⋅ 2 j sin(nπ / 2) ⋅ e− jnπ
V
=
2nπ
sin 2 (nπ / 2)e− jnπ
jV
=
nπ
jV − jnπ
AnRG = e
nπ n=odd

Similarly,
jV − jn(2π −γ )
AnYG = e
nπ n=odd

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Therefore
An RY = An RG - AnYG
AnRY =
nπ
e (
jV − jπ
− e − jn(2π −γ ) )
jV − jπ
= e (1 − e − jn (π −γ ) )
nπ

jV − jnπ − jn (π −γ ) / 2 + jn (π −γ ) / 2 − jn (π −γ ) / 2
= e e (e −e )
nπ

jV n( π - γ ) - jn(3π -γ )/2
An RY = 2j sin e
πn 2
Since
sinn( π - γ )/2 = sin nπ/2 cos nγ/2 - cos nπ/2 sin nγ/2
which, for odd harmonics = ∀ cos nγ/2

Therefore
2V nγ
| An |RY = cos
πn 2

4.2 Three-phase inverter using quasi-square waveform

The induction motor are generally operates with a three-phase supply system. A solid-state
inverter to produce a three-phase output is therefore necessary. A three-phase inverter could be
constructed using three single-phase inverters. The basic circuit of a three-phase inverter is
shown in Fig 8. IGBTs are becoming more common for high voltage and high power level. For
low voltage or low power application, MOSFET are used.

Fig 8. Three-phase inverter

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The quasi-square switching waveforms are shown in Fig 9. V RG is a square wave produced by
device 1 and device 4 switching alternatively. The pattern is repeated by device 3 and device 6
2π/3 later, giving VYG as shown, and device 5 and device 2 repeat the sequence 2π/3 later still
to give VBG. The actual line voltage that appear across the load are then derived in the usual
way:
V RY = V RG - V YG
V YB = V YG - V BG
V BR = V BG - V RG
Thus the waveform appear in Fig 9 are known as quasi-square voltage waveforms.

Fig 9. Switching waveforms of the three-phase inverter

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Using the Fourier analysis developed in last section:
An RY = An RG - AnYG
jV -jnπ -jn5π /3 γ=π/3
= (e -e ) n = odd
πn
jV -jn 4π / 3 -jnπ / 3 -jnπ /3
= e (e -e ) n = odd
πn
jV nπ
= ⋅ 2 j sin( ) ⋅ e -jn 4π / 3 n = odd
πn 3
-2V nπ - jn4π/3
= sin e n = odd
πn 3
Therefore,
2V nπ
| An |RY = sin n = odd
πn 3
The above result is valid for odd harmonics only. It is apparent that harmonics, which are
multiple of 3, are also zero. Hence, the harmonics contained in the quasi-square waveform are 1,
5 & 7, 11 & 13, ...6k∀1 etc. The ratio of the amplitude of a line voltage harmonic AnRY to a
phase voltage harmonic, AnRG is given below:
2V nπ
sin
AnRY πn 3
=
AnRG V
πn
nπ for n = 1, and 6k ± 1
= 2 sin = 3
3 k = 1, 2,3,...
Hence, the ratio of the line voltage to the phase voltage is /3 for all harmonics. This is the same
as the ratio between line and phase voltages in a conventional three-phase power supply system.

4.3 Harmonics of the PWM three-phase inverter

When the inverter is driven by three-phase PWM waveform, the situation becomes more
complex and is treated here in some detail. The harmonics in the AnYG can be expressed in terms
of AnRG as
AnYG = AnRG e− j 2π / 3
The harmonics in the output voltage across the terminal R and Y, AnRY can be expressed as:

An RY = An RG (1 - e-jn2π/3 )
and it can be seen that the output harrmonics AnRY are eliminated from the output waveform. ie
the triplen harmonics, n=3k, k = 1,2,.... disappear. This is not a surprising result for a three-
phase system and the same conclusion has been drawn in quasi square operation.

As far as harmonic amplitudes are concerned:

| ARY |= 3 | ARG |

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Tutorial 2:

A 220V, 50Hz, 2 pole, 3-phase, squirrel-cage induction motor is driven by a sinusoidal PWM
inverter with regular sampling. The inverter is supplied by a constant DC link voltage 650V.
The inverter is assumed to be ideal and the switching frequency of the inverter is 20kHz. The
single-phase equivalent parameters of the motor are:

R1 = 1Ω; R2' = 0.5Ω; L1=9mH; L2'=9mH; Lm=large

(a) Calculate the depth of modulation and describe the modulating signal. Write down the
PWM pulse width equation if symmetrical double edge modulation is used and the
modulating frequency is 50Hz.

(b) Determine the rms stator current and motor torque when the motor is controlled at
2900rpm. Determine the minimum value of the DC link voltage supplied to the inverter.
Suggest the switching device used in the inverter.

(c) If the switching frequency is now 1kHz and M is the same as (a) and symmetrical regular
sampling is used, calculate the pulse width of first 5 pulses (i.e. from 0°- 90°).

Soln:
Vm 380 2 / 3
(a) M= = = 0.955
V /2 650 / 2
1
α k = δ o [1 + M sin α k ] = [1 + 0.955sin 2π 50t k ]
20k
50*60 − 2900
(b) s= = 0.0333
50*60
380 / 3
I1 = = 12.92 A
2 2
(1 + 0.5 / 0.033) + (2* π *50*(0.009 + 0.009))
3 R2 2 3 R2 2 3 0.5
T= ⋅ I2 ≈ ⋅ I1 = ⋅ ⋅12.922 = 23.93 Nm
ω1 s ω1 s 2*π *50 0.0333
Vm 380 2 / 3
M= ⇒1= ⇒ Vdcmin = 620V
Vdcmin / 2 Vdcmin / 2
IGBT for transistor and fast recovery for diode
0.25
(c) δ k = δ o [1 + M sin α k ] = [1 + 0.955sin α k ]
1000
p=1k/50=20; period=1ms or 2π/p=2π/20
k αk δk (s) Pulse-width (ms)
1 0.5*(2π/20) 0.000287 0.574619177
2 1.5*(2π/20) 0.000358 0.716553299
3 2.5*(2π/20) 0.000419 0.837289711
4 3.5*((2π/20) 0.000463 0.925009911
5 4.5*(2π/20) 0.000486 0.971127249

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5 Addition of third harmonic to the modulated waveform in PWM inverters

5.1 Addition of third harmonic

We have shown that for a three-phase inverter, there is no triplen in the line voltage. We can
show now that if we deliberately modulate the inverter phase voltage so that it contains
fundamental, plus some third harmonic, it is possible to produce a greater fundamental amplitude
from a given dc voltage level and the third harmonic does not appear in the output line voltage.

Fig10 shows the modulating wave which consists of the required fundamental plus some third
harmonic and it has a maximum value equal to Vdc/2. Fig 10 also shows the fundamental and
third harmonics components of the modulating wave for illustration. The amplitude of the
fundamental component is greater than the dc voltage.

Fig 10. Fundamental plus third harmonics

The questions that we now have are:

1) What is the maximum amplitude of the fundamental sine wave we can obtain?
2) What is the amplitude of the third harmonic we should add?
3) What is the new PWM equation?
4) How does the new waveform affect the operation of machines?

5.2 The peak fundamental value

As shown in Fig 10, the third harmonic is equal to zero at θ=60Ε. At this point, the modulating
wave is equal to the fundamental and cannot be reduced by the third. That means, the
fundamental wave is equal to Vdc/2 at θ=60Ε.

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 Vd c
Vˆ fund sin 60° =
2
Hence,

Vˆ fund 1 2
= = = 1.15
Vd c sin 60° 3
2
The addition of a third harmonics can increase the amplitude of fundamental wave by 15%.

5.3 The optimum amount of third harmonic

To calculate how much third harmonic is needed to achieve this improvement, we can calculate
the condition for a maximum of the modulating wave (1st + 3rd) to occur at 60Ε. That is:
d
(Vˆ fund sin θ + kVˆ fund sin 3θ )|θ =60° = 0
dθ
cosθ + 3k cos 3θ = 0
1
k = = 0.166
6

Hence the third harmonic should be one-sixth the amplitude of the required fundamental.

5.4 The PWM equation

We can follow the similar method as in section 3.2 to work out the PWM pulse width equation
when the third harmonic is added. For symmetrical double edge modulation, the equation is:

δ k = δ o (1 + M( sin α k + k sin(3 α k ))) (*)

where M is the depth of modulation= Vm / ( Vdc/2) and k is the amount of the third harmonic
added and its optimum values is 1/6. It can be seen that the equation is very similar to the
previous one but with the 3rd harmonic content.

5.5 Observation

There are a number of interesting points which follow from this analysis:

13
(a) At αk = 60Ε, The above equation (*) becomes:
3
δ k = δ o (1 + M + 0))
2
The maximum value of M is therefore 2/%3 =1.15 because : δ k ≤ 2 δ 0

That is the same results as obtained in section 5.2.

(b) The peak fundamental phase voltage after addition of 3rd harmonic is:
Vd c 2
2 3
and the fundamental line voltage is:
Vd c 2 3
2 3
which is equal to Vdc. Hence it appears that addition of 3rd harmonic is to obtain the maximum
dc link voltage for the line voltage of the inverter output.

5.6 Is the star point of the load the same as the DC link mid point voltage

Fig 11. A star load is connected to a three-phase inverter

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When a star load connected to an inverter as shown in fig 11. We can calculate the phase to
neutral voltage of the star load as follow:

V RY = i1 Z + ( i1 - i 2 )Z = 2 i1 Z - i 2 Z
V YB = ( i 2 - i1 )Z + i 2 Z = - i1 Z + 2 i 2 Z

Therefore

1
V RN = (3V RG - ( V RG +V YG +V BG )
3

Now the, express the equation in harmonic amplitudes:

1
An RN = ⎡⎢3 An RG − An RG 1 + e
3 ⎣ (
− jn 2π / 3
+ e− jn 4π / 3 ⎤
⎦⎥ )
Therefore:

An RN = An RG for n ≠ 3k,k = 1,2,3,...

An RN = 0 for n = 3k,k = 1,2,3,...

This shows that the load phase voltage spectrum is the inverter phase voltage less all triplen
components. The voltage between G and N can also be determined:

AnGN = An RG - An RN

1
An RN = An RG − ⎡⎢3 An RG − An RG 1 + e
3⎣
( − jn 2π / 3
)
+ e− jn 4π / 3 ⎤
⎥⎦
1
(
= An RG ⋅ 1 + e − jn 2π / 3 + e − jn 4π / 3
3
)
=0 when n ≠ 3k, k = 1,2,3...
= An RG when n = 3k, k = 1,2,3...

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The following interesting points can be observed:

(a) If the VRG contains fundamental only and no triplen, the potential of the netural, N, is the
same as the mid-point of the DC link voltage (ie potential of G)
(b) If there is triplen, the potential of the netural point, N, moves with respect to G at the triplen
amplitude and frequency. The fact that N moves around like this enables the maximum peak
line voltage, Vdc, to be theoretically achievable.

Tutorial 3:

A 415V 3-phase voltage is applied to a 3-phase rectifier with a very large filter capacitor and a
dc link voltage is produced. This DC link voltage is connected to a 3-phase inverter, the output
is to drive a 3-phase 415V star-connected induction motor at 50Hz. If all the semiconductor
devices are perfect and also no loss is assumed in the rectifier,

1) Suggest the modulation strategy should be used and write down the modulating signal in terms
of time, t.

2) Derive an equation of the pulse width in terms of the α

3) If the induction motor is a balanced load, is the star point (neutral) of the machine the same
voltage as the DC link mid-point voltage and explain your answer.

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