Second Language learning and bilingualism

Task 2

Activity 1

Create a PowerPoint presentation (from 10 to 20 slides) summarizing the factors affecting language
acquisition. Besides the notes of class, use two papers or books as the research base of your work.
Factors affecting
second language
acquisition
Cristina María Llorente Cubas
Index:
1. Introduction 4. Factors affecting second language acquisition

2. What is language? • Cognitive factors

• Intelligence
3. Principal theories of second language acquisition • Aptitude
• Affective factors
• Motivation
• Attitude
• Personality: introversion/extroversion, self-esteem,
inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety and empathy.
• External factors
• Learning styles
• Age
• Social environment
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
Introduction

Acquisition is basically another word to refer the meaning of learning. It is consider as the
conscious process where children learn something by the guidance of a teacher or other supportive
and educational role. The process by which a person learns a language is sometimes called
acquisition instead of learning, because some linguists believe that the development of a first
language in a child is a natural process (Richards, 1985, p.3).
Moreover, (Ellis, 1986, p. 292; Alice Omaggio, 1986, p. 29) explain that acquisition can be broadly
defined as the internalization of rules and formulas which are then used to communicate in L2.
Introduction: second language acquisition
definitions
◦ Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Jack Richards, et al. (1985, p. 252) states that
second language acquisition is, “the process by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign
language.”
◦ Rod Ellis (1986, p. 4) explains that SLA is “a complex process, involving many interrelated factors. It is
the product of many factors pertaining to the learner on the one hand and the learning situation on the
other.”
◦ To conclude, Victoria Fromkin et. al (2002, p. 593)
says that SLA is “the acquisition of another language
or languages after first language acquisition that is
under way or completed.”
As we can see, there does not appear to be one single, comprehensive theory of
language acquisition but many theories, both explanatory and descriptive,
offering insights into different aspects of language acquisition.

But, what is language indeed?

◦ Edith Garvie (1976) agrees that language is essentially a human What is language?
activity for the purpose of communication with oneself (thought)
and others. It may be oral (heard or spoken) or graphic (read or
written), consisting of sounds, symbols, words and groups of words
with rules governing the pattern thereof. It is affected by the
ability and the state of the user, the purpose to which it is put and
the situation in which it is us.
◦ As it is necessary to help children to understand both the spoken
and the written word and to express themselves in a variety of ways,
language is a vital component of the learning process. Language is essentially a
human activity for the
purpose of
communication and is
inextricably bound up
with culture.
Principal theories of second language
acquisition
◦ There are two main approaches to the theory of language acquisition:
ØLinguists tend to study underlying competence i.e. one's knowledge of a language, including grammar and
vocabulary, which enables one to produce and understand sentences, both written and oral. Competence is seen
as underlying knowledge which is not observable. (Greene 1986: 17.)
ØPsychologists are more interested in performance i.e. the way people use language, including both the production
and comprehension of sentences in speech and writing. Performance is observable, the realisation of
competence. (Greene 1986: 18.)
◦ These two main approaches are linked, with the linguistic school influencing psychological thinking and
psychology having an influence on linguistic theories.
◦ Cognitive psychologists do not isolate competence and performance but study the mental processes responsible
for the production and the comprehension of language i.e. they describe the knowledge responsible for language
behaviour. (Greene 1986: 18.)
 Factors affecting second language acquisition
Ø There are different long term studies which established the main the factors that affect in the acquisition of a
second language.
◦ According to Littlewood (1984: 68) "the
sum of our knowledge about the factors
influencing second language learning is very
limited and imprecise”.
◦ However, we can divided these factors into the
following groups:
◦ Cognitive factors
◦ Affective factors
◦ Other factors: individual differences, external
factors, methodology, etc.
 Cognitive factors
Ø Cognitive factors determine the meaning of language and also make sense of the linguistic system itself. There can be:
qIntelligence: is an important factor determining how well and how quickly an individual understands a learning task or an
explanation . “The more intelligent a person is, the more observant he is and the more able to assign and understand meaning” (Ausubel 1978:
25). The studies on intelligence show a strong relationship between intelligence and acquisition of a foreign language but only as
far as academic skills are concerned. However, Gardner (1983) tried to explain this concept with the introduction of a theory of
Multiple Intelligences. He described eight types of intelligence:
1. linguistic (sensitivity to spoken and written language, the capacity to use the language to accomplish certain goals);
2. logical-mathematical (ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically);
3. spatial (ability to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas);
4. musical (capacity to recognize and create musical pitches and rhythmic patterns);
5. bodily- kinaesthetic (ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements);
6. interpersonal (capacity to understand intentions, motivations and desires of other people);
7. intrapersonal (ability to understand oneself, to develop a sense of self-identity)
8. naturalistic (ability to understand the natural world).
 Cognitive factors
Ø Gardner states that every person possesses the eight intelligences and teachers should use a variety of techniques and materials in order
to enable students to learn using their strengths and achieve better results. He claims that people are intelligent in different ways and
they also learn in different ways.
qAptitude: it is consider a specific set of learning abilities relating to the acquisition of language. Richards (1985, p. 154) explains that
aptitude is natural ability to learn a language. Further, he adds that language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various
abilities, that it means that students need aptitude, some specific abilities, which are responsible for learning languages. The first tests
that measured aptitude are Carroll and Sapon’s Modern Language Aptitude Test (1959) and Pimsleur’s Language Aptitude Battery
(1966).
§ Carroll describes aptitude as a stable factor, an ability that allows to learn a L2 faster and with less effort. He identified four
factors in language aptitude: phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and rote
learning ability.
§ Cummins (1983) distinguished language abilities into two: cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) and basic
impersonal communication skills (BICS). He suggested that CALP might be related to general intelligence while BICS to
aptitude.
Ø The researchers agree that it is necessary to improve and develop new aptitude tests, which will measure not only cognitive abilities but
also communicative competence.
 Affective factors
Ø Research indicates that attitude and motivation may be important factors in the acquisition of a second language. While it has been
suggested that personality variables such as anxiety, introversion, extraversion, self-esteem, risk taking, empathy and toleration of
ambiguity may influence attitude and motivation, there is no strong evidence that such personality variables are factors in the
achievement of a second language.
Ø The role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has been investigated by Gardner and Lambert (1972), who define motivation in terms of ‘
the learner's overall goal or orientation’, and attitude as ‘the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal’ (Ellis 1985, p. 117;
Patsy Lightbown at.al, 2000, p. 56).
q Motivation is one of the most important factors in second language acquisition. Vrey (1984: 236) differentiates between a learning
motive, which is the driving force behind an act of learning and a primary motive, which involves the concept of self maintenance
and self enhancement.
• They distinguish two types of motivation:
a) Integrative motivation: a learner studies a language because he is interested in the people and
culture of the target language or in order to communicate with people of another culture who speak
it.
b) Instrumental motivation: a learner’s goals for learning the second language are functional and
useful.
 Affective factors
ØMotivation can be also distinguished into intrinsic and extrinsic. “Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no
apparent reward except the activity itself. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding
consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination” (Edward Deci, 1975, as cited in Brown, 1994, p. 155). Extrinsically
motivated behaviours expect a reward, for example money, a praise or positive feedback.
ØConsiderable research has demonstrated that achievement in second language acquisition is related to measures of attitude and
motivation. Results of this research indicate that attitude, motivation and language aptitude are all important factors influencing
the rate of acquisition of a second language.
Ø Individuals with high levels of language aptitude are more able to cope with new material as it is presented, while those with
positive attitudes who are well motivated will work harder, putting in more effort to acquire material and showing more
interest.
 Affective factors
qAttitude: Ellis (1985, p. 292) clarifies that attitude is sets of beliefs about factors as the target language culture, their own culture and,
in case of classroom learning, of their teachers, and the learning task they are given. Language attitudes are the attitude which speakers of
different languages have toward other’s languages or to their own language.
ØGardner and Lambert have investigated a number of different attitudes,
which were classified by Stern (1983, p. 376-7) into three types:
1. attitudes towards the community and people who speak L2,
2. attitudes towards learning and language concerned,
3. attitudes towards languages and language learning in general

ØIt is obvious that learners who have positive attitudes learn more, but also learners who learn well acquire positive attitudes.
 Affective factors
There is no strong evidence of a consistent relationship between personality variables and achievement in second language
learning, but at least two researchers, Krashen (1981) and Rivers (1964) have suggested that personality variables could influence
attitude and motivational characteristics (Gardner 1985: 25)
qPersonality: Personality has been described as a set of features that characterize an individual. It has been stated that this
concept is difficult to define and measure because of its complicated nature. Studies which investigate personality traits are
based on the belief that learners bring to the classroom not only their cognitive abilities but also affective states which
influence the way they acquire a language.
Ø The most important personality factors are (Ellis, 1986, pp. 119-121; Patsy Lightbown, 2000, p. 54):
• introversion/extroversion
• self- esteem
• inhibition,
• risk-taking,
• anxiety and
• empathy
 xtern al
E
factors

qLearning styles: Keefe (1979, as cited in Ellis 1994, p. 499) described learning styles as “the characteristic cognitive, affective,
and physiological behaviours that serve relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment.” Reid (1987) identified four learning modalities: visual (seeing), auditory (listening), kinaesthetic (moving) or
tactile (touching). Learning styles do not seem to predict the possible success in L2, but they show the most effective way to
achieve the best results.
qAge: It is generally believed that children are better at language acquisition than adults. Critical period hypothesis by
Lenneberg proposes that in child development there is a period during which language can be acquired more easily than
that at any other time. According to him the critical period lasts until puberty and is due to biological development. He adds
that language learning may be more difficult after puberty because the brain lacks the ability and adaptation (Richards:1985,
p. 68).
 x terna l
E
factors

qSocial environment: Social environment has a tremendous influence on linguistic development.. Research (Hamachek 1975:
86) suggests a positive relationship between the amount of time and effort mothers spend in encouraging pre-school verbal
activities and the child's language proficiency. This social environment can be constituted by:
Ø Teacher’s role: Vrey (1984: 212) says that as well as being responsible for the climate of the classroom the teacher is also responsible
for extrinsic motivation, for awakening interest and arousing the will to learn, for explaining in such a way that the student
understands and for making learning tasks meaningful to the student.
Ø Family’s role: the child's perception of parental support, which is not necessarily the same thing as the parents' perception of
support, does not relate directly to performance in class but is related to his willingness to continue language study and the
amount of effort he puts into learning the second language (Gardner 1985: 122).
 Other factors
qTime: Bloom's theory of the mastery of learning (Lindgren 1976: 201) maintains that given suitable methods of instruction and
sufficient time, 90% of students can master the material in the curriculum. Experience of success then increases motivation. It is
important that each child should work at his own speed until he has achieved understanding.
qMaterial: a non- complete teaching material would make students feel lost during their language acquisition process. The best and more
adaptable the material is, the best the language acquisition process can be develop. This kind of material is divided into authentic
(used in real life like videos, newspapers, magazines, etc), adapted (real stories adapted to each subject and topic) and non-authentic
material (material created by workbooks and class books’ editorials).
qClassroom climate: Gardner (1985: 123) says that the provision of a warm, supportive environment within which a child can develop
an integrative motive towards language study will have a clear effect on second language acquisition. Purkey (Vrey 1984: 235) mentions
six factors that are important in creating the best classroom atmosphere for learning and also for heightening motivation. These factors
are realistic expectations for each individual learner, mutual respect between teacher and student, warmth of feeling, a democratic
atmosphere with co-operation rather than competition, experience of success and freedom both of choice and from anxiety (see 3.9.1)
◦ We as teachers must always bear in mind that each learner is an individual and individual differences, and combinations
thereof, will have an effect on the acquisition of a second language. As we can see, there are many factors playing a part in the
acquisition of a second language, but probably more important than a single factor may be a particular combination of factors
and the interplay between factors which themselves may change according to the circumstances. Based in the current
researchers which have been exposed in this presentation some factors such as general intelligence, language aptitude,
meaningfulness, motivation and attitude would appear to be more significant than others; but others one such as personality
and external factors can help to improve this difficult process that is the acquisition of a second language.
◦ To conclude, there are different factors that may affect our student’s second language acquisition process but is our duty as
teachers to help them to increase their strengths and improve their weak in order to give them the opportunity to achieve the
same goal: be able to communicate in other language that is not their mother tongue. To acquire be profiency in other
language. To acquire the communicative competence.
 Bibliography

◦ Khasinah, Siti. (2014). FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. Englisia Journal. 1.
10.22373/ej.v1i2.187.
◦ Cann, Pamela Anne (1992). Factors affecting the acquisition of English as a second language. University of South Africa,
Pretoria.