TRAINING MANUAL ON

RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
COURSE NO. : SA-M-QC-3.5

Prepared by : V.K. Jain, SO/D

Reviewed by : Prashant Puri, STO (M)

A.K. Singh, Head QA, RAPS-1&2

C.M. Mishra, ENC (MT)

Approved by : N. Nagaich
Training Superintendent, RAPS 1 to 4

Nuclear Training Centre

Revision (1) Aug 2002 Next Revision due : Aug 2007

 PREFACE

This training manual on the subject of Radiography Testing is compiled

and prepared to be used for theoretical and practical training on the subject.
This manual contained self explanatory chapters. Source of material compiled
in the manual taken from the Radiography testing level-1 book prepared by
Shri Gursharan Singh Isotope Div. BARC and Shri Subramanya, Radiological
Physics Div. BARC. with the little changes as per the requirement of training.
This manual is also useful for Tradesman trainees.

I express my sincere thanks to Shri Prashant Puri STO for giving his
valuable suggestion during preparation and Shri C.M. Mishra and Shri A.K.
Singh for his guidance and keep me cheerful to complete the task. I owe my
sincere gratitude to Shri N. Nagaich, Training Superintendent RAPS 1-4 for
his kind guidance, cooperation and encouragement to me to complete this
manual.

V. K. Jain
SO/D, NTC.
 CONTENTS
DESCRIPTION Page No.

Chapter -1 Defects & Properties of Materials 1

1.1 Introduction on Properties of Material 1

1.2 Types of Properties 1
1.2.1 Chemical Properties 1
1.2.2 Physical Properties 1
1.2.3 Mechanical Properties 1
1.3 Introduction on Defects in Material 2
1.3.1 Casting Defects 3
1.3.2 Forging Defects 3
1.3.3 Welding Defects 3
1.4.1 Causes of Material Failure in Service 6
1.4.2 Types of Material Failure 7
1.4.3 Service Conditions Leading to Material Failures 7

Chapter - 2 RADIATION AND ITS EFFECT 8

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Some Important Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays 12
2.3 Production Of X-rays 14
2.4 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 16
2.5 Radiation Quantities & Units 22
2.6 Biological Effects of Radiation 25
2.7 Operational Limits 28
Chapter - 3 X-RAY TECHNOLOGY 32

3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 X and Gamma Rays 32
3.3 Production Of X-rays 33
3.4 Requirements of an Industrial X-Ray Tube 35
3.5.1 Fluoroscopy 35
3.5.2 Fine Focus Tube 36
3.5.3 Rod Anode Tube 36
3.5.4 Crawler X-ray Units 36
3.6 X-Ray Generator Circuits 36
3.7 Linear Accelerator 37

Chapter - 4 RADIATION SOURCES 38

4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Production of Radioisotopes 38

147
4.2.1 Production by activation process 38
4.2.2 Production by nuclear fission 39
4.2.3 Particle accelerators are also used for production of some radioisotopes 39
4.3 Sources for Industrial Radiography 39
4.3.1 Specific Activity 39
4.4 Fabrication of Radioisotopes 39

Chapter-5 GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT 41

5.1. Introduction 41
5.2. Types of Cameras 41
5.3 Design 42
5.3.1 Source Assembly 43
5.3.2 Shielding Material 43
5.3.3 Source Exposure 44
5.3.4 Safety Devices 44
5.3.5 Fabrication 45
5.3.6 Maintenance 45
5.3.7 Transportation 45
5.3.8 Installation 45
5.4 Quality Control During Production 45
5.5 Equipment Development 46
5.5.1 Lead Shielded, Low Cast Equipment 46
5.6 Type Approval of Gamma Radiography Equipment 48

Chapter-6 PHOTOGRAPHIC AND NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDING 50

6.1 Introduction 50
6.2 Construction of Film 50
6.2.1 Film Base 50
6.2.2 Emulsion 50
6.2.3 Binding Layer 50
6.2.4 Protective Layer 50
6.3 Characteristics of Films 51
6.3.1 Film Density 51
6.3.2 Characteristic Curve 51
6.3.3 Effects of Radiation Energy 53
6.3.4 Various Types of Films 53

Chapter - 7 LEAD AND FLUORESCENT SCREENS 54

7.1 Introduction 54
7.2 Types of radiography screens 54
7.3 Metallic foil screens 54

148
7.3.1 Reduction of scattered radiation 55
7.3.2 Intensifying Action 55
7.4 Salt or fluorescent screen 55

Chapter - 8 WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS 57

8.1 Introduction 57
8.2 Handling of Films 57
8.2.1 Loading and Unloading films 57
8.2.2 Expiry Dates 57
8.3 Film Storage 57
8.3.1 Protection from Gamma and X-rays 57
8.3.2 Chemical and Physical Hazards 57
8.4 Film Processing 58
8.5 Latent Image Information 58
8.6 The Effect of Development 58
8.6.1 Developers is Use 58
8.7 Stop Bath 59
8.7.1 Water Rinse 59
8.7.2 Acetic Acid Rinse 59
8.7.3 Faults arising during rinsing 60
8.8 Fixing Bath 60
8.8.1 Fixing Agent 60
8.8.2 Use of Fixing Bath 60
8.8.3 Faults arising due to fixation 60
8.9 Washing And Drying 60
8.9.1 Washing 60
8.9.2 Drying 61
8.10 Check List of Processing Difficulties and Film Blemishes 61
8.11 Geometry of Image Formation 63
8.12 Exposure Time Calculations 66

Chapter - 9 EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY 68

9.1 Introduction 68
9.2 Factors Affecting Sensitivity 68
9.3 Image Quality Indicators (IQI) 68
9.3.1 Commonly Used Image Quality Indicators 69
9.4 Identifications 72
9.5 Control of Radiographic Quality 72
9.5.1 Technique Classification 73
9.5.2 Material and its Thickness 73
9.5.3 Film and Screen 73

149
9.5.4 Film Processing 73
9.5.5 Density of the Radiograph 73
9.5.6 Identification Marking System 73
9.5.7 Source, its active dimensions and calibration 73
9.5.8 SFD 73
9.5.9 Exposure geometry 73
9.5.10 IQI, its location 73
9.5.11 Exposure Time 73
9.6 Unsatisfactory Radiographs 73
9.6.1 High Density 74
9.6.2 Low Density 74
9.6.3 High Radiography Contrast 74
9.6.4 Low Radiography Contrast 74
9.6.5 Poor Definition 74
9.6.6 Fog 75
9.6.7 Spurious Indications 75
9.7. Viewing of Radiographs 75
9.7.1 Brightness Conditions 75
9.7.2 Illuminators 75
9.7.3 Viewing Conditions 76
9.7.4 Effects of Viewing Conditions on Image Quality 77
9.7.5 Optimum film Density 77

Chapter-10 DEFECTOLOGY 78

10.1 Introduction 78
10.2 Object Image Relationship 78
10.3 Defect Detection 81
10.4 Defect Indications 81

Chapter-11 SELECTION OF RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES 85

11.1 Introduction 85
11.2 Technique parameter selection 86
11.2.1 Radiation Source 86
11.2.2 Type of Film 86
11.2.3 Geometrical Factors 88
11.2.4 Sensitivity 88
11.3 Latitude Technique 89
11.4 Weld Inspection Techniques 89
11.4.1 Technique for Fusion Welds on Flat Plates 89
11.4.2 Techniques for welded joints on pipes or Cylindrical objects 93

150
Chapter-12 RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SELECTION 95
OF TEST METHODS

12.1 Introduction 95
12.2 Inspection Standards and Codes 95
12.2.1 Standards for Image Quality Indicators (IQI) (Penetrameters) 95
12.2.2 Standards for Techniques 95
12.2.3 Standards for Specific Structures and Products 96
12.2.4 Reference Radiographs 96
12.3 Standards for Welds in Steel Plates 97
12.3.1 Classification of Techniques 97
12.3.2 Films and Screens 97
12.3.3 Source to Film Distance (SFD) 98
12.3.4 Length of Specimen 98
12.3.5 Film Density 98
12.6 Circumferential welds on pipes and cylindrical objects 100
12.7 Radiography of Welds of Boilers and Pressure Vessels 101
12.8 Radiography of Castings 101
12.9 Bureau of Indian Standards - Codes and Standards 102
12.10 Acceptance Limits 104
12.10.1 Acceptable and Unacceptable Flaws 104
12.10.2 Classification of Defects 104
12.10.3 Acceptance / Rejection 104
12.10.4 Typical Acceptance Standards 104

Chapter-13 SAFETY IN RADIOGRAPHY 109

13.1 Radiation Hazard Control 109
13.1.1 Exposure Rate Constant 109
13.1.2 Control of External Hazard 111
13.1.3 Maintain Maximum Distance from the Source 113
13.1.4 Shielding 115
13.2 Safety in Radiography Installations 118
13.2.1 General 118
13.2.2 Enclosed Radiography Installations 119
13.2.4 Field Radiography Installation 123
13.2.5 Safety in Field Radiographic Installations 123
13.3 Transport of Radiography Sources 124
13.4 Source Storage Facilities 126
13.5 Safe Work Practices and General Recommendations 127
13.6 Safety and Precautions 128

151
Chapter-14 RADIATION ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY 131

14.1 General 131

14.2 Incidents on Radiography 132
14.2.1 Detachment of Source Pigtail 132
14.2.2 Loss of Source During Use 132
14.2.3 Damage to Source Capsule 133
14.2.4 Transport Incident 133
14.3 Requirements Handle Radiation Emergency Situations 134
14.4 Points to be Remembered 135

Chapter-15 REGULATORY ASPECT OR RADIATION PROTECTION 136

15.1 General 136

15.2 Duties and responsibilities or certified radiographer 137

Chapter-16 RADIATION DETECTORS AND MONITORING 138

16.1 Introduction 138

16.2 Gas filled Detectors 138
16.3 Solid state detectors 139
16.4 Photographic Films 140
16.5 Meutron Detection 140
16.6 Personnel Monitoring 141
16.7 Area Monitoring 142
16.8 Radiation Survey Meter 143
16.9 Calibration and maintenance of Radiation Monitors the 144

152
 CHAPTER -1

DEFECTS & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.1 INTRODUCTION ON PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

Selection of a material for a given job depends upon its physical and mechanical
properties. Most structural materials are subjected to external forces, which generate
mechanical stresses. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its
continued functioning. Hence, it is important for the NDT personal to know the
normal material properties, as well as effect of discontinuity upon the material
serviceability.

1.2 TYPES OF PROPERTIES

The application for which a material is used, determines which property is most
important.

1.2.1 Chemical Properties

The chemical properties (reaction with other materials) are of interest, mainly
because of the need for resistance to corrosion.

1.2.2 Physical Properties

Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures eg.,
density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting point, etc.

1.2.3 Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties of materials like strength, hardness, are most important in

manufacturing processes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying
loads.

(A) Tensile Strength

A stress strain diagram is used to describe many of the mechanical properties

important in the strength of a material. It shows the stress-strain behavior of the
material under gradually applied and increasing tensile stress. It indicates three
regions :

a. Elastic Region at Low Stresses : indicates that the longitudinal strain

produced by stresses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress.

1
 b. Plastic Region at Low Stresses :indicates that at a certain stress level an
abrupt increase in strain occurs and the material is said to yield.

c. Necking Region at High Stress : wherein, when the ultimate strength is

reached, the material starts to neck not larger strains, until the material
ruptures and break into two parts.

Strains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are
called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic
strain to rupture are referred to as "ductile". Those which undergo little or no plastic
strain, prior to rapture, are referred to as "brittle".

(B) Toughness and Notch-Toughness

The toughness of a material is defined as the ability of an unmatched member (e.g.a.

smooth round for bar) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness of a
material, is defined as the ability of a material to a absorb energy in the presence of
a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact load.

(C) Creep

Creep is the flow of material over a period of time, when under a load too small to
produce any measurable plastic deformation at the time of application. The simplest
type of creep test is made by just hanging a weight on the test specimen and
observing its elongation, as a function of time by using a microscope of other
sensitive detector of strain.

(D) Fatigue

Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material to withstand repeated applications

of stress which in itself is too small to produce appreciable plastic deformation.
Fatigue, usually is a more critical design criterion than any other, for the structural
safety of machinery of structural components.

(E) Hardness

The Hardness of the material is measured by hardness tester. Three types of hardness
tests are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are
extremely useful as a quick and rough indication of the mechanical properties of a
metal.

1.3 INTRODUCTION ON DEFECTS IN MATERIAL

A discontinuity can occur any time in the history of a piece of metal. If it is

introduced during the initial production from the molten state, it is termed as

2
 inherent discontinuity. If caused during further processing, fabrication or finishing, it
is called processing discontinuity. Finally, if it arises during the use of the end
product either due to environment, load or both, it is called service discontinuity.

1.3.1 CASTING DEFECTS

Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a
useful shape.

The discontinuity that can occur during casting process are given below ;

a. Non-metallic inclusions : Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal,

are caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-
metallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are
trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could
reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape.

b. Porosity : It is spherical or nearly spherical shaped and is caused by the

entrapped gas in the molten material.

c. Pipe : The molten material, after pouring into the mold, starts to cool and it
solidifies. The solidification process starts from the surface and travels
towards the centre of the ingot. On solidification, the molten metal contracts.
Since the centre of the ingot is the last to cool and solidify, most of the
shrinkage is observed in the centre. This results in a cavity called "PIPE". It
may extend from the top towards the interior of the ingot along the axis.

d. Cold-shut : Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified
metal. When the metal is poured, it hits the mold too hard and spatters
small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on mold, they
stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal reaches and covers the
solidified drops of metal and a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts
can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surface of
molten material of different temperatures.

e. Hot tear (Shrink crack) : Hot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light
and heavy sections of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having light
and heavy sections, the light sections, being smaller, solidify faster ; they
shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as they are hotter and
do not shrink as fast.

f. Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten

metal to fill the space created by shrinkage of the solidifying metal, just as a
"PIPE" is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in the cast product,

3
 unlike the "pipe" in the ingot, which always occurs only at the top portion of
the ingot.

g. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also occur in the casting at the mold gate,
i.e., at the entrance to the mold through which the molten metal is poured.
Shrinkage occurs, if metal at the gate solidifier or is blocked off while some
of the metal beneath is still molten. Shrinkage which occurs at the gate
appear as a number of small holes called "micro shrinkage". Micro shrinkage
can also occur deeper within the metal, if the mold is improperly designed.

h. Blow holes : Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and
are caused by external gas emanating from the mold itself.

1.3.2 FORGING DEFECTS

Forging is the process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or

pressing. Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be
cold forged. The defects that can occur during forging are given below :

a. Forging lap : A forging lap is discontinuity caused by folding of metal into a

thin plate on the surface of the forged material. It is due to the mismatching
of the mating surfaces of the two forging dies in "closed-die forging" or
abrupt changes in grain direction. It is always open to the surface.

b. Forging bursts or cracks : It is a rupture caused by forging at improper

temperatures. Forging metal at too low a temperature can cause this defect.
They may be internal or may occur at the surface.

1.3.3 WELDING DEFECTS

Welding is the process of joining metals. Two basic types of welding are used,
fusion welding and pressure welding.

A Fusion welding : It is essentially a casting process, in which a metal is

melted and cast in the joint and is made to fuse with the parts to be joined.
The metal is supplied by filler rods, which are generally of a composition
similar to the metal being welded.

B Pressure welding : In this process, pressure and heat are applied to the
pieces to be welded. The pressure produces plastic deformations, the heat
then produces re-crystallization across the boundary, resulting in the
formation of new crystals which are an integral part of both pieces and thus
the welding takes place.

4
All Critical welds require NDT for assurance of quality or as a means to enable
repairs to be made.

The possible defects (Fig. 1.1) that can occur in fusion weldments are listed below :

a. Overlaps : A fin of surplus metal on the end of a billet may be caught and
folded into the surface during subsequent rolling. The bent-over metal, while
forced tightly against the main stock, will not bond to it. The resulting lap is
a possible initiation point for a fatigue crack.

b. Crater cracks : Crater cracks are caused in the weld bead by improper use
of heat source, either when a weld is started or stopped. A crater crack can
also occur at the temporary stop of the weld. Crater cracks are primarily of
three types-transverse, longitudinal and multiple star-shaped.

c. Stress cracks : The cracking of weld metal and base metal in or near the
weld zone and it is usually caused by high stresses set up by localised
dimensional changes. Stress cracks are most likely to occur when weldments
are of heavy sections. These cracks usually occur transverse to the weld in a
single pass weld and longitudinal in a multiple pass weld.

d. Porosity : Porosity is the term for the pockets or voids free of any solid
material that are frequently found in weld metals. Porosity can come from
gases released by the cooling weld metal from gases formed by chemical
reaction in the weld metal. Porosity may be scattered uniformly throughout
entire weld, isolated in small areas or concentrated at the root. Gas pores are
usually spherical in shape, although they may also occur as non-spherical
pockets along grain boundaries. Most welds contain some amount of porosity
which may be micro of macro in size.

e. Slag inclusions : This term is used to describe the oxides and other non-
metallic solid materials that are entrapped in the weld metal of between weld
metal and base metal. Slag inclusions may be caused by contamination of the
weld metal by the atmosphere, but in most cases, they are generally derived
from electrode covering materials or fluxes, employed in arc welding
operations. In multi layered welding operations, failure to remove the slag
between passes will result in slag inclusions in these zones. Slag inclusions,
are generally linear and may occur either as short particles or long bands.

f. Tungsten inclusions : In the gas tungsten arc-welding process, the

occasional touching of the electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal,
particles of the tungsten into the weld metal. These are 'tungsten inclusions'.

5
 g. Lack of fusion : Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion, as it is frequently
termed, describes the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or
interweld passes to fuse together completely. This failure to obtain fusion
may occur at side wall or in the interpass region. Lack of fusion is usually
elongated in the directions of welding and may have either rounded or sharp
edges depending on how it is formed.

h. Lack of penetration : Lack of penetration is lack of fusion between both

base metals due to failure of weld metal to extend into the root of the joint
which must originally fuse together completely. The most frequent cause for
this type of defect is the unsuitable groove design for the selected welding
process.

i. Undercut : During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper
edges of the weld preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited
metal in the weld groove. Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal
is deposited to fill the resultant, at the edge of the weld bead. The result is a
groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead.
Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc
length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation, etc.

Fig. 1.1 Typical Weld Defects

1.4.1 CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE IN SERVICE :

The response of metals to various stages of manufacture, construction or service life

can vary wide depending upon chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical
working, surface conditions, presence of discontinuity and other material
characteristics.

Products and structures may be subjected to a number of service conditions, as

mentioned below, which may result in discontinuity.

a. Stationary load,

6
 b. Dynamic load, unidirectional or multidirectional, multi-directional being more
serious,
c. High temperature,
d. Pressure creating stress above a material's elastic limit
e. Corrosive environment,
f. Vibrations,
g. Excess loading,
h. Improper maintenance and
i. Ageing.

1.4.2 TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE

There are two generally accepted types of material failure in service : one is the
easily recognized 'FEATURE' or separation into two or more parts ; the second is
the less easily recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION" or change of
shape and/or position.

1.4.3 SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES

a) Corrosion

Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of surrounding or

contact medium which may be liquid, gas or some combination of the two. This
deterioration can be either or localized. To some degree, corrosion influence all
metals, but the effect varies widely depending upon the combination of the metal
and the corrosive agent.

b) Fatigue

Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called "FATIGUE

FAILURES. Most service failures occur as a result of tensile stress.

c) Wear

Wear is probably the most important factor in the deterioration of machinery with
moving components, after limiting both the life and performance of such equipment.
Wear is the loss of material from the surface. Wear is affected by a variety of
conditions, such as the type lubrication, loading, Speed, temperature, materials,
surface finish and hardness

d) Overstress

It may happen when a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater
than its design load. When this happens, the component may undergo plastic
deformation of fracture, to relieve the high stress within the part.

7
 CHAPTER - 2

RADIATION AND ITS EFFECT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

All materials in the universe are made of different elements. Hydrogen, oxygen, iron,
iridium, gold, lead are some of the elements we are familiar with.

Atom is the smallest part of an element. An atom has a positively charged central
portion called 'nucleus'. It also has negatively charged electrons going around the
nucleus, in different orbits. The nucleus has two types of particles - protons which
are positively charged and neutrons which do not carry any charge. An atom, is
electrically neutral as the number of protons in its nucleus is equal to the number of
electrons in the orbits. Structures of some atoms are shown in figure 2.1. The
number of protons in an atom is known as its atomic number (Z). Every atom of a
particular element has definite number of protons eg., aluminium has 13, cobalt has
27, iridium has 77 protons.

Fig. 2.1 Atoms of Some Elements.

The mass of an atom is almost completely concentrated in the nucleus, as electrons

have negligible mass. A proton or a neutron is about 1800 times heavier than an
electron. Mass number (A) of an atom is the number protons (Z) plus of neutrons
(N) in its nucleus, ie. A = N + Z. Atom of any element X is represented as

A A - Mass number

Z Z- Atomic number

The chemical behaviour of an element is dependent purely on the atomic number.

Any atom or nuclide having same number or protons (Z), but having different
number of neutrons (N) is called isotope of the element. Isotopes of hydrogen are
shown in figure 2.2.

8
 Fig. 2.2 Isotopes of Hydrogen.

77
Ir 191 77
Ir 192 77
Ir 193 are isotopes of iridium. Similarly,

27
Co58 27
Co59 27
Co60 are isotopes of cobalt.

Some isotopes are stable, some other are unstable. The stability of an isotope,
depends upon the relative number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus. An
unstable nucleus becomes stable by emitting radiations such as alpha particle, beta
particle. This process is known as radioactivity. Therefore unstable isotopes are
known as radioactive isotopes (or radioisotopes). In the above examples,

77
Ir 192 27
Co58 27
Co60 are radioisotopes.

Radioactivity is a spontaneous process. It is not affected by external influences like

temperature, pressure, dilution, etc. On emission of alpha of beta particle, the
element gets converted into a new element. Thus, a radioisotope is said to
disintegrate (or decay) into a new element along with the emission of one or two
types of particular radiations emission of different types of radiation are shown in
figure 2.3. All radioisotopes mentioned above, except 1H3, emit gamma radiation.

9
Radioactivity exist in nature generally, among heavier elements. They are called
naturally occurring radioisotopes. Potassium-40, Carbon-14, Uranium-238 are some
of the naturally occurring radioisotopes. Many other elements can be made
radioactive by bombarding them with charged particles and neutrons. These are
called artificially made radiosotopes. Cobalt-60 Irridium-192, Cesium-137 are some
of the artificially made radioisotopes.

Fig. 2.3 Emission of different types of radiation.

Rate of disintegration (disintegration/second) gives the amount of radioactivity or

strength of the source. This is expressed in units of Becquerel (Bq) or Curie (Ci).

A source of activity 1 becquerel will Please see

undergo 1 disintegration/second. Chapter

A source of activity 1 Curie will undergo Radiation Quantities

3.7 x 1010 disintegration/sec. and Units.

As the time elapses, a given radioisotope continues to disintegrate and hence, its
activity reduces.

The 'half-life' of a radioisotope is the duration in which its activity reduces to one
half of its initial value. It the original activity is A Ci, then the activity after one half
life will be A/2Ci. Thus, if T is the half life, after a time.

10
 1 A
T, activity = A × = ;
2 2

1 1 A A
2T, activity = A × × = = ; and
2 2 22 4

1 1 1 1 1 A A
5T, activity = A × × × × × = =
2 2 2 2 2 25 32

The reduction in activity of radioisotope with time are shown in figure 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Reduction in Radioactivity with Time.

11
2.2 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA AND
GAMMA RAYS

Alpha particle consists of 2 protons and neutrons. It is positively charged. Alpha

particles do not penetrate much in any material and they can be stopped by a sheet
of paper or a thin foil of aluminum (1/20mm). As the nucleus which gives out alpha
particle loses two neutrons and two protons, the mass number decreases by four and
the atomic number decreases by two. As an example,

226 222

Ra Rn

88 66

Beta radiations from a radioisotope have different energies from zero upto a
maximum value. The beta radiations are more penetrating than alpha radiations, but
beta radiations could be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum.

If after the emission of a alpha or beta radiation, the nucleus has some extra energy
(excited state), gamma radiation is emitted. Gamma radiation is highly penetrating
and is similar to X-ray in its properties. Hence, gamma radiations are generally used
for industrial radiography. In some special circumstances, neutrons are also used.
Some properties of X and gamma rays are given below.

1. They are electromagnetic radiations like visible light.

2. They travel at the speed 300,000 km per second.

3. They affect photographic films.

4. X-rays have continuous energies, whereas, gamma rays have discrete

energies.

5. They can be scattered and reflected.

6. They can penetrate matter, penetration is less, if a) the absorber thickness is

more, b) absorber atomic number is higher and c) absorber density is higher.

7. They can damage living tissues.

8. They can also cause ionization and excitation in the medium through which
they travel.

Relative absorption of alpha, beta and gamma radiations are shown in figure 2.5.

12
 Fig. 2.5 Relative Absorption of different Types of Radiation

Visible light, X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations. They are
similar in nature. They travel at the same speed (300,000 km/sec.) in air. They differ
in energy and origin of production. They are all called photons.

Table 2.1
RADIOISOTOPES COMMONLY USED IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

Radioisotope Half life Main Gamma Energy

(MeV)
Cobalt-60 5.3 years 1.17 & 1.33
Iridium-192 74.5 days 0.24 - 0.67
(0.4 Mev Average
C3 137 30 year 0.664 Mev
Light - 2.5 ev

ENERGY OF RADIATIONS

All radiations have energy. Energies of various radiations ( αβγ ) are usually
specified in electron volts.
One electron volt is the energy given to a single electron as it moves across a
potential difference of one volt.
1eV = 1 electron volt = 1.6 x 10-12 erg

13
 1 keV = 1 kilo electron volt = 1.6 x 10-9 erg
1 MeV= 1 million electron volt = 1.6 x 10-6 erg
Data regarding the most commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography is
given in the Table 2.1

2.3 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

X-rays and gamma radiations are similar in nature, biological effects and action on
photographic film. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus of radioisotope, whereas,
X-rays are produced outside the nucleus when high energy electrons interact with
atoms (target). When these electrons interact with the field near the nucleus, they are
stopped or deflected with lesser energy. The difference in energy between the
incident electron and the deflected electron is given out in the form X-rays. The
energy of X-rays depends upon the closeness of the electron path to the target
nucleus. Hence, X-rays are produced with continuous energy, with a maximum equal
to the energy of the incident electrons. X-rays production increases with increase in
atomic number of the target atom. It also increases with increase in the incident
electron energy.

In an X-ray machine, the electrons, emitted by the heated filament, are made to
strike a tungsten target placed, at higher voltage, with respect to the filament. As a
result of interaction between the electrons and target atoms X-rays are produced.

14
Summary

1. Atom is the smallest part of any element.

2. Atom consists of NUCLEUS at the centre and electrons, revolving around the centre.

3. The nucleus consists of PROTON and NEUTRONS.

4. Any atom of an element has a definite number of protons in its nucleus.

5. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its ATOMIC NUMBER
(Z).

6. The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom called
it MASS NUMBER (A).

7. If the atomic number is constant and the mass number differs, then such atoms are
called ISOTOPES.

8. Alpha or beta radiations are emitted when an atom is UNSTABLE.

9. The isotope which emit radiation re called RADIOISOTOPES.

10. A different element is formed after the emission of radiation.

11. Some isotopes emit gamma radiations, after the emission of alpha of beta radiations.

12. All radiations have energy.

13. ALPHA RADIATION consists of two protons and two neutrons. It is positively
charged. It is least penetrating.

14. BETA RADIATION is an electron. It is negatively charged. It is more penetrating

than alpha radiations.

15. GAMMA RADIATION does not carry any charge. It does not have any mass.
Hence, it is highly penetrating

16. HALF LIFE of radiations source is the period in which its activity reduces of half of
its initial activity.

15
2.4 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

When X, B, ... radiations fall on a material, interaction take place between these
radiations and the electrons in the material. This leads to absorption and scattering
(moving in a different direction of radiation. A part of the incident radiation may
also get transmitted (Pass through).

The amount of radiation transmitted through the material depends upon

a. Type of radiation (X, B, gamma rays)

b. Energy of radiation (eV, keV, MeV)
c. Type of material and its thickness (air, iron, lead)

Beta radiations can be completely absorbed in any medium. For example, beta
radiations with Emax (maximum energy) 1.7 MeV can be absorbed completely in 3
millimeters of aluminum. But in the case of X and gamma radiations complete
absorption is not possible. For example, one percent of cobalt-60 gamma radiations
still get transmitted through 8 centimetres of lead.

There are three main types of interaction for X and gamma radiations in any medium.
These are

a. Photoelectric effect
b. Compton effect
c. Pair production

But, for energies we normally come across in industrial radiography, only the first
two interactions are important.

The photoelectric effect is an interaction between a gamma ray (photon) and an

orbital electron. The gamma radiation losses its complete energy to the electron and
the electron is removed from its orbit. This electron is called photoelectron. This
electron being a charged particle easily gets absorbed in the medium. This interaction
is predominant at lower energies and it decreases with increases in energy. It
increases with increase in atomic number of the object. Hence, higher atomic number
materials, like lead, uranium, tungsten, etc. absorb gamma radiations better than
lower atomic number materials, like plastic aluminum, iron, etc.

In Compton effect, gamma radiation interacts with a free electron. The gamma
radiation gives a part of its energy to the electron and travels in different direction
(get scattered) with decreased energy. The electron moves in another direction. This
effect is predominant at medium energies and it is not dependent on the atomic
number of the material.

16
These two interactions are shown in figure 3.1

Figure - 2.6 : Photoelectric and Compton Interaction.

When and electron is removed from its orbit, the atom looses one negative charge.
In other words, the atom gets positively charged or ionized. Hence, this process
known as ionization.

When an electron is raised from an inner orbit to an outer orbit, the electron gets
extra energy. In other words, the atom gets excited. Hence, this process is called
excitation. Alpha, beta and gamma radiations can directly or indirectly cause
ionization and excitation in material with which they interact. Hence, these radiations
are ionizing radiations.

The intensity of radiation reduces while passing through any material. In case of X
and gamma radiations, the attenuation follows and exponential law :

I = I0e-µx

Where Io is the intensity of the incident radiation beam Io is the intensity of the
beam emerging after traversing a thickness x of the material and µ is known as
linear attenuation coefficient. It is defined as the fractional decrease in intensity per
unit thickness of the material. If the energy region of 100keV to 1.5 MeV is
considered, the attenuation of efficient decreases with increase in energy and it
increases with increase in atomic number of the absorber material. Hence, lower
energy radiations are better absorbed and higher atomic number material are go
absorbers.

17
Fig. 2.7 Reduction in Radiation Intensity with Thickness.

18
 TABLE 2.2
HVT AND TVT VALUES FOR X AND GAMMA RADIATIONS

Material
Concrete Steel Lead Uranium
HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

Radioisotope cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

Iridium-192 4.6 14 12.25 4.0 0.48 1.6 0.31 1.0

Cobalt-60 6.6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0 0.7 2.2

X-rays HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

mm mm mm mm mm mm

100 kV 16 55 1.2 3.8 0.25 0.84

150 kV 22 70 2.3 7.6 0.29 0.96

200 kV 26 86 3.8 12.7 0.42 1.4

250 kV 28 90 5.4 17.7 0.86 2.9

300 kV 30 100 6.5 21.5 1.7 5.7

Half value Thickness (HVT)

The thickness of the material, usually called absorber, (eg., steel, lead, depleted
uranium, etc.) needed to reduce the intensity of radiation to half its initial value is
known as the half value thickness (HVT)

The HVT depends on the energy of radiation and the nature of the absorber.

In the case of X-ray, the HVT value for any kV depends to some extent on the
amount of inherent filtration of the X-ray tube. However, the value of HVT for a
given material can be taken as constant for heavily filtered beam.

As higher atomic number materials reduces the intensity to half of the original
intensity. Two HVT reduces the intensity to 1/2x1/2 = (1/2)2, ie., 1/4 of the original
intensity. In general, 'n' HVT reduces the intensity to (1/2)n (Recall the decrease of
radioactivity with time).

The reduction in radiation intensity with absorbers of different half value thickness is
shown in figure 2.7

19
Tenth Value Thickness (TVT)

Tenth value thickness is the thickness of any material needed to reduce the radiation
intensity to one tenth of its initial value. Similarly, Two TVT reduces the intensity to
1/10 x 1/10 = (1/10)ie., 1/100 of the original intensity. Generally 3.3 HVT reduces
the intensity by a factor of 10, hence.

1TVT = 3.3 HVT

HVT and TVT values in different materials, for X and gamma radiation, are given in
Table 2.2

Example 2.1

The radiation level at a place, due to an iridium-192 source is 10 mR/h. What is the
thickness of steel required to reduce the level to 2.5 m/Rh?

Radiation level at the place = 10 mR/h.

One HVT reduces the level to 10 : 2 = 5 mR/h.
One more HVT reduces the level 5 : 2 = 2.5 mR/h.
Two HVT of Steel for iridium-192 2 x 1.25 cm = 2.5 cm.

Example 2.2

What is the thickness of lead required to reduce the radiation intensity at a place,
due to cobalt-60 source from 1000 mR/h. to 5 mR/h ?

Radiation level at the place = 1000 mR/h.

One HVT reduces the level to 1000 : 10 = 100 mR/h.
One more TVT reduces the level 100 : 10 = 10 mR/h.
One HVT added to this reduces the
level to 10 : 2 = 5 mR/h.
Two TVT and one HVT of lead for coablt-60 radiation
= 2 x 4 + 1 x 1.2 cm = 9.2 cm.

Example 3.3

The radiation intensity at a place from a 200 kV X-ray beam is 5000 mR/h. This
has to be reduced to 2.5 mR/h. What is the thickness of concrete required to achieve
this ?

Radiation level at the place = 5000 mR/h.

3 TVT reduces the level to 5000 : (10 x 10 x 10) = 5 mR/h.

One more HVT added to this reduces the level to 5 : 2 = 2 mR/h.

3 TVT and one HVT of concrete for 200 kV X-ray beam

= 3 x 86 + 1 x 26 = 284 mm = 28.4 cm.

20
Summary

1. Beta radiations can be absorbed completely. But X and gamma radiations cannot be
absorbed completely.

2. Interactions of X and gamma radiations, in any material, are similar.

3. X and gamma radiations undergo three types of interactions in any materials :

Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and Pair production.

4. For energies of interest in industrial radiography, only photoelectric effect and

Compton interactions are important.

5. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is important at low energies. It decreases as energy of

radiation increases. It increases as atomic number of the absorbing material increases.

6. COMPTON EFFECT is important at low energies. It decreases with energy. It does

not very with the atomic number of the absorbing material.

7. IONIZATION is a process, in which electrons are knocked off (removed) from an

atom.

8. EXCITATION is a process, in which electrons are raised from an inner orbit to an

outer orbit.

9. Alpha, beta and gamma radiations can cause ionization or excitation. Hence, these
radiations are called IONIZING RADIATIONS.

10. Higher atomic number material, like lead, uranium, absorb X and gamma radiations
better than lower atomic number material, like plastic, aluminum

11. HALF VALUE THICKNESS (HVT) of any material reduces the radiation intensity
at a place of half of the original intensity.

12. TENTH VALUE THICKNESS (TVT) of any material reduces the radiation intensity
at a place to one tenth of the original intensity.

21
2.5 RADIATION QUANTITIES & UNITS

Units are necessary for quantitative description of any physical process or

phenomena. In radiological physics, units are required to measure

a. Radioactivity

b. Exposure

c. Dose

d. Equivalent Dose.

Radioactivity of a source is measured in terms of the number of disintegrations it

undergoes in one second.

The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)

One becquerel corresponds to one disintegration per second. Formerly, the unit of
activity was Curie (Ci) corresponding to 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second.

1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/sec

= 3.7 x 1010 Bq

= 37 GBq = 37 x 109 Bq

Submultiples of Curie viz., 1 mCi (1/1000Ci) and 1 U Ci (1/106 Ci) are occasionally
used.

EXPOSURE

In order to obtain information about quantity of X or gamma radiation present at a

point of interest, the concept exposure is used, which is based on the ability of
radiation to produce ionization in air,

The unit of exposure is coulomb per kg (C/kg), which is defined as the quantity of
charge produced by ionizing radiation in 1 kg or air.

The earlier unit of exposure was Roentgen (R) which was used for X or gamma rays
upto MeV. This was defined the amount of exposure due to X or gamma radiation
of energy upto 3 MeV which would cause ionization resulting 1 electrostatic unit of
charge of either sign in 1 cc of air at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).

1R = 2.58 x 10-4 Coulomb/kg (C/kg.)

22
DOSE

The dose from ionizing radiation is the energy imparted, to matter by the ionizing by
the ionizing radiation, per units mass of the irradiated material at the place of
interest.

The unit of dose is Joules per kilogram (J/kg)

The special name for the unit of dose is Gray (Gy)

If one joule of energy is imparted by any radiation in one kilogram of any material,
the dose is 1 gray.

The concept of dose applies to any medium, all types of radiations and all types of
radiations and all energies. The dose is a measure. If energy deposited by radiation
in the irradiated material. All effects of radiation - physical, chemical and biological
depend upon the dose.

Normally, the unit of dose was rad. One rad corresponds to 100 ergs/g of irradiated
material

1 Joule = 107 erg

Therefore,

1 Gray = 1 Joule/kg = 107 erg/kg.

= 104 erg/g = 102 rad

Hence,

1 Gy = 100 rad or 1 rad = 0.01 Gy.

Dose rate interns of Gy/h, Gy/year, rad/year, etc. are also occasionally used.

In the case of exposure, for practical convenience, the concept of air kerma is used
to specify the radiation quality instead of exposure.

Kerma is the total kinetic energy of all the charged particles released in 1 kg of the
medium by the ionizing radiation.

Air kerma gives an idea about the energy transferred to air. The unit of air kerma is
Joules per kilogram (Gy)

1 air kerma Gy = 114 R.

The usefulness of air kerma can be extended to the determination of the radiation
output at a specified distance from a radiation source in terms of mGy per hour.

23
EQUIVALENT DOSE

The biological damage suffered by the tissue exposed to different radiations may be
different. That is, The biological damage due to 1 Gy of alpha dose would be
different from the damage due to 1 Gy of gamma dose. This is because the energy
loss per unit path length for different types of radiation is different. Alpha particles
because of their larger charge and mass, cause greater ionization per unit path length
than gamma radiations which mediate through singly charged electrons, Hence, One
Gy of alpha dose is approximately 20 time more effective in causing biological
damage, compared to one Gy of gamma of X-ray dose. To account for this variation
among different types of radiations, a terms known as the Radiation weighting
Factor (WR) is used to modify the doses due to each type of radiation. Thus,
Equivalent Dose is obtained by multiplying 'dose' by the radiation weighting factor
corresponding to the radiation of interest.

The unit of equivalent dose is also Joules Per kilogram. The special name for the
unit of equivalent dos is Sievert (Sv) Equivalent Dose in Sv = Dose in Gy X WR.

Formerly, the equivalent dose was called Dose Equivalent and its unit of was rem
and WR was called Quality Factor (QF)

1 Sv = 100 rem or
1 rem = 0.01 Sv.

Equivalent Dose is a measure of biological damage caused by radiation.

Radiation weighting factor for X-rays being one, equivalent dose in Sv can be
considered as equivalent to dose in Gy. Therefore, for X and gamma rays,

1 Sv = 1 Gy
1 rem = 1 rad

KILOVOLTAGE (kV)

The potential difference applied between the cathode and the anode of an X-ray
machine is expressed in terms of kilovoltage (kV.) It determines the maximum
energy of X-rays produced by the equipment. For example, when the potential
difference applied is 300 kV, energy of X-rays produced varies from 0 to 300 keV.
Higher the applied potential difference, higher is the energy of the x-rays emitted
and higher is the penetration. In an X-rays equipment, the energy of X-rays can be
varied, depending upon the thickness of the object to be radiographed, by altering
the applied potential difference.

24
 MILLIAMPERE (mA)

Milliampere (mA) of an X-ray unit indicates the current flowing through the filament
circuit. The intensity of X-rays at a given applied voltage is proportional to the
current flowing through the filament. The intensity of X-rays at 10 mA is twice the
intensity at 5 mA. The exposure to be given for a radiograph, at a given potential is
indicated in terms of mAs, ie., the product of filament current and duration of
exposure (sec). The exposure due to 10 mA current for 2 minutes is equal to that
due to 5 mA current for 4 minutes (1200 mAs.) machine.

2.6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

CELL

Cells are the units of living organisms. All tissues are made of cells. Adult human
body consists of about 1014 cells. Cells of different organs carry out the functions
specific for those organs. For example, nerve cells are responsible for transmitting
electrical impulses from one part of the body to the other; liver cells are responsible
for metabolising the food we take and preparing nutrition for all other tissues in the
body; red blood cells carry oxygen and nutrition to all tissues.

Cells of different tissues have different sizes and shapes. However, in general, they
all contain a central nucleus (with the exception of red blood cell), surrounded by a
viscous fluid called cytoplasm. The nucleus contains chromosomes which constitute
an array of several million genes. The chromosomes control all the functions of the
cell and hence, of the tissue. The cytoplasm, contains various membrane systems and
other components that are necessary for the function of the cell.

Cell Division

Cells originate of multiply from preexisting cells by the process of cell division. For
example, a human being, like any other animal, develops from a single cell, which
is formed by the fusion of two germ cells, one from the father and the other from
the mother. During the nine-month period of pregnancy, this cell undergoes a
number off cell divisions. The new cell in turn specializes deform various organs of
the fetus (unborn baby). After birth, cell division continues until the organs attain
adult proportions. Cells in many tissues of the body have life span shorter than that
of the body, as a whole. For example, blood cells, skin cells, intestinal cells etc.,
have life span ranging from a few weeks to a few days. They wear out and die.
They are continuously replaced for the proper function of this tissue. Hence, even in
an adult, cell division continues in some tissues. Tissues undergoing cell division are
more sensitive to radiation than others.

25
From the point of view of radiation hazard, cells can be classified into two groups :
a) Somatic Cells, b) Germ Cells. Germ cells are the ones involved in reproductive
process. They are sperms in the male and eggs in the female. All other cells in the
body are somatic cells.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

When radiation passes through body, it transfers some of its energy to the cells in the
form of ionizations and excitations, which in turn lead to a number of chemical changes.
Generally, these chemical changes are harmful to the cells. Depending upon the
seriousness of the harm, a cell either dies or gets modified. All the biological effects
of radiation arise from these two effects on cell - cells Death or Cell modification.

Radiation can cause breaks in chromosomes. Majority of these breaks get repaired,
but certain breaks may lead to loss or rearragement of genetic material which can be
seen under a microscope. Such events are called chromosome aberrations.

Biological effects of radiation be classified into two groups, depending upon the type
of cells damaged. They are somatic effects and hereditary effects. As the name itself
suggests, somatic effects arise from damage to somatic cells and they occur in the
tissues of the exposed person (eg., effects on skin, blood, lung bone, thyroid, etc.)
Hereditary effects arise from damage caused to the germ cells and occur in the
progeny of the irradiated person.

Somatic effects can be further divided into early and late effects.

Early somatic Effects

Whenever the body is exposes to radiation, some cells are killed and some are
modified. At low doses, since only a few cells are killed, the body can cope up with
the loss and hence no immediate effects are seen. However, as dose increases, more
and more cells get killed and this results in radiation sickness, nausea (feeling like
vomiting), vomiting, fatigue, etc., within a few hours or irradiation. However, these
effects are transient and disappear after a few hours. As dose increase further, the
effects appear quicker, are more server and last longer. At sufficiently high doses,
the damage caused to important organs such as blood forming organs intenstine, etc.,
is so severe, the patient will not be able to recover. Anemia, infection and high fever
would occur, leading to death. Fifty percent of the persons exposed to a dose in
range of 3-5 Gy, die within a period of 60 days. This is known as LD50/60.At still
higher doses, death occurs earlier.

Instead of the whole body, if only a part of the body exposed the, damage the confined
to the exposed part. Depending upon the part of the body exposed, different local effects
at different doses are produced Skin is the most frequently exposed organ. Doses less

26
than 5 Gy can cause only a transient (temporary) erythema which lasts for 1-2 days.
Higher doses of the order of 10 Gy can cause depilation, fixed crythema and very high
doses cause dry or wet desquamation depending upon the severity of loss of epidermal
basal cells, within 3-6 weeks (10-25 Gy.) Doses higher than 25 Gy leads to leads to late
phase of erythema during 8-16 weeks, finally leading to necrosis. When large areas of
the skin are exposed as in the case of beta radiation burns, death can occur in a manner
similar to that by thermal burns. For example, if skin is exposed as in the case of beta
radiation burns, death 6 Gy of Z or gamma radiation, reddening of the skin takes place
within a few days. This is known as skin in addition to erythema, hair falls off, leading
to epilation. Another sensitive organ is the reproductive organs-testes in male and ovaries
in female. Due to death of the germ cells sterilization results. This may be temporary or
permanent depending upon the dose. When eyes are exposed, the cells in the lens are
killed leading to the opacity of the lens, which is called cataract. Unlike the other effects
which appear within a few days of weeks after exposure, cataract formation takes a
mean latent period of 2 to 3 years.

In brief, radiation exposure may lead to various types of early somatic effects
depending upon whole or only part of the body is exposed. The characteristic of the
early somatic effects are :

a. they do not occur below a certain dose (threshold dose),

b. severity of the effect increases with dose and

c. they appear within a short time after exposure (except cotaract).

Table 5.1 shows some of the early somatic effects and their threshold doses. It is
generally assumed that the exposure takes place within a short time - minutes to
hours (acute exposure). If the doses are protracter (chronic exposure), then the
threshold doses will be much higher the effectiveness of radiation decrease due to
the recovery process.

The threshold doses for early effects are generally, much higher than doses received
by persons during normal working conditions. Hence, when proper working
conditions are practiced these early effects of radiation do not occur. However,
accidents such as holding sources by bare hands, hiding stolen sources in pockets,
etc. leading to serve skin burn and tissue damage have been reported.

Late somatic effects

The most important late somatic effect is cancer. When the irradiated cell is modified
rather than killed it may develop into cancer, after a prolonged delay. The delay may
very from 5 years (blood cancer) to 30 years or more (lung cancer). Unlike the case of
early effects, the probability of cancer resulting from radiation increases with every
increment of dose, probably without any threshold. Radiation is not the only agent which

27
 induces cancer. A number of chemical agents (such as tobacco and its fumes, as in beedi
and cigarette smoke and biological processes can also induce cancer. Compared to these,
radiation is a week carcinogen. However cancers induced by radiation are
indistinguishable from those induced by other agents.

HEREDITY EFFECTS

Hereditary effects may result when the irradiated germ cell is modified rather than killed
and if it also participates in the reproductive process. under such circumstances, the
damage caused to the genetic material in the modified germ cell will be transmitted to
the subsequent generations. As in the case of cancer, there is probably no threshold
dose for hereditary effects. Even though radiation is found to induce hereditary effects
in experimental animals, there is no conclusive evidence of the same in man.
Furthermore, nature incidence of hereditary defects in man is quite high. Mulations in
germ cells could lead to a variety of skeletal abnormalities leading to malformations,
neonatal cataract and a variety of genetic diseases associated with mental retardation
(eg., Downs Syndrome). Fetus and children are generally known to be more sensitive
than adults to all effects of radiation In normal radiation work, it is necessary to ensure
that the risk of radiation induced cancer and hereditary defects are kept at acceptable
limits.

2.7 OPERATIONAL LIMITS

Every profession has its own risks and benefits. While radiation can be applied to a
number of beneficial purpose, it can produce early and late harmful effects in the
exposed persons. Hence, it is necessary to set up safety standards in the use of
radiation. The international Commission Radiological Protection (ICRP) sets
guidelines in this respects in the form of annual dose limits of individuals. Since the
early effects have dose thresholds, they can be easily prevented by setting the dose
limits below the threshold. On the other hand late effects such as cancer and
hereditary effects have no threshold, which means that there is no dose below which
they can be completely prevented. Hence, in setting up the dose limits, it should be
ensured the risk of cancer and hereditary defects do not exceed certain acceptable
limits.

28
 TABLE 2.3

DOSE LIMITS

Dose limit
Application Occupational Public

Effective Dose 20 mSv per year, averaged 1 mSv in a

over defined period of of year

5 years, with not more

100 mSv for five year

Accordingly, the ICRP has suggested the annual occupational dose limits to radiation
workers (including pregnant women workers), as shown in Table 2.3, for whole
body exposure, as well as for some specific organs. The average effective dose
(whole body) should not exceed 20 millisievert per year limited to 30 milliservert for
a particular year. Since, it is desirable to keep the risks well below the acceptable
limits, the ICRP recommends that the dose limits should be considered as the upper
limits and the actual doses received must be kept As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA). In addition to workers who handle the radiation sources,
member of the public may also get exposed to radiation. Hence, separate limits for
general public have also been suggested. These are also shown in Table 2.3. The
limits for general public as a group is lower than that for workers, since it a)
consists of more sensitive section of population (children), b) does not derive the
direct benefits from the use of radiation and c) no individual monitoring for
assessing exposure is done. The ALARA principle is also applicable in the
protection of public. The dose limits given in Table 2.3 do not include medical
exposure and natural background radiation.

PERSPECTIVES ON OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LEVELS

Radiation has always been a part of our daily life. We are constantly exposed to
cosmic radiation, the earth's minerals (uranium, radium) and even from those
radioisotopes within our own body (Potassium-40, Carbon-14). As a result, the food
we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink and the house we live in, contain
traces of radioactivity. These constitute Natural Background Radioactivity. The
average annual dose resulting from natural radioactivity is estimated to be about 2-
3mSv.

The dose limits for radiation workers is about 10 times higher than the dose due to
normal natural background radiation. But, the average occupational dose is of the
same order as the natural background. This corresponds to about 100 mSv over ones

29
lifetime. If 1000 persons receive 100 mSv over their lifetime, 4 persons may suffer
from cancer.

It should be noted that care, rather than fear, is needed while handling radiation
sources and the associated risk should be viewed in relation with other risks. The
procedures available to control exposures to ionizing radiations are sufficient, if sed
properly, to make sure that the risk due to radiation is small compared to many
other risks to which we are all exposed.

30
Summary
1. Any profession has some risk associated with it.

2. Certain amount of risk is tolerated, as we benefit by this profession.

3. In radiation work we are concerned with both acute exposures and chronic exposure and
the associate hazard.

4. No dose is safe dose.

5. We may be affected even by cosmic rays and background radiation.

6. While setting operational limits, the radiation worker and his future generation are all
considered.

7. There are separate operational limits for the whole body and the individual organs
(see Table 6.1).

8. These limits do not include medical exposure and exposures due to natural
background radiation.

9. Radiation exposures are cumulative (they add up) in their effect.

10. The annual operational limit for whole body is 20 mSv (2rem), for radiation workers
and 1 mSv (100 mrem) for non-radiation workers.

11. Unnecessary radiation exposure should not be given.

12. The radiation exposure should be kept minimum.

31
 CHAPTER - 3

X-RAY TECHNOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

X-rays were discovered by a German scientist, Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895.
Some of the properties of X-rays are given below.

1. They are electromagnetic radiations, similar to visible light, but they have higher
energy.

2. They can pass through matter and get absorbed/scattered in the process.

3. They can affect X-ray films.

4. They can excite and ionize atoms of the medium, through which they pass.

5. They can cause injuries to biological systems.

3.2 X AND GAMMA RAYS

X and gamma rays have similar properties. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus,
whereas X-rays are generated outside the nucleus when high speed electrons interact
with atoms. Gamma rays have definite, discrete energies, whereas, X-rays have
continuous energies. The maximum energy of X-rays depends on the incident
electron energy (Fig. 3.1)

2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of X-rays Equipment for Radiography

a. Advantages

1. X-rays machines have higher radiations output (about 45R/min. at 50cm

from a 200kV, 15mA X-ray unit, compared to 40R/h at 50 cm from a 20Ci
( iridium-192 source), enabling larger turnover of workload.

2. They have small focal spot size, which gave sharper images.

3. The use of X-rays results in better image contrast, due to its continuous
spectrum

4. X-ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when the unit is switched
"OFF".

32
b. Disadvantages

1. They are bulky, for use at intricate & inaccessible locations.

2. The require electric power operation

3. They require high capital investment.

= 200

( )

Fig. 3.1 Typical X-ray Spectra

3.3 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

X-rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any
material.

X-rays production increases with increase in atomic number of the target atom and
with increases the incident electron energy. In an X-ray machine, if the potential
difference between the filament and the target or the applied kilovolts is 200kV, then
the energy of the electrons hitting the target is 200 keV and the maximum energy of
the X-ray would be 200keV. A typical X-ray spectrum is shown in Fig 3.1. The
continuous X-rays spectrum will also contain one or more sharp peaks. These peaks
are of definite energies, dependent on the target element, .(hence are called
characteristic X-rays).

The quality of and X-ray beam can be described by its Half Value Thickness (HVT.)
The HVT is a function of the effective energy of the X-ray beam, which is
approximately 1/3rd of the applied kilovoltage. It also depends upon the nature of
the power supply and the added filtration.

33
The essential requirements for the production of X-rays are

a. a source of electrons (heated tungsten filament),

b. high voltage supply to accelerate the electrons,

c. a target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert them to X-rays.

Fig. 3.2 Hooded Anode X-ray Tube

The cross-section of a typical X-ray machine is shown in Fig. 3.2

The target is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm. When the electrons hit the
target, much of the energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly
removed. Copper, is used for the purpose of heat removal. Certain anodes are hollow
in construction, so that primary coolants can be circulated through the same to
remove the generated heat. Mineral oil is also sometimes used around the X-ray unit,
to remove heat and serve as electrical insulator.

The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage, whereas, the
intensity is decided by the current flowing through the filament (Millamperage).

Selection of the target material is based on the following properties :.

1. It should have a high melting point.

2. It should possess a high atomic number.

3. It should possess high thermal conductivity (to dissipate the heat quickly).

4. It should have low vapour pressure at high temperatures (to prevent

evaporation of the target material and its deposition on the walls of the X-
ray tube, as this would cause absorption of X-rays and disturbance in the
insulation properties of the tube).

Tungsten, having and atomic number 74, and melting point 3400oC is the most
preferred target material.

34
 X-rays tube is contained in a suitably shaped steel for ruggedness. The power
ratings, viz., kilovoltage (kVp), tube current (mA), besides the cooling pattern,
decides the structure of an X-ray unit.

3.4 REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBE

1. It must be capable of operating continuously for indefinite periods at

maximum loading.

2. It should be able to pass appreciable current over the lowest range of

operating voltages. This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, which
necessitate low voltage techniques, within reasonable exposure periods.

3. It should possess the smallest possible focal area. For maximum radiographic
definition, a point source of radiation is one of the requirements. Modern X-
ray tubes have exceptionally small focal areas.

4. The design safety should include sufficient shielding material (say lead or
equivalent steel) so that the leakage radiation level at every rating
combination (kV, mA) does not exceed 1 R/h at 1 meter from the target.

3.5 SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBES

Industrial radiography involves inspection of objects of various materials and in many

shapes and sizes. For objects containing organic compounds, eg., food stuffs, plastic
insulating materials, etc., the required voltage is in the rage of 50-100kV. The
examination of light metal and steel castings, welds in pipelines, pressure vessels, ships
and bridges and weapons of war, requires kilovoltage in the range between 150 kV
3(5 and 2 MV Most frequently used voltage is between 150 kVp and 400 kVp. Portable
X-ray units, in the voltage range 150 kVp to 250 kVp are in enclosed installations.

X-ray units can also be used as cabinet installations with incorporated lead shielding
and safety interlocks (eg., the unit becomes operable, by actuation of certain
microswitches, only when the object occupies a preset position in front of the beam
port).

3.5.1 Fluoroscopy

The fluoroscopy technique is used continuous production line scanning of die

castings, in food processing industry, etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray
source, fluorescent screen (zinc cadmium sulphide) and leaded glass barrier. The
equipment is normally supplied in shielded enclosures. The object to be examined is
placed in between x-ray beam and fluorescent screen. A shadow image is produced
on the screen and it is viewed through television system or by the use of image
intensifiers.

35
3.5.2 FINE FOCUS TUBE

The use of fluorescent screens, for examination of castings and assemblies at

considerable magnification, is made possible by using a tube with a very fine focus
of about 0.2 mm in diameter. The small size of the sport reduces geometric
unsharpness and also produces image magnification.

3.5.3 Rod Anode Tube

The examination of confined spaces, like the pipes of a steam boiler or the cylinder
heads of an internal combustion engine, has given rise to a tube with the target at
the end of a long tube. The target and therefore, the whole anode is earthed, so that
the source of radiation can be pushed into the cavities mentioned above. In X-ray
units used for circumferential radiography, the target is placed at right angle to the
tube axis and as a result, the radiation emerges all round in the form of a disc. For
unidirectional beam, the target is at 45o inclination (Fig. 3.3).

- -
Fig. 3.3 Rod Anode System

3.5.4 Crawler X-ray Units

These units are useful for cross-country pipe line inspection, with automatic
movement from joint to joint and are becoming increasingly popular. The power
input is obtained from diesel generators.

3.6 X-RAY GENERATOR CIRCUITS

The power supply required for the operation of an X-ray tube are

a. a low voltage, to heat the filament,

b. a high voltage, to accelerate the electrons.

The filament of an X-ray tube is normally operated at 6-12 voles with 5-6 amps of
current. This is derived from the mains line using a step down transformer. The high
voltage is usually obtained from a step-up transformer.

To maintain the target at positive potential with respect to the filament, different
types of rectification circuits are used, viz., half-wave rectification, full-wave
rectification and constant potential units. There are various advantages of using a
36
 constant potential X-ray unit. It yields better X-ray output than that produced by a
pulsating potential having the same peak kilovoltages. It gives a more penetrating
beam, as required in industrial radiography.

3.7 LINEAR ACCELERATOR

To obtain high energy X-rays in the MeV range, for inspection of very thick objects,
linear accelerators are used. In these, the X-ray output can be of the order of few
hundred R/minute.

37
 CHAPTER - 4

RADIATION SOURCES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Radioisotopes are broadly classified as a naturally occurring and b. artificially made.

Potassium-40, uranium-238 and its daughter products are some of the naturally
radium-226 (encapsulated) was used earlier in industrial radiography. Radioisotopes,
presently used in industrial radiography viz. Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, Thulium-170,
are artificially produced

4.2 PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES.

There are three methods of producing artificial radioisotopes, namely by.

a. activating elements with neutrons in a nuclear reactor,

b. processing the fission products from spent Uranium fuel rods from a nuclear
reactor,.

c. bombarding elements with charged particles from a cyclotron or similar

accelerators.

4.2.1 Production by activation process.

When a target element is bombarded with neutrons in a reactor, activation may occur
mainly by one of the following processes depending on the energy of the neutrons.

a. (n....) reaction eg 27
Co59 (n,c) 27
Co60

b. (n,p) reaction eg. 27

Co59 (n,p) 26
Fe59

c. (n,a) reaction 13
Al27 (n,a) 11
Na24

Iridium-192 is also obtained by a process similar to 'a', by bombardment of iridium-

191 with neutrons.

38
4.2.2 Production by nuclear fission

Cesium-137, used sometimes in industrial radiography is produced by nuclear fission.

In a nuclear reactor, uranium atom splits (undergoes fission) into two different
elements with the release of neutrons and enormous amount of energy. Cesium-137
and Strontium-90, two radioisotopes, commonly used both in industrial and medical
applications, are produced by this method, Cesium-137, because of its chemical
form, is now discouraged for use in industrial radiography.

4.2.3 Particle accelerators are also used for production of some radioisotopes.

4.3 SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have a. suitable

radiation energies, b. reasonably long half-life and c. possibility of economic
production at high specific activities. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are two commonly
used radioisotopes in industrial radiography.

4.3.1 Specific Activity

The Specific activity of a radioisotope is measured in giga bequerels per gram

(GBq/g) or curies per gram (Ci/g). A high specific activity indicates that a
radioisotope of given activity will be of smaller mass. In Industrial radiography, to
obtain a sharper image, the size of the source should also be small. This is achieved
by a source of higher physical density. Iridium-192, with a physical density 22.4g/cc
and half life 74.5 days, is a very source for industrial radiography.

4.4 FABRICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES

Fabrication of a sealed radioisotopes involves sealing of the active material in an

inactive capsule, resistant enough to withstand, under normal conditions of use, all
dispersion of active materials. Generally, stainless steel is used as the encapsulation
material.

Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (Brit), Bombay fabricates and supplies
cobalt 60 and iridium-192 radiography sources for use in a variety of equipment and
in a range of activity values. Although there are differences in shapes and sizes of
source assemblies, the inner source capsule, loaded in these, are similar in shape and
dimensions. It is a stainless steel capsule with dimensions : 8mm diameter. Each
iridium-192 pellet is of 2.5mm diameter and 0.3 mm thickness. The number of
pellets in a capsule depends on the activity required. A 1000 GB capsule may have
four or five such pellets.

39
 TABLE 4.1

DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60

(Half-life : 5.27 years)

Months->00 02 04 06 08 10
Years

00 - 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90

01 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78

02 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.69

03 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60

04 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53

05 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46

06 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40

07 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

08 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31

09 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27

10 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.24

TABLE 4.2
DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192

Days 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

00 - 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66

050 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41

100 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26

150 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16

200 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10

40
 CHAPTER - 5

GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Gamma radiography equipment or camera consists of the following :

1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container for the gamma source
during its storage and it has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation
beam, when needed.

2. An 'Exposure Mechanism' either built in the source housing or separately

attachable and

3. Accessories such as source manipulators, teleflex cable and gear drive

system, flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel, source position
indicators, radiation beam collimators, source transport containers, etc.

Design and development of radiography equipment has importance in the programme

of NDT inspection technique.

5.2. TYPES OF CAMERAS

Various types of radiography cameras are available, to cater to different inspection

requirements.

Essential features of a radiography equipment are ;

1. Optimum shielding,

2. Provision for source shielding/exposure,

3. Compactness of size and shape,

4. Ruggedness to stand field condition,

5. Ease and reliability of operation,

6. Source loading and unloading in conjuction with transport container (source

exchanger) and

7. Ease of maintenance and replacement of defective parts when required.

With these features in mind, various shapes of radiography cameras have been
designed (fig.2.4) Size, shape and weight of a radiography camera depend upon the
energy and activity of gamma source and also on the shielding materials used. In

41
 general, the cameras can be broadly classified on the basis of their weight.

a) Manually handled (light) upto 50 kg (Class P) (Portable)

b) Trolley mounted (medium) 50-500 kg (Class M) (Mobile)

c) Fixed In-house (Heavy) Over 500 kg (Class F) (Fixed)

Trolley and manually handled units can be moved on the site for exposures.
Classifications given in brackets are as per ISO 3999

Fig. 5.1 Source Exposure Methods.

a) Source held in the housing and the shutter is displaced to expose the source
(Fig.5.1a). It can be used only in portable cameras because of practical
limitations on size and weight of the shutter.

b) Source held on a cylindrical drum which is rotated to expose the source (Fig.
5.1b). It provide wide radiation beam.

c) Source enclosed in a rigid source holder which is moved through a small

distance for giving the exposure (Fig. 5.1c). This type is used generally for
sources with more penetrating radiation such as Cobalt-60, of higher activity,
and for use in permanent exposure rooms.

d) Source assembly attached to the tip of a flexible cable and driven out of the
source housing for panoramic exposure (fig. 5.1d)

5.3 DESIGN

The important point to be considered, while designing a radiography camera are ;

42
 1. Type of source assembly,

2. Shielding material,

3 Source exposure mechanism,

4. Incorporation of safety devices,

5. Feasibility of fabrication,

6. Easy maintenance & source replenishment,

7. Installation and

8. Transportation.

5.3.1 Source Assembly : The radiation source in a radiography camera is always housed
in a secondary container called 'source assembly'. The source assembly can be of
two types, right or flexible. Rigid source holder is preferred for source housing
shown in fig.5.1a to 5.1c. Flexible source assembly is used, when the source is
required to travel distance to and from the source housing, through bends and at
different planes.

Fig. 5.2. Source Assemblies

3. 2 Shielding Material : As stated earlier, size and weight of a source housing is

decided by the shielding material and its thickness. Properties of different shielding
materials are given Table 5.1.

43
 TABLE 5.1

PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHY SHIELDING MATERIALS

Material Lead Heavy Alloy Depleted

Uranium

1. Atomic number 82 88% tungsten (Z=74) 92

9% copper (29)
3% nickel (28)

2. Density in 11.3 18.9 19.07

grams/cc

3. Melting point (0C) 327 3420 1132

4. Half value layer

Cobalt- 60 (mm) 12.45 7.65 6.88
Iridium-192 (mm) 4.8 3.2 2.71

Lead is a commonly used shielding material, as it is cheaper, easily available and

can be made in any desired shape. But , it needs a metal lining to hold it, as it is a
soft material. Heavy alloy and uranium are best suited for shielding to produce
compact and light weight cameras. However, fabrication of source housings with
these materials requires special techniques.

5.3.3 Source exposure : Directional exposures with collimated beam it source fixed in the
source housing are best from the radiation safety point. However, such exposures
greatly restrict their flexibility of operation of operation. Therefore, most of the
modern units are designed for panoramic exposure with provisions to attach
collimators for directional exposures.

Panoramic exposures are made by moving the source assembly out of the source
housing, using remote driving devices, operated by pneumatic, electrical or
mechanical systems. With flexible source assembly, only mechanical systems using
teleflex cable are favoured.

5.3.4 Safety Devices : All radiography equipment should be provided with safety devices
such as interlocks, source couplings source holder locking, immobilizing device for
the source, etc.

In-house facilities are planned with more elaborate safety devices, such as door
interlocks, audio-visual signals, search operations in exposure areas, and other full-
proof safety features.
44
 In addition to the above, radiation monitoring instruments should also be
incorporated in the design

5.3.5 Fabrication : Design of the unit should be done keeping in mind the limitations
during the fabrication of components. These components are evaluated for soundness
and reliability to ensure fool proof performance over the designed life of the
equipment.

5.3.6 Maintenance : The equipment should be designed in such a way that minimum
maintenance required during service and defective part is easily replaceable.

5.3.7 Transportation : The design of the camera, when loaded with source should meet
the prescribe transport regulations.

5.3.8 Installation : Installation of units with kilocurie activity needs special gadgets. These
gadgets should be designed in conjuction with the unit to be installed.

TABLE 5.2

PERMISSIBLE LEAKAGE LEVEL AROUND RADIOGRAPHY CAMERAS

(as per ISO-3999)

Maximum exposure rate

nA/kg (mR/h)

Class On external 50mm from 1 m from

surface of external surface external surface
container of container of container

Portable 14.3 (200) or 3.6 (50) 0.1 (2)

Mobile 14.3 (200) or 7.2 (100) 0.4 (5)

Fixed 14.3 (200) or 7.2 (100) 0.7 (10)

1 Coulomb/sec = 1 Ampere (A)

5.4 QUALITY CONTROL DURING PRODUCTION

All radiography cameras are required to be subjected to strict quality control

examination to confirm the integrity of mechanical parts and also to ensure that
radiation leakage levels are below the stipulated levels. The existing permissible
radiation leakages on the source housing in 'off' position are given in the table 2.5.

45
 Prototype units with remote control system are specially tested for operational
reliability under simulated conditions to assess the life of components and associated
accessories.

5.5 EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT

As is known, iridium-192 and cobalt-60 source together can cover and inspection
rage of thickness 10-200mm, steel equivalent. Thus, efforts for equipment
development have been mainly directed towards these sources. Multipurpose
standardised equipment are commercially available, with source housings, shielded
either with lead, heavy alloy or depleted uranium. Main features of these equipment
are discussed here briefly.

1. Source Assembly 2. Source

3. Lead Shield
5. Secondary Container
Portable/Mobile Camera
Flexible Guide Tube
Ball & Socket Coupling
4. Locking System
Flexible Source Assembly
'S' Conduit

Fig. 5.3 ROLI-1 Radiography Camera

5.5.1 Lead shielded, low cast equipment

a Iridium-192 Units : ROLI-1 is a remote operated lead shielded camera designed for
35 Ci iridium-192 source (Fig. 5.3) It has 'S' conduit to house a flexible source
assembly.

46
 Fig. 5.4 CRC-2 Radiography Camera

b Cobalt-60 Units : Radiography camera with a capacity of 10 Ci designed for

panoramic exposure is shown in figure 5.4. The spherical source housing, is mounted
on a rugged trolly for ease of maneuver. The unit enables source movement in a
rigid guide tube for panoramic exposure . Radiation beam can be restricted for
directional exposures using a collimator, which can be fixed to the housing.

Fig. 5.5. Tech Ops/Amertest Camera

c Light Weight High Activity Equipment : These have depleted uranium or heavy
alloy material for shielding. Fabrication of these source housings is not as easy as
lead source housings. The cost of the material is also very high.

47
 Most of the imported standerdised radiography equipment available commercially are
depleted uranium shielded ones. Some of these are shown in figures 5.5 to 5.8

Fig. 5.6. Teletone/Gammavolt Camera

Fig. 5.7 Gammamat Camera

5.6 TYPE APPROVAL OF GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

The built-in safety of gamma radiography equipment, both from radiation and
operational safety point of view, is very essential because majority of the
radiography work is carried out in workshop areas and construction sites which call
for a strong and rugged equipment.

As per the present safety requirements, in addition to shielding adequacy, all of

radiography equipment must be so designed, as the withstand various mechanical and
operational tests, such as drop test, fire test, vibration test, shock test, water

48
immersion test and endurance test, as per the specification laid down by International
Standards organisation (ISO 3999). At present, only those equipment which conform
to all the provisions of ISO 3999 are type approved and permitted to be used for
industrial radiography work.

Fig. 5.8 : Century SA Camera

49
 CHAPTER - 6

PHOTOGRAPHIC AND NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC

RECORDING

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The type of X-rays film used in radiography, an important role in the detection of
flaws. It is therefore, important to have detailed knowledge about construction and
properties of films.

6.2 CONSTRUCTION OF FILM

Figure 6.1 show cross-section of a typical X-ray film. It consists of

base,
emulsion,
binding layer and
protective layer

Fig. 6.1 Cross Section of an X-ray Film

6.2.1 Film Base

Polyester is the most commonly used material for film base.

6.2.2 Emulsion

Silver bromide mixed with Gelatin is used as film emulsion.

6.2.3 Binding layer

This layer acts as binder between film base and emulsion.

6.2.4 Protective layer

The protective layer consists only gelatin. It serves to protect the lower layers from
physical damage, abrasion and stress marks.

50
6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF FILMS

6.3.1 Film Density

X-ray film on exposure to radiation and processing produces deposits. This

blackening of the film is called optical density (D) and is given by the expression,

Io
D = Log10
It

Where I0 = Intensity of incident light

It = Intensity of transmitted light

Film density is measured by and instrument called 'Densitometer'.

The factors which control the optical density are ;

a. type of film

b. energy of radiation

c. amount of exposure and

d. processing conditions

Fig. 6.2 Characteristic Curves of X-ray Films

6.3.2 Characteristic Curve

If number of different exposures are given to various of an X-ray film and densities
obtained these areas after processing are plotted as a function of Log10 (exposure),
the resulting curve is called 'Characteristic Curve' of the film (Fig. 6.2). A
characteristic curve given information on :

51
 a. speed of film and

b. film contrast

a Speed

Speed is defined as the density recorded on a film due to a given radiation input. It
is measured in terms of inverse of exposure required to produce a radiograph of a
particular density, under given conditions. Keeping other factors constant, a film
which requires less exposure is faster. Figure 6.2 shows characteristics of two
industrial X-ray films in which A is faster than film B.

TABLE 6.1

FILM FACTORS OF SOME COMMON FILMS

Source Type of film Film factor with

Double lead Screen

Iridium-192 Agfa D-2 9.5 R

Agfa D-4 4.0 R
Agfa D-7 1.2 R

NDT-55 3.8 R
NDT-65 1.4 R
NDT-70 1.0 R
Cobalt-60 Agfa D-2 19.6 R
Agfa D-4 8.0 R
Agfa D-7 2.5 R

NDT-55 7.5 R
NDT-65 3.0 R
NDT-70 2.0 R

The amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on a film to produce a

given film density (usually 2.0) under specified conditions of processing is called
'film factor'. A film with lower film factor is faster than the one with a higher value.
Film factor depends on energy of radiation. Film factor values for a few commonly
used films are given in Table 6.1

b Contrast

Film contrast of gradient is defined as the change in density recorded on a film for
a given change in radiation intensity.

52
 The gradient of a film depends on the size of its crystals. It is practically
independent of the radiation energy. Gradient of industrial X-ray films goes on
increasing with optical density, as shown in figure 6.3. In general, fine grain films
have lower speeds, but, higher gradient at a given density, than coarse grain films.

Fig. 6.3 Gradient Versus Density

6.3.3 Effects of radiation energy

There is very little effect on the shape of the characteristic curve due to energy of
radiation, However the film speed depends on radiation energy, can be seen in table
6.1

6.3.4 Various Types of Films

The films can be divided is to three groups on the basis of radiography

requirements.

1. The Films for use with salt screens, also known as salt screen films.

2. Films for use with metal screens or without screens (also called 'direct
films'). This group covers a large range of industrial X-ray films. The films
are classified depending upon the grain size of the films ;

Class - I - Highest contrast, lowest speed film

Class - II - High contrast, low speed film

Class - III - Medium contrast, medium speed film

Class - IV - Lowest contrast, highest speed film

3. Films used for special purposes, e, g, single emulsion films.

53
 CHAPTER - 7

LEAD AND FLUORESCENT SCREENS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

When an on object is radiographed without using screens, there are two disturbing
factors.

1. There is lesser absorption of transmitted radiation intensity in film, which

results in longer exposure time.

2. Low energy scattered radiation is absorbed more, which spoils the image
quality.

Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs,

radiography screens are used.

7.2 TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY SCREENS

There are two types of radiography screen, commonly used in industrial radiography
practice : metallic foil screens and fluorescent screen.

These screens differ in their basic characteristics e.g., speed, contrast and elimination
of scattered radiation.

7.3 METALLIC FOIL SCREENS

Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The X-ray
film is sandwiched between a pair of lead screens, as shown in figure 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 X-ray Films Sandwiched between pair of lead intensifying screens.

54
7.3.1 Reduction of scattered radiation

Absorption of incident radiation in the object results in production of low energy

scattered radiation and this falls on the film, along with the transmitted primary
radiation. As high atomic number element have more absorption capacity for low
energy radiations, if a metal foil of high atomic number is placed between object
and film, it will absorb most of the low energy radiation, before it falls on the film.
Hence, effect of the low energy, scattered radiation will be reduced. This metallic
foil will serve additional purpose of intensification action also. Similarly, to reduce
low energy back scattered radiation (obtained due to back scattering of the primary
radiation, from objects placed behind the specimen to be radiographed), a high
atomic number sheet is placed behind the film. Hence, a double coated X-ray film is
sandwiched between a pair of metallic foil screens to reduce the effect of scattered
radiation of the film, thus resulting in an improved definition of radiograph.

7.3.2 Intensifying Action

Intensifying action of a radiography screen is expressed in terms of intensification

factor (IF) which defined as

Exposure time required to produce a certain

Film density without screen
IF =
Exposure time required to produce a certain
Film density with screen

In this definition, it is assumed that same film and radiation source are used for both
the exposures. 'IF' due to double lead screen exposure with iridium-192 source is
about 4.5.

Intensification action occurs due to the photoelectrons, emitted as a result of

interaction of X or gamma X-rays with the object.

Intensification factor due to metallic screens depends on :

a. foil element,

b. thickness of foil

c. energy of radiation, and

d. specimen thickness.

7.4 SALT OR FLUORESCENT SCREEN

These are also called 'Salt Screens'. These screens consist of a card board of plastic
material on which certain inorganic crystalline substances, which glow when X or

55
gamma rays fall on them, are coated on one side. These screens are used in pairs, so
that a double coated X-ray film can be sand-witched between them as shown in
figure 7.2

Fig. 7.2 X-ray sandwiched between a pair of Salt intensifying screen.

Intensifying action of a fluorescent screen is due to additional glow as a result of

interaction of X or gamma rays with the salt screen material. A material which has
its light emission in blue or ultraviolet region, is used for this purpose, since the film
is highly sensitive tubule light. The most commonly used material for this purpose is
calcium tungstate

During X or gamma ray exposure, each crystal in salt screen emits light and this
light diverges in all directions and gives image unsharpness

Intensification factor (IF) due to salt screen depends upon

a. density of radiograph

b. thickness of screen

c. materials of coating, and

d. energy of radiation

In gamma radiography, the intensification factors with salt screens, are not very
much greater than that obtained with lead screens. Secondly, these screens give poor
quality image. Hence, these screens are not much used in industrial radiography.

56
 CHAPTER - 8

WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In radiography, the work parameters and conditions play an equally important role as
the applied radiography techniques. The handling of X-ray films before and after
exposure and film processing are important in this respect.

8.2 HANDLING OF FILMS

X-ray films should be handled carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure
creasing, buckling and friction on it. The normal pressure applied on a cassette to
provide good contact with the object does not damage the films. Whenever the films
are loaded in flexible cassettes and external clamping devices are used, it should be
seen that pressure is applied uniformly. Localised pressure on film can produce
densitised areas.

8.2.1 Loading and Unloading films

Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marks. Also the
precaution should be taken to avoid handling films in a manner which would cause
friction and give confusing black marks on the radiograph.

8.2.2 Expiry Dates

The expiry date on a film pack means that the film should be used before the given
date. Expiry dates of the films depend on the storage conditions.

8.3 FILM STORAGE

8.3.1 Protection from Gamma and X-rays

X-ray film should be protected from X-rays and gamma rays to avoid fogging

8.3.2 Chemical and Physical Hazards

Film should not be kept in a chemical storage room or in any location, where there
is leakage of illuminating gas. Chemical vapours, high humidity and temperatures
also contribute to film fogging. Film should be stored in as cool a place as possible,
and in tropical regions, temperatures control in the store room is recommended. Film
may be stored for long periods in a refrigerator.

57
8.4 FILM PROCESSING

After exposure to the radiation, a latent image of the object is formed in the X-ray
film. The purpose of the film processing is to convert this invisible image to visible
and permanent image. There are four main stages involved in film processing

1. Development, creation of the visible image.

2. Fixation, removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide.

3. Washing, removal of unwanted fixation products.

4. Dry, removal of unwanted water .

8.5 LATENT IMAGE FORMATION

On exposure to X or gamma radiation, the silver bromide in the films is converted

into metallic silver

8.6 THE EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT

The function of developer solution is to reduce only exposed grains of silver

bromide into additional metallic silver and leave unexposed, unaffected grains. The
rate of development of exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rate of
unexposed crystals.

Mechanism of the reactions is

Ag+ + e- Ag

The electron for the reaction is donated by developer solution.

8.6.1 Developers is Use

There are two distinct types of developers.

1. Solid pack, containing two separate bags of chemicals which have to be

dissolved in correct quantity of water before use.

2. Liquid concentrate, which require appropriate dilution with water to give the
working solution.

Commercial Developers

Some of the commercially available developers for manual processing of X-ray films
are given in Table 8.1

58
 TABLE 8.1

Make Trade man Size of the pack to make

(in liters of working sole)

Kodak Indian DA-19b 2.25

Photographic Co Developer 4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50

Agfa-Gaevert G-230 2.25

Developer 4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50

May & Baker Solid X-ray 2.50

Developer 4.50
9.00
13.50
22.50

8.7 STOP BATH

After developing, the image comes into existence and remaining processes make it
permanent and enable to view it conveniently. If no action is taken, the developer
will continue to work producing enhanced density, fog or irregular developer stains.
The unwanted developer with stop bath. There are two types of stop baths generally
employed.

8.7.1 Water Rinse : The excess unwanted developer is removed from the film simply by
immersing it in a running water bath. Static water rinse involves the risk of solution
becoming alkaline with use and cease to be of any use in stopping development.

8.7.2 Acetic Acid Rinse : This bath is static and 2 to 3 percent solution of acetic acid is
employed. This is more efficient in action and required films to be immersed in it
for about 5 seconds with agitation. However, unlike flow water rinse, acetic acid will
become continuously exhausted with use. A throughput of 100 FT2/gallon is
reasonable suggested life for this.

59
8.7.3 Faults arising during rinsing : The only fault which can occur at this stage is due
to delay in putting the developer laden film in stop bath. The oxidation of thin layer
of developer on film can lead to production of brown developer stains.

8.8 FIXING BATH

The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transforms it into
water soluble compound which gets dissolved in washing operation. In addition, it
enables the image to become permanent. Since the silver halide is still sensitive to
light to a small extent, and so will slowly darken if it is allowed to remain on the
film.

8.8.1 Fixing Agent : The most widely used agent is sodium thiosulphate, commonly
known as 'hypo'. Its solution in water rapidly dissolves and bromide.

8.8.2 Use of Fixing Bath : Generally, the film is kept for 2-3 minutes in rapid fixing bath
and about 10 minutes in ordinary hypo bath is found sufficient.

1. Agitation : The films should be agitated initially, when immersed in fixer.

2. Temperature : The fixation process is less critical than development process and a
temperature range of ±2.50C to standard 200C is acceptable.

8.8.3 Faults arising due to fixation : Most of the defects arise due to introduction of
developer into fixer through careless use of stop bath stage. Faults may also arise if
films are inserted without agitation. Streaks may be produced, due to uneven
removal of developer.

8.9 WASHING AND DRYING

Washing and drying is carried out to eliminate unwanted products from the
emulation after the fixing operation. The excess water is then removed, since a wet
radiograph is not convenient to handle and easily liable to mechanical damage.

8.9.1 Washing : In the washing stage, various silver compounds in the gelatine, and
excess fixer are removed. For this purpose, film is washed in running water for
about 20 minutes and then taken for drying. It is important to use flowing water, so
that on its removal from bath is taken out from uncontaminated water.

Faults arising during washing : Usually twenty minutes are allotted for this stage,
but the period may prove insufficient if,

1. the water is unusually cold,

2. flow is inadequate,

60
 3. tank is too small for film through out and
4. film is inserted in a haphazard manner.

Each of these factors will lead to incomplete elimination of thiosulphate complexes

from gelatine.

8.9.2 Drying : Usually the wet films are dried by blowing a current of hot air over the
films, and various types of drying cabinets exist for this purpose. These cabinets
after include filter at their air intake to free the from dust, which may stick to the
wet film.

8.10 CHECK LIST OF PROCESSING DIFFICULTIES AND FILM

BLEMISHES

Blemish of difficulty Causes

Black crescents Kinking of film before processing.

White crescents Sharp bending or folding of the processed film.

Overall fog Over-development, over-age film, prolonged

exposure to safe light, improper safelight filter,
insufficient protection in storage from radiation
sources, film stored where temperature or humidity is
too high, viewing developed film, before it is
properly fixed.

Black streaks or blotches Light leaks due to faulty film holder or cassette.

Streaks White and black streaks at points where film was

attached to hanger caused by processing solution
remaining on clips from earlier use. Inadequate
agitation during development. Removing film to
view during development time causing developer to
run across film unevenly. Contamination by
chemically active deposits, interaction of developer
and fixer.

Drying spots and Drops of water on semi dried film or drops of water
running streaks down semi-dried surface.

Black spots Developer splashes before placing entire film in

developer.

61
Brown stains Inadequate fixing or exhausted fixing solution,
prolonged development in old developer, inadequate
rinsing.

Dark deposits Oxidised products from developer or reacting silver

salts.

White crystalline Inadequate washing after processing.

deposits

Milky appearance Incomplete fixing, exhausted fixing bath.

Sharply outlined Uneven development, films not agitated during

light dark areas development films hung too close together in
developer.

Blisters Formation of gas bubbles in film emulation.

Air bubbles Air trapped on film surface during development.

(light spots/patches)

Reticulation (leather Solution too warm, extreme differences in

like appearance) successive processing baths.

Frilling (loosening Fixing in warm or exhausted bath.

of emulsion) Prolonged washing at high temperature.

Static marks (Black Due to static electric discharges caused friction

bird track effects) between film and some other object.

Scratches (black, Improper handling

crack-like line)

Dark fingerprints Film touched with dirty fingers before development.

Light fingerprints Film touched with greasy finger before development.

White spots and areas Pitted or worn screens. Dirt on film screens.

Brittle radiographs Excessive hardening in fixer. Excessive drying time

62
8.11 GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION

The radiographic image on the film is governed mainly by basic principles of the
shadow formation. A sharp and undistorted image is obtained by controlling various
geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to object
distance, alignment of radiation beam with respect to the plane of the object and
film. Different exposure geometries are shown in Fig. 4.1

From these exposure geometries, it could be seen that the radiographic images
always have an element of magnification which will depend upon the closeness of
the film with the specimen. Distortion in the image would depend on the relative
planes of the object and the film. Attempts are made to keep both of them in the
same plane, however, with specimen of odd geometry image distortions are
observed.

Both X and gama rays produce a certain unsharpness on the radiograph due to the
finite size of the focal spot or the source. This unsharpness is called geometrical
unsharpness (Ug) which is calculated as

dxt
Ug = or SFD = t ( I + d / U g )
SFD − t

where, d - Effective diameter of the source/focal spot,

SFD - Source to film distance,

t - Thickness of the object.

It is clear from this expression, that Ug can never be zero. The magnitude of Ug can
only be minimum by proper selection of exposure variables. Considering this fact,
various codes permit a certain Ug value related to object thickness.

Recommendations for optimum results are-

1. Source of focal spot size should be as small as practicable. Ideal source will
be a point source,

2. Source to object distance should as large as possible,

3. The film should be in close contact with object and

4. Source location should be such, that radiation pass normal through object
thickness.

63
Fig. 8.1 Geometric Representation of Radiographic Image.

64
 X-RAYS
Film : Structurix
FFD : 70 cm
Screen Thickness : 0.025
mm
Density : 2

Fig. 8.2 Exposure Charts.

65
8.12 EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATIONS

For calculating the exposure time, the following steps should be followed:

1. Calculate the present source activity in curies (Ci) from the decay charts.

2. Find thickness (cm) of the object.

3. Find HVT (cm) of object material, for the given source, from the HVT tables.

4. Find SFD (cm) for the object thickness.

5. Write RHM value (0.5 for iridium-192 and 1.33 cobalt-60)

6. Find film factor ( F in Roentgen)

TABLE 8.2

FILM FACTOR (F) VALUES

Source Film Factor (F)

NDT-65 NDT-70 Agfa D-7 Agfa D-4

Iridium-192 1.4 R 1.0 R 1.1 R 3.5 R

Cobalt - 60 2.8 R 2.0 R 2.2 R 7.0 R

Substitute all these values in the following formula :

F x 2 x / T 12 x ( SFD ) 2 x 60
Exposure time (minutes) =
C x RHM x (100) 2

It may be noted that this formula is not very accurate for higher thicknesses,
particularly when using Cobalt - 60. Exposure charts time, with the following date :

Source - Iridium - 192, 10 Curies (c = 10)

Steel Place - 25 mm. thick (x = 25)

Film NDT -65 (HVT or T1/2 - 12.5 mm)

Radiograph density required = 2.0 (F = 1.4)

Let SFD be 50 cm.

Substituting all these values in formula

66
 . x 2 25/125 x 50 −2 60
14
Exposure Time (minutes) =
10 x 0.5 x 1002

14
. x 4 x 2500 x 60
= 50 x 10000

= 16.8 minutes

From exposure chart (Fig. 4.2) we can see that for 25 mm. steel and SFD 50 cm.,
we need around 2.8 curie x hr. It means the product of source activity and time in
hours should be 2.8.

if the source activity is 2.8 curie, exposure time is 1 hour

for 1.0 curie, exposure time is 2.8 hours

for 10 curie, exposure time is 2.8/10 hours

= 17 minutes

We can calculate similarly, for other thicknesses also.

67
 CHAPTER - 9

EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The quality of a radiography is assessed by radiography sensitivity. The sensitivity,

in turn, depends upon factors which control contrast and definition of the image.

a Radiograph Sensitivity is a general qualitative term referring to the size of

the small detail which can be seen on seen on a radiograph. It is governed by
the contrast and definition of the image appearing on the radiograph.

b Radiographic Contrast is the density difference in two areas of a

radiograph. It depends upon subject contrast and film contrast.

Subject Contrast is defined as the ratio of X or gamma intensities

transmitted through different areas of a specimen. It depends upon the
radiation quality, intensity distribution, scattered ration. Higher the radiation
energy, lower would be the subject contrast.

Film contrast (G) refers to the slope of characteristic curve of the film at a
given density. It depends upon the type of film, processing conditions, and
optical density, It is independent of radiation quality. Mathematically, it can
be expressed as :

D
G=
LogE

c Radiographic Definition refers to the sharpness of the outline in image. It

depends upon the type of film, screens, radiation energy and exposure
geometry.

9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY

These are given in table 9.1.

9.3 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (IQI)

The quality of radiograph is expressed in terms of IQI or penetrameter sensitivity.

These are small devices placed on the surface of the specimen during exposure and
visibility of their image on the radiograph, forms the criteria of sensitivity. Desirable
properties of IQI are as given below.

68
 1. The material of construction should, preferably, be the same as that being
inspected.

2. It must be sensitive in its reading to changes in radiographic technique.

3. Method of recording should be simple, unambiguous.

4. It should have means for identification.

Table 9.1

FACTORS INFLUENCING RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY

Radiographic Contrast Radiographic Definition

Subject Film Geometric Graininess

Contrast Contrast Factors Factors

Affected by Affected by Affected by Affected by

a) Thickness a) Type of a) Focal spot/ a) Type of
difference film source size film
in specimen

b) Atomic number b) Film b) Source to b) Type of

and density processing film screen
of specimen parameters distance

c) Radiation c) Radiograph c) Specimen c) Film

quality density film development
distance

d) Scattered d) Activity of d) Sudden

radiation developer change in
thickness
of specimen

e) Screen film contrast

9.3.1 Commonly Used Image Quality Indicators

Various types of designs of IQI based on wires, holes, slits, etc. have been used.
Some designs are shown in figure 9.1

69
 a Plaque/Hole (ASTM) Type This type of IQI is a constant thickness plate
having three drilled holes of different diameters. If the plate thickness is T,
the hole diameters are T, 2T and 4T with minimum hole diameters are 0.010,
0.020 and 0.040 inches respectively. The plaque must be of the same material
as specimen. The same penetrameters are accepted by ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.

Identification numbers and notches, specifying the material and IQI thickness
are fixed on each plate. The number indicates thickness in thousands of an
inch. Three quality levels can be determined with a given ASTM IQI, as
given in table 9.2

Table 9.2

Level of Penetrameter thickness Minimum Equivalent

Inspection (% of specimen Perceptible penetrameter
thickness) hole diameter Sensitivity per cent

1-1T 1 1T 0.7

1-2T 1 2T 1

1-4T 1 4T 1.4

2-1T 2 1T 1.4

2.2T 2 2T 2.0

2-4T 2 4T 2.8

4-1T 4 1T 2.8

4-2T 4 2T 4

4-4T 4 4T 5.6

Equivalent sensitivity SE is calculated as

Diameter of min imum visible hole in terms of T

SE = n
2T

Where,

n = penetrameter thickness expressed in percentage of specimen thickness

T = thickness of penetrameter.

70
 SE is defined as the thickness of penetrameter expressed in percentage in which 2T
hole would be visible under the same condition.

b Wire Type This type of IQI consists of a series of wires of minimum length 25 mm
mounted side by side parallel with a distance between the axis of wires of not less
than three times the wire diameter and not less than 5 mm and arranged in order of
increasing diameter.

Wire type of IQIs have been adopted internationally. Most commonly used are DIN
type and ASTM type IQIs.

Sensitivity =

n
Q
2T

Fig. 9.1 Image Quality Indicators

71
9.3.2 Placement of IQI

As a general practice, IQI must be placed on the source side of the specimen. Film
side IQI are also permitted in some codes only in special circumstances.

In case of plaques type IQI, it is generally placed parallel to the weld at a location
of poorest sensitivity for a given technique. Wire IQI is placed across the weld (Fig
9.2). When the weld with the reinforcement is examined, a shim of metal should be
placed under the IQI the match the total thickness

Fig. 9.2 Placement of Image Quality Indicators

When the objects are too small or have a complicated structure for IQI placement,
IQI can be placed on a uniform block of the same material

9.4 IDENTIFICATIONS

Every radiograph must have permanent identification marks which identify the job,
the region examined and the orientation of the film. Except on very thick steel
sections, thin lead letters and characters can be used for placement on the specimen
or film to be visible on the radiograph. They should be fixed on the specimen when
it is casting or weld and left in position whenever used.

However, most of the specimen will have permanent marking either by stamping,
engraving or painting according to what is most appropriate for the service condition
of the specimen.

9.5 CONTROL OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

As given in table 9.1, there are many factors which contribute to the resultant quality
of a radiograph. There factors should be carefully controlled by following a well
recognised national/international practice usually specified in codes. Information on
the following points is essential.

72
9.5.1 Technique Classification and general requirements such as very high sensitivity,
high sensitivity and medium sensitivity are followed as per code.

9.5.2 Material and its Thickness data is essential to select the source, SFD and other
important radiography parameters. Whenever possible, fabrication procedure such as
welding, casting, etc. should made available.

9.5.3 Film and Screen used are checked up with the recommendations of the code with
respect to the technique classification.

9.5.4 Film Processing should be standard as per the recommendations of manufacturer of the
respect to the chemicals. Shortened and prolonged development time must be avoided.

9.5.5 Density of the Radiograph should be between 2-3. Higher may be employed
provided high intensity illuminator is available for viewing the radiographs. Fog
density and expiry date of the film should be checked. Fog density should not
exceed 0.2.

9.5.6 Identification Marking System has to be explicit to enable finding the exact area
of the specimen without any ambiguity. Lead markers impression must appear on the
radiograph.

9.5.7 Source, its active dimensions and calibration data should be verified with
recommendations of the code.

9.5.8 SFD is directly linked with specified Ug value It also determines the diagnostic
area coverage of the specimen.

9.5.9 Exposure geometry with relative position of source, specimen and films shown be
given in a sketch for verification.

9.5.10 IQI, its location bears the most important information leading to assessment of the
sensitivity of a radiograph. Observed sensitivity is calculated in terms of thickness of
plaque/hole or diameter of the wire discernible by eye.

9.5.11 Exposure Time should be in the specified range in the code.

Besides the above points, the radiograph is carefully examined on both sides with
reflected light to reveal superficial marks such as scratches, crimps and other
processing marks, Use of a magnifying glass would be helpful. Familiarity with film
artifacts and their indication is also essential to determine the genuine discontinuity
as different from the spurious indication on the film.

9.6 UNSATISFACTORY RADIOGRAPHS

Most common faults and their causes are listed below.

73
9.6.1 High Density

Excessive film density can be due to over-exposure, over development of film or

fog. In case of over-exposure, the film can be viewed on high intensity illuminator.
Alternate fresh exposure is made by cutting down the exposure time by 1/3.

The over-development of film can be corrected by following the manufacturer's

recommendations for processing. Unsuitable and wrongly mixed developers can also
cause high density.

9.6.2 Low Density

Cause for low density may be under-exposure, under-development, or presence of

material between the lead screen and the film. Under exposure can be corrected
increasing the exposure time by 40% or more. Under development can be due to too
cold developer solution, too short development time, or weak developer solution.
These can be corrected to the recommended condition. Wrongly mixed developers
can also cause low film density.

9.6.3 High Radiography Contrast

It can be due to excessive subject contrast or high film contrast. High subject
contrast can be rectified by increasing the kV, use of a filter at the tube or use of
thickness compensation methods.

Low contrast film can also be used. Check also for wrongly mixed developer, as
well as for prolonged development times to compensate for under-exposed film.

9.6.4 Low Radiography Contrast

It can be due to low subject and film contrast and under-development. It can be
corrected by decreasing energy of radiation, use of higher contrast film and
processing the film under stand

9.6.5 Poor Definition

Possible causes can be geometrical exposure factors, poor contact between film and
screen, graininess of screens and graininess of film. The geometrical factors should
be verified and readjusted to meet the specified Ug value. Film and screen graininess
can be controlled by using and improving the contact between the film and the
screen.

In addition, possible movement of the source, film specimen should be arrested to

eliminate movement unsharpness (Um)

74
9.6.6 Fog

It can result from excessive exposure to light (including safe light), inadequate film
storage facing or improper film processing.

Film loading and processing area should be examined for leakage of light and
brightness of safe light. The filter on safe light should also be examined for fading
of coating dyes due to use of high wattage bulb.

Inadequate storage facility may result in improper protection from radiation or

excessive heat, humidity and gases. Improper film processing can be corrected by
mixing proper solutions, control ling their temperature, light proofness or dark-room
and follow-up of correct development procedures.

9.6.7 Spurious Indications

Faulty film processing and careless handling of films - before, during and after the
exposure - would result in various types of spurious indications on the film.

9.7. VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS

Conventional black and white radiographs are viewed against light source. The equipment
providing the light is called as 'illuminator'. Various types of illuminators are commercially
available However, the most suitable illuminator is the one which has high intensity
light source, sufficient penetrate the film densities upto 4, with provision as for intensity
control and mechanical arrangement for masking the lighted area.

9.7.1 Brightness Conditions

Viewing the radiographs on the illuminator is generally carried out in a room fitted
with dim light free from glare, dazzle and reflection. This helps in quick dark
adaptation of eyes, reduces eye fatigue and improves visuals acuity.

Reading of radiographs are directly linked with performances of eyes. Hence, it is

necessary to under stand the capabilities, limitations, and the conditions under which
the eye is most sensitive. Observed that eyes area most sensitive, when the luminescence
of light transmitted through the radiograph is in the range 30-100 cd/m2.

9.7.2 Illuminators

Minimum illuminator brightness to view film densities 1, 2 and 3 should be

300,3000 and 30,000 cd/m2 respectively. Brightness of the viewing screen can be
checked with photographic exposure meter if required, by holding its sensitive
element close to the screen. Other recommendations are as follows :

75
 1. Colour of light shall be normally white, but colours between orange and pale
green are acceptable.

2. Diffusion of light through one sheet of thin opal glass is found to be adequate.

3. Uniformity of brightness should be achieved by masking the illuminated area to the

minimum required for viewing radiograph image. The edge of the radiograph should
always be masked and if the radiograph contains regions of density which are
considered less dense than the area under examination, these shall also be masked
off.

9.7.3 Viewing Conditions

a Ambient light : The radiograph is examined in a darkened room. Care should taken
so that as little is reflected as possible from the film surface, directly towards the
observer.

Generally, the light transmitted through the radiograph on the illuminated screen is
sufficient for writing etc., but if felt necessary, the ambient lighting can be increased,
provided it does not produce any specular reflections of the surface e of the
radiograph.

The luminance of white opaque card put in place of radiograph contributing to

ambient light should not exceed 10 percent of the luminance of illuminated film in
the area under inspection.

b Adaptation : Eye adaptation depends upon the light condition to which the
observer is subjected before viewing. As a guidance, an observer coming
from full sunlight should allow at least 10 minutes in subdued lighting before
commencing viewing; from ordinary artificial room light about 30 seconds
adaptation is necessary. The adaptation period should be one continuous
period of time. If eyes are subjected to full brightness of the illuminator
during the changing of radiographs, at least 30 seconds readaptation is
necessary.

c Viewing Distance : Maximum distance should be about 40 cm.

d Magnifying Lens : Low Powered magnifying lens (x3tox4) of reasonable

areas is recommended.

e Eye Sight : All film readers shall check their eye sight annually for ability to
see small details at normal film viewing distance. These readers should be
able to read the letters and numbers of the second line on the attached chart
at their normal viewing distance.

76
9.7.4 Effects of Viewing Conditions on Image Quality

Identification of a defect on a radiograph is determined by a relationship between the

radiographic contrast Corresponding to the defect and the minimum density
difference allows the defect to be identified which is called as 'minimum perceptible
contrast'. The density difference is perceptible when radiography contrast is more
than - Minimum perceptible contrast and not perceptible when - radiographic contrast
is less than Minimum perceptible contrast. When a radiograph is viewed in a well
lighted room, the - radiographic contrast is affected resulting in an apparent
radiographic contrast.

a Influence of Room Brightness : When a radiograph is observed in an ordinary

room, the density range of flaw perception is narrow as compared with that in a
dark room.

b Influence of Illuminator Brightness : High intensity illuminator increases

the perceptible density range.

9.7.5 Optimum film Density

ISO2504 has given recommendation on this point which can be summarised as

follows :

1. Optimum film density for viewing with maximum sensitivities inter-related

with brightness of viewing screen.

2. Minimum observable contrast, ie., minimum density difference discernible on

a film place on the illuminated screen, depends upon the brightness of light
reaching the eye of the observer.

3. It is reasonable to assume that discernibility of fine details such as low

contrast lines (crack images) also depends, in the same manner, on brightness
of the image as presented on the eye of the observer.

4. Most codes on good radiography practices specify a minimum acceptable

film density, usually 2, when metal intensifying screen are used. This is
based on the density/contrast characteristics of good commercial X-ray film.

5. It is necessary to consider importance of glare in addition to screen

brightness.

77
 CHAPTER - 10

DEFECTOLOGY

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiographic image is formed by differential absorption of radiation, while passing

through the specimen. Variation in density, composition, thickness of presence of
inclusions in the object can be recorded on an X-ray film.

10.2 OBJECT IMAGE RELATIONSHIP

As mentioned above, the image of discontinuity in the object is formed due to the
differentials absorption of radiation in the object. Intensity of radiation transmitted
through 'x' having no discontinuity, can be graphically shown as in figure 5.1 (a).
Mathematically, it can be expressed by equation

I = Io e-µx ........................... (1)

Now, if a discontinuity of thickness 'd' present in the material, the transmitted

intensity under the portion of discontinuity would be

I = Io e-µ(x-d) ........................... (2)

This is valid when the discontinuity is a void. However, when a material of

absorption co-efficient u' is present in the discontinuity, the equation (2) becomes

I = Io e-µx(x-d)-µ'd ........................... (3) (Fig. 10+.1 (b)

Depending upon the type of the material of the discontinuity, two possibilities, exist,
either µ is less than or grater than µ'. Graphical attenuation in both cases is shown
in figure 5.1 (c). The equation 3 can be rewritten as :

I = Io e-µx[x-d(1-µ'/µ)] ........................... (4)

If d(1-µ'/µ) = k, then the above equation can be written as

I = Io e-µ(x-k) ........................... (5)

'k' in equation (5) represents the apparent increase of decrease of radiation

attenuation in the region of discontinuity.

78
(A) Attenuation of Radiation (B) Influence of radiation quality on
radiographic contrast

(C) Attenuation of Radiation under a Defect

Fig. 10.1

79
 This is not true in radiography process with X-ray (Continuous spectrum) and
radioisotopes having more than one energy. The values of µ change with increase in
thickness of material, as softer components of the radiation beam are filtered off by
initial thickness.

The above discussion also to the defect-image contrast which depends upon the
difference of attenuation co-efficient of the defect and the sound material. More the
difference, higher would be the contrast and hence, easily detectable.

From known values of attenuation coefficients of the specimen and discontinuity, it

is possible to calculate the image contrast percentage for a certain size defect in the
specimen. This can be illustrated by the following example.

A steel specimen of thickness 5 cm, having a cavity of 5mm is radiographed,

separately, with iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources, The percentage subject contrast
produced by the cavity, if it is filled with (1 lead and 2) aluminium, can be
calculated from the available data about absorption co-efficient given in Table 10.1

Table 10.1

µ Cm-1)
LINEAR ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT (µ

Source Material
Lead Steel Aluminum

Iridium-192 1.44 0.55 0.165

Cobalt-60 0.578 0.346 0.105
The values obtained are
Transmission (%)
Cobalt-60 No cavity 17.7
with lead 15.8
With aluminum 19.99
Irridium-192 No cavity 6.4
with lead 4.09
with aluminium 7.74

From the above, the subject contrast in percentage for the cavity of 5 mm can be
calculated as given in Table 10.2. It can be seen from the values that the image of a
cavity with lead will be seen as positive image, whereas with aluminium, it will be
seen as negative image. On an X-ray film, the positive image would be brighter and
negative image would be darker.

80
 TABLE 10.2

SUBJECT CONTRAST IN PERCENTAGE

Source Cavity Contrast Cavity Contrast

filled with difference filled with difference
lead with steel aluminium with steel
(per cent) (per cent)

Iridium-192 6.4-4.09 36.0 6.4-7.75 21.0

= 2.31 = -1.35

Cobalt-60 17.7-15.78 10.8 17.7-19.99 12.9

=1.92 = - 2.29

10.3. Defect Detection

The example discussed above shows that radiation from iridium-192 source produced a
better subject contrast, as compared to that from cobalt - 60 source. Greater contrast
helps in detection of smaller defects.

A defect will be visible when the radiographic contrast -^D is equal to or greater
than minimum perceptible density difference (-^Dmin), which depends upon ;

a. image size,

b. density distribution,

c. radiation energy

d. film processing

e. viewing conditions, etc.

10.4. DEFECT INDICATIONS

Examples of welding and casting defects and their radiographic appearances are
given in Table 10.3 and 10.4.

81
 TABLE 10.3

WELDING DEFECTS

Defect Cause Radiographic detection

Arc strike Due to localized heat. Star shaped cracks.

Burn through Coalescence of weld White areas indicating

metal beyond root. excess metal beyond
root

Central line Valleys in between two Continuous dark lines.

crevices passes.

Cracks Rupture of metal under Dark well defined lines

(Cold) stress below 4000 F.

Cracks Rupture of metal under Dark lines, some tree

(hot) stress above 4000 F. like branching
usually associated with
grain boundary.

Cracks Hardening of base metal Dark defined lines from

(base metal) in weld area. weld reinforcement into.
base metal.

Incomplete Improper fusion between Dark lines usually

fusion weld and parent metal, running parallel to
usually with trapped weld weld.

Lack of Failure of penetration Dark continuous line in

penetration due to poor gap, low the middle of the weld
current.

Gas Entrapment of gas due to Dark round or elongated

inclusions inadequate regulation of images with defined

current or wet electrode. outline

82
Defect Cause Radiographic detection

Concavity Normally in the root due Localized dark areas

of sink to improper movement of in the centre of weld.
electrode or too much
heat in second pass over
first pass.

Slag Entrapment of nonmetallic Dark irregular shapes

inclusion solid materials may be continuous
with sharp edges.

Tungsten Entrapment of tungsten White, distinctively

inclusion from tip of electrode in TIG marked the weld.
process

Undercut Use of high current which Dark continuous line,

burns edges on running parallel along
parent metal. the weld.

83
 TABLE 10.4

CASTING DEFECTS

Defect Cause Radiographic Appearance

Cold shuts Failure of molten metal Well-defined continuous

to fuse with solid dark line.
metals

Hot tears Due to stresses near Many ragged dark lines

solidification temperatures after discrete and taper
when metal is weak. identified by their
location near change of
section

Shrinkage Lack of enough molten Dark areas of regular

metal to fill up the outline tending to taper
shrinkages identified by position
if feeding head.

Shrinkage Contraction of metal Continuous irregular

porosity during solidification dark lines with
(filamentary) when feed hole is branches. Lines may be
blocked very fine, similar to
layer porosity.

Gas and Blow Discrete cavities of Dark areas of smooth

hole 1.6 mm dia. or more due outlines may be circular
to entrapment of gas
evolved from molten
metal of mould.

Inclusion Entrapment of materials Dark or light areas of

such as dross and sand irregular shape with
sharp edges and folded
appearance.

Cracks Uneven distribution and Light dark blotches,

local concentration of snow flake like pattern
alloying metals.

84
 CHAPTER - 11

SELECTION OF RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiographic process involves use of penetrating radiation, such as X and gamma

rays, to detect discontinuity in materials, and to record the image on and X-rays
film. Proper image formation on the radiograph is controlled by many factors, such
as radiation source, type of film, effect of intensifying screens, geometrical factors,
exposure time, film processing, etc.

The selection of particular radiographic technique is based upon the sensitivity

requirements. The visibility of the image of a small discontinuity, in a test object, is
possible only when a proper radiography technique is used.

Radiography techniques can be affected by the following parameters :

1. Radiation source

2. Films used

3. Source to film distance (SFD) and

4. Radiation beam alignment.

A technique is selected on the basis of the knowledge about the following factors :

1. Test object - Material, thickness and configuration

2. Fabrication Process

a) Welds - Edge preparation and welding process,

b) Castings - Foundry techniques, including mold preparation location of

vents, gates, etc.

c) Assembly - Fabrication and assembly process of components.

3. Anticipated location and nature of discontinuity.

4. Critical and vulnerable locations.

5. Area of inspection coverage.

6. Sensitivity level required.

85
11.2 TECHNIQUE PARAMETER SELECTION

11.2.1 Radiation Source

Table 11.1 gives the source selection for various steel equivalent thicknesses.

TABLE 11.1

Radiation Source Maximum Steel Thickness (mm)

High Sensitivity Low Sensitivity

Technique Technique

X-rays 100 keV 10 25

150 keV 15 50

200 keV 25 75

400 keV 75 115

1 MeV 125 165

2 MeV 200 250

5 MeV 300 350

30 MeV 325 375

Iridium-192 12-62 6-100

Caesium-137 25-100 12-112

Cobalt - 60 40-150 12-190

11.2.2 Type of Film

Choice of film from class 1 to class IV, is made as in table 11.2 a & b. Generally,
for detection of finer defects, fine grain, high contrast films are used.

86
 RECOMMENDED AGFA-STRUCTURIX X-RAY FILM

Table 11.2a - For Gamma Rays

Thickness of Irridium-192 Cobalt-60

Material of
(mm) Magnesium Aluminum Steel Steel

0-06 D2, D4

06-12 D2, D4,

D5, D7

12-25 D2,D4 D2,D4 D4,D5,D7 D4

25-50 D4 D4,D5 D4,D5,D7 D4,D5,D7

50-100 D4,D5,D7 D7 D7 D5,D7

Over 100 D7 D7 D7 D7

Table 11.2b - For X-Rays

Energy range & suggested film type

Thickness of 50-80 80-120 120-150 150-250 250-400

Material of kV kV kV kV kV
(mm)

Magnesium

0-06 D2, D4 D2 D2 D2

06-12 D2, D4 D2, D4 D2, D4 D2

12-25 D4,D5,D7 D4,D5 D4 D2

25-50 D7 D4,D5 D4 D4 D2,D4

50-100 D7 D4,D5,D7 D4

100-200 D7 D4

Aluminium

0-06 D2, D4 D2,D4 D4 D2

87
 06-12 D5, D7 D4 D2, D4 D2

12-25 D7 D4,D5 D2

25-50 D7 D7,D5 D7,D5,D4 D4 D5

50-100 D7 D7 D4 D5

100-200 D7 D7

Steel

0-06 D7 D7,D5,D4 D2,D4

06-12 D7,D5,D4 D7,D5,D4,2 D2,D4

12-25 D7 D7,D5,D4,2 D7,D5,D4

25-50 D7 D7,D5,D4 D7,D5,D4

50-100 D7 D7

11.2.3 Geometrical Factors

a Dimensions of focus and source are important for determining the value
of geometric unsharpness (Ug.)

b Source to Film Distance (S.F.D.) : The selection of source film distance

depends upon the maximum value of permissible geometric unsharpness
(Ug.) It is given by the expression

SFD = t (1 + d/Ug)

SFD, t, d and Ug are in same unit

Where,

SFD-source to film distance, d-effective source size/diameter

Ug- geometrical unsharpness, t - object thickness.

SFD also controls the area of the specimen covered in a single exposure.

11.2.4 Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a radiography technique can be high or low. High sensitivity

technique is employed in all applications where radiographic examination is
mandatory. Latitude technique, in which a single radiograph covers a range of
thickness, is a low sensitivity technique, generally used for examination of assembled
parts, or an object of non-uniform thickness.

88
11.3 LATITUDE TECHNIQUE

Some of the recommended practices for latitude technique are given below :

a Use of Low Contrast Film : Using a low contrast film, the thinnest portion of the
specimen is exposed for highest acceptable film density. Depending upon the film gradient,
higher thickness, represented by the lower limit of acceptable film density, can be covered
in the inspection.

b Use of Harder Radiations : Use of harder radiation reduces the density

difference between the thicker and thinner section. So, in the permissible film density
range, the latitude improvers. While using X-ray machine, higher kV helps in
reducing exposure time also.

c Use of Filter : A filter placed near the X-ray tube removes the softer
component from the radiation beam, thus, it improves latitude.

11.4 WELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Fusion welds can be on flat plates or cylindrical objects, such as pipes, The weld
can also be of butt or fillet type. Radiographic inspection of these welds with
sensitive techniques reveals flaws, such as cracks, lack of root penetration, lack of
fusion porosity, inclusions, etc. Occurence of such defects in weld can generally be
identified with joint preparations, welding procedure, heat treatment etc. Information
on all these basic factors, guides in anticipating the occurrence of flaw at a location
and thus, helps in selecting a particular exposure geometry.

11.4.1 Technique for Fusion Welds on Flat Plates

a Butt Welds : Butt joints on flat plates are usually made with edge
preparation of single V, double V or square. Welds with single and double V edge
preparation are examined, with the possible exposure geometries as shown in figure
11.1. Technique (a) & (c) with source located perpendicular to the weld is ideal for
detection of root flaws such as cracks, lack of root penetration. Angular exposure (b)
& (d) is best for detection of lack of fusion between weld and parent metal.

Inspection techniques for butt welds with ASTM image quality indicators are shown in
figure 11.2. These are applicable for :

a) welds without reinforcement

b) welds with reinforcement

c) welds with reinforcement and intregral backing strip

d) & e) welds with reinforcement and cladding base material

89
Fig. 11.1 Radiography techniques for inspection of Butt Welds on flat plates.

b Fillet Welds : Fillet welds are generally made with square or bevel edge
preparation.

The exposure set up for joints having 100 percent corner penetration and 100
percent standing leg penetration are shown in figure 6.3 (a&b). The source is
positioned at an angle to enable detection of lack of side fusion and also lack
of root fusion.

90
FIg. 11.2 Radiography of Butt-Welds with use of ASTM penetrameters.

91
Square joints with four fillets and lap joints are examined for root penetration
with exposure set up as shown in figure 11. 3 c&d).

FIg. 11.4 Radiography technique for corner joints.

FIg. 11.4 Radiography technique for corner joints.

92
 Corner joints may have configuration as shown in figure 11.4. Square joint
with 100 percent corner penetration is radiographed as shown in figure 11.4a
for revealment of side fusion, if any. Corner joints with double bevel are
examined with exposure set up as shown in Fig. 11.4b A plane corner joint,
having 100 percent joint penetration is examined for root cracks with film
and joint in a parallel position (Fig. 11.4c)

11.4.2 Techniques for welded joints on pipes or Cylindrical objects

Depending upon the size and accessibility of both sides of the pipe, the following
techniques are adopted.

a Single Wall Penetration

In this technique, several methods of exposure are possible (Fig. 11.5). The
ideal position to locate the source would be the centre of the pipe of cylinder
as in (a) & (d). However, if the centre is not accessible or if pipe diameter is
small, the source can be off the centre and the exposure scan be taken as in
(b). The welds can be divided into several segments and the exposures are
carried out.

Fig. 11.5 Radiographic Examination of Pipes with Single Wall Penetration

93
 In the second case, the film is placed inside the pipe and the source is placed
externally as in (c). This technique is more sensitive for detecting root defects.
However, the area accessible for interpretation will be small and the entire weld is
covered by taking several exposures.

1. Source 2. Film

Fig. 11.6 Radiographic Examination of Pipe with Double Wall Penetration.

b Double wall single image

If there is no access to the inner side of the pipe, to keep either the film or
the source, this technique may be adopted (Fig. 11.6). This is mostly suitable for the
pipes of diameter above 80mm. Source can be kept on the pipe or away from the
pipe, depending on the diameter of the pipe, SFD required and accessibility.

c Double Wall Double Image

This technique is adopted for smaller size pipes of diameter upto 80mm. The
source is kept at one angle with respect to the weld, so as to avoid overlap of the
top and bottom weld. Generally, 10o - 12o offset angle is given for the exposure.
Two exposure are taken by rotating the pipe through 90o.

94
 CHAPTER - 12

RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SELECTION

OF TEST METHODS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of inspection standards and codes is to prescribe a test procedure for
correct assessment of the quality of a product. The inspection standards and codes
prescribe optimum conditions, which could produce test sensitivity closest to the
theoretical values.

12.2 INSPECTION STANDARDS AND CODES

There are several national and international standards and codes practice in industrial
radiography. Some of the prominent ones are ASTM, ASME, B.S, DIN and ISO.
These are broadly classified into four groups.

12.2.1 Standards for Image Quality Indicators (IQI) (Penetrameters)

Relevant standards

ASTM E-142 (USA) B.S. 3971 (UK)

DIN 54109 (West Germany) NF A 04-304 (France)

ISO- 1021,JIS G 3522 ( Japan)

These standards specify the type, material, size and shape of IQI and method for
calculation of sensitivity.

12.2.2 Standards for Techniques

The standards give information on the following points:

1. General requirement and technique classification

2. Film and screen selection and acceptable fog density.

3. Identification system and location markers.

4. Radiograph density.

5. Source selection.

6. Source to film distance - Ug values.

7. Image Quality Indicators.

95
 8. Procedure requirements.

12.2.3 Standards for Specific Structures and Products

Standards in this group cover specific areas of applications, such as fabrication of

pressure vessels and pipelines. Content of the standards include guidelines for test
procedures and acceptance and rejection criteria during fabrication. Some of the
important codes are:

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code Sec. III & VIII

BS 5500 (1515)

Pipelines Carrying fluids

API-Std-1104, B.S. 4677

Petrol Storage tanks B.S. 2654

12.2.4 Reference Radiographs

Sets of different types of radiographs are available for welds and castings.
Indications revealed on the radiographs are classified as per type of defects and also
graded according to their severity levels. Principle collection of reference radiographs
include.

Weld

IIW Collection of reference radiographs.

ASTM-E-390 in three volumes upto 203 mm thick steel welds.

Castings (Steel)

ASTM-E-446 thickness upto 51 mm

ASTM-E-186 for thickness from 15 - 115 mm.

ASTM-E-280 for thickness from 115-305 mm.

The standards have been classified into four broad categories.

1. Standards for welds in steel plates.

2. Standards for welds in pipes and cylindrical object.

3. Standards for welds of boiler and pressure vessels.

4. Standards for steel castings.

96
12.3 STANDARDS FOR WELDS IN STEEL PLATES

12.3.1 Classification of Techniques

In ISO-R-1106, which is applicable to fusion welds upto 50mm thickness, the

techniques are classified as -

Class A- General technique for X-rays applicable to mild or low alloy steels

Class B- More sensitive for X-ray techniques for important applications needing
higher sensitive.

Class C - General techniques for gamma rays for general applications when shape,
thickness and accessibility renders use X-rays impossible.

For plate thickness in the range 50-200 mm, ISO 2405 is applicable.

In DIN 54111, two classes of radiography techniques are specified.

Class A- General technique

Class B- More sensitive technique

Table 12.1

SCREEN THICKNESS-BS 2600 PART-I

Energy Thickness in mm

Front Back (minimum)

Below 120 kV Lead _____ 0.1

120 - 250 kV Lead 0.025 - 0.125 0.1

250 - 400 kV Lead 0.05 - 0.16 0.1

Iridium-192

Cobalt -60 Lead 0.05-0.16 0.16

Cobalt-60 Steel or Copper 0.5 - 2.0 0.25 - 1.0

12.3.2 Films and Screens

ISO R 1106

Class A - No screen type films, with or without lead screens

Class B - Fine grain high contrast films in combinations

& C with lead screens.

97
 According to ISO 2405, only direct types of films with medium speed fine grain and
very fine grain films can be used. Recommendations for screens, as per BS 2600,
are given in table 12.1

12.3.3 Source to Film Distance (SFD)

Minimum SFD depends upon the permissible Ug values. It also decides the field of
coverage in a single unidirectional exposure.

In ISO 1106, the resulting Ug value should not be more than 0.4 mm for techniques
A and C and 0.2 mm for technique B.

Table 12.2

RECOMMENDED UG VALUES AS PER ASME SEC-V

Material Maximum Ug
thickness
(mm) (mm)

Upto 50 0.5

50-75 0.75

75-100 1.0

> 100 1.7

12.3.4 Length of Specimen

The area to be considered for interpretation on a radiograph depends upon the

difference of the thickness of the material at the extreme end of the area measured in
the direction of beam incident at that point and the actual thickness at that point.
This difference should not be greater than the values given below :

ISO/R 1106 - 10% of the material thickness for Class A & B techniques.

- 6 % of the material thickness for Class C techniques.

12.3.5 Film density

The limits of acceptable film densities and maximum fog density levels are given at
table 12.3 Higher film densities are permissible, if adequate viewing facility is
available.

98
 TABLE 12.3

LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE FILM DENSITIES

Code Application Film density range Max. fog

technique density

ISO/R. 1106 Class A 1.7 to 3.0 0.2

(Non-screen film)
1.3 to 2.3 0.2
(Screen type film)
Class B & C 2.0 to 3.0 0.2

ASME X-rays 1.8 to 4.0

Section III Gamma X-rays 2.0 to 4.0 0.2
Composite 2.6 to 4.0

4. CHOICE OF RADIATION SOURCES

Selection can be made as per tables 12.4 and 12.5.

TABLE 12.4

PENETRATION RANGES OF GAMMA RAYS

Code Minimum thickness of steel

Ir-192 Cs-137 Co-60

ISO R.1106 10 25 38

BS 2600 Part I 10 25 50

DIN 54111 40-100 - 70-120*

ASME 19 38

*Indicates maximum range.

99
 TABLE 12.5

PENETRATION RANGES OF X-RAYS

Maximum Penetration Maximum Penetration

accelerating range accelerating range
potential in steel (mm) potential in steel (mm)

X-rays tubes High energy sources

150 kV Upto 15 2.0 MeV 5-250

250 kV Upto 40 4.5 Mev 25-300

400 kV Upto 65 7.5 Mev 60-460

1000 kV 5 - 90 20.00 Mev 75-610

12.5. IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (IQI)

Shapes and types of IQI generally used in radiography testing are shown in chapter
4B. Types of IQI specified under different standards are given in table 12.6.

TABLE 12.6

ISO R.1027 and BS 3971 - Wire and step/hole type

DIN 51109 - Wire type only

NF A 04304 - Step/hole type only

ASTM & ASW - Plaque type/wire type

All other recommendations such as preparation of specimen, weld location on the

radiograph, identification markers, overlap of films, cassettes, alignment of beam,
interception of scattered radiation, film processing viewing and other guidance of
general nature, are more or less similar in above codes and standards.

12.6 CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS ON PIPES AND CYLINDRICAL OBJECTS

Applicable codes for cylindrical shape objects are listed below.

API 1104 - Standard for welding pipelines and related facility by American
petroleum Institute

BS 2633 - Specification for Class I Arc welding of ferrite steel pipe work for
carrying fluids.

100
12.7 RADIOGRAPHY OF WELDS OF BOILERS AND PRESSURE
VESSELS

IIS/IIW-85-61 code prescribes 3 classes :

Class I 100% radiography of butt welds.

Class II Random Radiography.

Class III No Radiography.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code Section V exclusively deals with NDT
requirements.

The code prescribe minimum qualification of the personnel as well as their visual
activity.

12.8 RADIOGRAPHY OF CASTINGS

Though ASTM and ASME do not specify separate codes for radiographic
examination of castings, the specifications cover important aspects of radiography
procedures in various designations. Some of the important ones are

E-94 - Recommended practice for radiographic testing.

E-142- Standard for controlling quality of radiography testing

Besides these, there are number of sets of casting reference radiographs, covering
materials such as steel, copper-nickel alloy, tin, bronze, aluminum and magnesium,
described in different designations. BS 4080 gives procedure for radiographic
examination of all types of steel castings. important point to be considered, besides
other general recommendations, are given below.

a. Marking of area

b. IQI-Use of wire or step type IQI given in BS 3971 and their acceptable
sensitivity levels for different thickness are specified.

c. Only direct type X-ray films to be used in conjuction with metal foils made
of lead, copper, tantalum and tungsten, the thickness and the material
depending upon radiation energy employed.

d. Source of selection for different thickness ranges, as given in table 12.7

101
 Table 12.7

STEEL THICKNESS FOR VARIOUS ENERGIES

Radiation Steel thickness range in mm

100 kV X-rays Upto 12.5

200 kV X-rays 12.5 to 40
400 kV X-rays 40 to 90
1000 kV X-rays 50 to 150
2000 kV X-rays 60 to 250
5-31 Mev X-rays 75 to 400
Iridium-192 12.5 to 75
Caesium-137 20 to 100
Cobalt-60 40 to 200

While using double film technique to cover thick and thin sections in a casting, the
kilovoltage energy of the radiation will be determined by the thicker section

12.9 BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS - Codes and standards

Bureau of Indian Standards has a number of standards on industrial radiography

practices, some of them are given in table 12.8.

TABLE 12.8

CODE TITLE

IS 2598-1966 Safety code for industrial radiography practices

IS 2595-1693 Code practice for radiography testing.

IS 1182-1967 Recommended practice for the radiographic

examination of fusion welded butt joints in
steel plates.

IS 3657-1966 Specifications for image quality indicators.

IS 4853-1968 Recommended practice for radiographic

examination of fusion welded circumferential
joints in steel pipes.

102
Except IS 3657, all other standards cover radiography practices in a general way.
Highlights of these specifications are as under :

a IS 2595 : This standard is prepared deriving assistance from ASTM-E-94. It

includes exposure charts for X-rays, general procedures or exposure set up,
film processing and radiation protection of personnel. Information on various
types of image quality indicators is appended in the standard.

b IS 2598 : This code is formulated on the lines of ICRP recommendations

illustrating the possible radiation hazards from internal and external
contamination, due to radiation sources, Radiation safety requirements for X-
ray and gamma ray installations, radiation leakages from the source housings
and shielding methods are suggested. Personnel radiation monitoring has been
extensively covered. The standard serves as an ideal guide for safe
radiography practices.

c IS 3657 : The standard gives the specification for fabrication of image quality
indicators.

d IS 1182 : The standard recommends three techniques for conduct of

radiographic examination such as :

a) General technique for X-rays

b) Special techniques for X-rays and

c) Technique for gamma ray examination

For standard radiation sources, the source to film distance can be read off
directly from the graphs. The acceptable film density is 1.7 to 3.0 for
techniques (a) and (b) and 2.0 to 3.0 for techniques (c).

e IS 4853 : The standard outlines the procedure for the radiographic

examinations of the circumferential joints in steel pipes most of the
recommendations are common with IS 1182. Some typical exposure
arrangements are also illustrated.

Group A : Applicable for the radiographic examination of longitudinal and

circumferential butt welds of drum shells and head. The extent radiographic coverage
on the cylindrical objects depends upon the diameter and the wall thickness.

Group B : Group B is for the spot radiographic examination comprising of at least

10% of the whole length of the weld. Individual radiographs are not shorter than 25
cm, unless necessitated by the shape of the joint. In all cases, the radiographic
examination covers joints of intersections of welds. Spot radiographic examination is
generally applicable for the butt welds in furnaces, combustion chambers, etc.

103
12.10 ACCEPTANCE LIMITS

Acceptance or rejection of welds, castings or other articles based on the magnitude

of the discontinuity, as detected by radiographic examination, is complicated and
needs a background knowledge on interpretation of radiographs. These limits are
generally established with reference data on 'effect of flow on the strength of the
material under various service conditions'.

12.10.1 Acceptable and unacceptable Flaws

A radiograph of a weld or casting may show certain indication due to discontinuity,

which may not lower or reduce the material strength and also no failure could be
caused because of them. Such flaws are considered acceptable. For example in a
casting, the defects which occur on or near surface and likely to be removed in the
final machining, are acceptable. Weld indications such as central line crevices, high-
low, limited tungsten inclusion, wagon tracks and weld spatters are considered not
harmful.

12.10.2 Classification of defects

First step, towards arriving at acceptance/rejection limits of defects would be to

classify them in broad categories, such as surface and internal discontinuity. In case
of internal defects, it would further be necessary to identify their nature, such as
planar type of volume type. Next step would be to assess their severity and arrange
them in order of severity levels and group them together with common identifier.

12.10.3 Acceptance/Rejection

Procedure for acceptance/rejection involves either of the following methods :

a) Use of Reference Radiographs : Reference radiographs provide excellent

guidance for comparing the flaws on the radiograph, leading to their
classification for acceptability.

b) Measuring dimensions of the flaws and tallying their sum with the acceptable
norms, given in the standard.

12.10.4 Typical acceptance standards

a) Welds

IIW has published an atlas of 'Collection of Reference Radiographs of welds,' in

which the flaws has been grouped together and codified in different colours, such as
black, blue, green and red, in order increasing severity.

104
ASTM-E 390 has 3 volumes of reference radiographs, based on seven nominal weld
thicknesses. There are graded flaws shown in five severity levels. Upgraded flaws
are given for information.

b) Cracks

Any type of crack is unacceptable, under the codes for pressure vessels, and
pipelines, exception being crater crack upto 4mm permissible under API-1104

c) Incomplete Fusion and Penetration

Not acceptable, under all codes applicable to pressure vessels. However, codes
applicable to pipelines carrying fluids such as BS 2654 Part 2, API 1104, BS 2633,
BS 4677, the welds are rejectable when the length exceeds the specified limit.

d) Inclusion

Slag inclusions of certain dimensions are permissible in a certain length and

thicknesses of weld.

In case of tungsten inclusion, only a small size less than 3 mm or 1/4 of thickness
of weld, which ever is less, is permitted.

e) Porosity

Acceptable limits of porosity are determined by total permissible areas of porosity, in

a certain length of weld. Porosity charts indicating the size. number and their
distribution pattern for a thickness of weld, are usually available for comparison.

f) Root Cavities

Root cavities resulting in thickness of welds lesser than that of parent metal are
unacceptable.

g) Burn Through

Unprepared burn through should not exceed 6 mm or thickness of pipe.

h) Undercuts

Undercuts should not exceed certain percent of the pipe wall thickness, maximum
permitted being 0.8 mm

i) Castings

ASME section VIII Provides guidelines for acceptance/rejection limits for steel
castings, upto thickness of 305 mm, using following ASTM standards :

105
E-466 - Upto 51 mm thickness

E-185 - From 51 to 115 mm

E-280 - From 115 to 305 mm

Casting defects in these standards have been divided in seven groups, such as gas
porosity, sand and slag inclusions, shrinkages hot tears, cracks, linear discontinuity,
inserts and mottling. These defects have been presented in 5 classes representing
increasing severity levels. Maximum acceptable severity limits under ASME section
VIII are given in table 12.9.

TABLE 12.9

Defect type E-446 E-186 E-280

upto 25 25-50 51-115 115-305

Gas porosity 1 1 2 2

Sand and slag 2 3 2 2

Inclusions

Shrinkages 1 3

Type 1 1 3

Type 2 1 2

Type 3 3 2

Hot tears 0 0 0

Cracks 0 0 0

Linear 0 0 0 0

discontinuity 0 0 0 0

Inserts 0 0 0 0

Mottling 0 0 - -

For ferrous castings, weighing 50 kg. and above, suggested acceptance guidelines are
given in table 12.10

106
 TABLE 12.10

ACCEPTANCE GUIDELINES FOR FERROUS CASTINGS

1. Cracks and Hot tears Unacceptable

2. Sponginess Unacceptable

3. Cold shuts Unacceptable

4. Unfused chills and Unacceptable

chaplets

5. Filamentary Shrinkages Can be accepted, if indicated as central line

shrinkage. Dangerous when extending
towards surface. Each case to be judged on the
basis of its location in the casting.

6. Gas holes Not serious, if not interconnected can be

accepted upto 20% of the thickness section.

7. Sand inclusions Being surface or sub-surface, acceptance to

be decided in relation with the amount of
machining.

107
 TABLE 12.11

DETAILS OF STANDARDS

ISO R 1106 Recommended practice for radiographic inspection of fusion welded butt
joints, for steel upto 50 mm (2 inches) thick.

ISO 2405 Recommended practice for radiographic inspection of fusion welded butt
joints, for steel plates 50 to 200 mm thick.

ISO R 947 Recommended practice for radiographic inspection of circumferential

fusion welded butt joints in steel pipes upto 50 mm wall thickness.

IIW-85-61 Radiography of welds of boilers and pressure vessels.

B.S. 2600 General recommendations for radiographic

Part - 1973 examination of fusion weld circumferential butt joints in steel pipes.

B.S. 2910 General recommendations for radiographic

1965 examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel pipes.

B.S. 4080 Methods for Non-destructive testing of steel

1966 castings.

B.S. 1971 Specifications for image quality indicators for

1961 radiography and recommendations for their use.

B.S. 2654 Part-2- Specification for vertical steel welded

1961 storage tanks with butt welded shell for petroleum industry.

B.S. 2633 Specifications for Class I arc welding of ferrite

1966 steel pipe work, used for carrying fluids.

B.S. 4677 Specifications for Class I arc welding of 1971 austenitic stainless
steel pipe work, used for carrying fluids.

DIN 5411 German standard.

108
 CHAPTER - 13

SAFETY IN RADIOGRAPHY
13.1 RADIATION HAZARD CONTROL

Use of gamma or X-ray equipment in industrial radiography poses external radiation

hazard. X-rays are emitted by an X-ray machine, only when it is switched 'ON'.
Hence, when the X-ray machine is switched 'OFF', we are safe from radiation
hazard, whereas, in gamma ray equipment, even in the 'OFF' condition, there is a
certain amount leakage radiation coming out of the camera or shield. Radiation
hazard from any radiographic source depends upon a. Energy of the gamma
radiation, b. Radiation output, c. Half-life of the radioisotope. Each radiography
source emits gamma radiation of one or more energies. The energy of the gamma
radiation emitted by cobalt-60 is different from that of iridium-192 (Table 13.1).

TABLE 13.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCES

Radiography Physical Half-life Gamma energy Exposure rate

source form (Mev) at 1 metre R/h/Ci mGy/h/Gbq

Iridium-192 Metallic 74d 0.4 (Avg.) 0.5 0.12

Cobalt-60 Metallic 5.26 y 1.17, 1.33 1.32 0.31

1 Gy (air kerma) = 114 R 1 GBq = 0.027 Ci

Cobalt-60 source has gamma radiation of two energies 1.17 Mev and 1.33 MeV.
Gamma radiation energies from a given radioisotope (say cobalt-60) are the same
whether it's activity 1 Ci, 1000 Ci or of any other value. Gamma radiation of higher
energy has higher penetrating power.

The radiation level or the exposure rate at a particular location increases with
increase in activity of source.

13.1.1 EXPOSURE RATE CONSTANT

Radiation level (R/h) at 1 metre from a 1 Ci (37 GBq) radioactive source is known
as the RHM (Roentgen/Hour at 1 metre from the source). It is a constant for a
particular source.

It is possible to calculate the RHM, knowing the photon energy absorption

coefficient in air, RHM for any source can be approximately determined by the
formula.

109
RHM = 0.52 E R/h (See Table 13.1)

where, E is photon energy per disintegration.

Similarly, of the activity of the source is given in Si units i.e. in GBq, then the air
kerma rate at 1 meter for 1 GBq activity, for any particular source can be considered
as a constant. This value would be = 0.125 mGy/h (air kerma rate)

Radiation output at 1 metre (100 cm) from a given source

= RHM value X activity in Ci ..... R/h

Thus, the radiation level at 1 metre from a 7 Ci (259 GBq) iridium-192 source is

= RHM value x 7 = 0.5 x 7 = 3.5 R/h

Similarly, at 1 metre from a 185 GBq (5Ci) cobalt-60 source, the radiation level will
be

= RHM value x 5 R/h 1.32 x 5 = 6.60 R/h

If the radiation level at 1 meter is known, the activity of the source can be
determined. Say, if the radiation level at 1 meter from an iridium- 192 source is 1.5
R/h, then

o.5 x Ci = 1.5 R/h

Activity of the iridium-192 source = 1.5/0.5 = 3 Ci = 111 GBq

Similarly if the source is cobalt-60, and the radiation level is 0.66 R/h at 1 meter
from the source, then 1.32 x Ci = 0.66 R/h

0.66
Activity of the cobalt-60 source = = 0.5 Ci = 18.5 GBq
1.32

Radiation hazard from an X- ray equipment depends on

a. kV and mA of the X-ray equipment and

b. X-ray output.

X-RAY OUTPUT (R/H) depends not only on the kV and mA of the X-ray
equipment, but also on various other factors such as construction of the tube, size of
the target, type of rectification, amount of inherent filtration of X-ray tube, etc. The
radiation output from an X-ray equipment is very high as compared to the radiation
output from gamma sources, normally used in industrial radiography. Table 13.2
gives and idea about the radiation output of some common industrial X-ray
equipment.

110
 The hazard from and X-ray equipment depends not only on the output, but also on
the applied voltage, since the later determines the penetrating power of the radiation.

TABLE 13.2

RADIATION OUTPUT OF SOME INDUSTRIAL X-RAY MACHINES

Make & Type Max kVv/mA Filter Focal Spot Radiation output
mm mm2 R/min at 1 m

Philips MCN-421 300/10 2.2 Be 4.5 X 4.5 392

350/10 2.2 Be 4.5 X 4.5 408
420/10 2.2 Be 4.5 X 4.5 440
Siefert 420/10 7.0 Be 4.5 X 4.5 59
320/7 7.0 Be 1.5 x 1.5 24
320/13 7.0 Be 4 x 14 58
Adrex CMA 16 160/4.5 No Data 1.5 x 1.5 230
CMA 20 200/4.5 No Data 3.9 x 3.9 170
CMA 30PF 300/4.5 No Data 4.8 x 4.8 230
Sonex
100/5 2.0 Al 1.5 x 1.5 8
200/5 2.0 Al 2x2 58
300/5 3.0 Al 3.2 x 3.2 150

13.1.2 CONTROL OF EXTERNAL HAZARD

The three basic factors by which external radiation hazard can be controlled are

a. time

b. distance

c. shielding

Time :

It is essential, from radiation protection point of view, that the time spent near
gamma or X-ray equipment during radiographic exposure should be minimum. The
radiation dose received by a radiographer depends upon the total time spent by him
near a source.

In view of high radiation output from an X-ray equipment, even a few seconds of
exposure to direct X-ray beam will result in very high dose to the exposed person.

111
If an operator takes 1 minute while working with a source and is exposed to 10mR,
another operator who takes 2 minutes to do the same job would be exposed to
2 x 10 = 20 mR. If we were to take 1/4 minute, he would have been exposed to
only 1/4 x 10 = 2.5 mR.

LESSER THE TIME SPENT NEAR THE SOURCE,

OR X-RAY EQUIPMENT (DURING EXPOSURE)

LESSER WOULD BE THE RADIATION DOSE

In order to minimize the time of exposure

a. All the operations should be planned in advance.

B. All the operations be performed, initially on a trial basis without radiation

and in case of gamma rays with a non-radioactive dummy source. The time
taken should be noted.

c. If the total workload (number of exposures) is large, it may be shared by two

or three operators. Evaluation of dose received by each operator should be
done by using pocket dosimeters, especially during field radiography.

Example 13.1 :

Each radiography shot with an X-ray equipment results in an exposure of 2 mR to

the operator. How many operators are necessary to take 120 such shots in a week ?

Weekly permissible limit for each operator = 20 mR

Exposure to operator during one shot = 2 mR

Number of shots one operator can take = 20/2 = 10

Number of operators required for the job = 120/10=12

Example 13.2 :

Am operator wearing a pocket dosimeter spends 10 minutes in a radiation field of

150 mR/h. What is the exposure recorded by the dosimeter ?

Radiation = 150 mR/h

Radiation exposure for 60 minutes = 150 mR

Radiation exposure for 10 minutes = 150 x (10/60) = 25 mR

112
 Distance :

Larger the distance, lesser is the radiation level. The most effective and economic
method of reducing external radiation is to increase the distance between the
radiation source and persons.

13.1.3 MAINTAIN MAXIMUM DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE

a. Use manipulator rods or tongs

b. Use long cables between X-ray unit and the control panel.

c. In case of remote operated cameras, operate at maximum distance from

source head.

The radiation intensity or radiation level from a given source decreases as we move
away from the source. It is governed by the following inverse square law.

I1D12 = I2D22

Where I1 = radiation level (R/h) at a distance D1 metres from the source.

I2 = radiation level (R/h) at a distance D2 metres from the source.

If means, if we double the distance, the radiation level would be one fourth of the
x˚
ˆ 2 =
ˆ
earlier level.

Thus, at 2 m distance (D1) from a gamma radiography source, if the radiation level
is 125 m R/h (I1), at 5 m distance, (D2) the radiation level (I2) the radiation level (I2)
would be 20 mR/h, since

125 x 22 = 12 x 52

= 20 mR/h

Fig. 13.1 Exposure Rate with one Curie Iridium-192 Source.

Example 13.3 :

Determine the radiation level at a distance of 5 metres from a 74 GBq (2 Ci)

iridium-192 source.

Activity of the source = 74 GBq (2Ci)

113
RHM for iridium-192 = 0.5 R/h at 1 m

Radiation level at 1 m (D1) from a 74 GBq (2Ci) source (I1) 2 x 0.5 = 1 R/h

12 is the radiation level at 5 metres (D2)

Since, 1 x 1 = I2 x 52

I = 1/25 R/H = 40 mR/h

Example 13.4 :

The radiation level at 4 metres from a gamma source is 500 mR/h. What is the
distance required to reduce the radiation level to 20 mR/h ?

I1 = 500 mR/h D1 = I2 = 20 mR/h D2 = ?

Since, I2D12 = I2D22, as per the diverse square law

500 x 42 = 20 D22

or

D2 = V400 = 20 m = 20 metres

Example 13.5 :

What is the distance in metres required the radiation level from a 148 GBq (4 Ci)
iridium-192 source to 0.20 mR/h ?

RHM of iridium-192 = 0.5 R/h = 500 mR/h

Activity of the source = 148 GBq (4 Curies)

Radiation level at 1 m = 4 x 500 = 2000 mR/h

Thus, we are given that

D1 = 1 m, I1 = 2000 mR/h D2 = ?, I2 = 0.2 mR/h

2000 x 1 = 0.20 x D22

2000 20000
D22 = = = 10000
0.20 2

D2 = v10000 = 100 m

114
 Example 13.6 :

Radiation level at 50 cm distance from an X-ray equipment is 20 R per minute.

What is the radiation level at a distance of 10 metres ?

I1 = 20 R/min. D1 = 50 cm I2 = ? D2 = 10 m

I1D12 = I2D22

20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = I2 x 10 x 10

20 x 0.5 x 0.5
I2 =
10 x 10 = 0.05 R/h = 50 mR/h\

Example 13.7 :

What is the distance in metres required to reduce the radiation level from 40 R/hour
at 1 metre to 100 mR/hour ?

I1 = 40 R/h = 40000 mR/h D1 = 1 mI2 = 100 mR/h D2 = ?

I1D12 = I2D22

40000
D2 2 = = 400
100

D2 2 = 400 = 20 metres

13.1.4 Shielding :

When maximum distance and minimum time do not bring down the radiation level
to an acceptably low value, materials like concrete, steel or lead are used as a shield
between the source and the operator.

Shielding Thickness Calculations :

Shielding is provided in order to reduce the radiation intensity to the required value.
The shielding thickness required can be calculated from transmission graphs (Fig.
13.2). Transmission is the ratio of the addition level with the shield to that without
shield. Radiation level with shield.

Radiation level with shield

Transmission -------------------------------------
Radiation level without shield

115
The required shielding thickness can also be calculated by making of half value
thickness or tenth value thickness

SHIELD YOURSELF FROM A SOURCE OF RADIATION

Fig. 13.2 Transmission Graph

The shielding properties of any material depend upon the atomic number of the
material and the energy of the incident radiation.

Example 13.8 :

Calculate the lead shielding thickness required to reduce the radiation level from a
14 Ci ( 518 GBq) iridium-192 source to 3.5 mR/h at 10 metres.

RHM x activity of the source in Ci

Radiation level at = ------------------------------------------------
102

116
 14 x 0.5 14 x 0.5
= 10 x 10 R/h = 10 x 10 x 1000 mR/h = 70 mR/h.

This is the radiation level at 10 metres from the source without any shielding. One
TVT of shielding will reduce the radiation level to 70-10 = 7 mR/h. Additional
thickness of 1 HVT of shielding will reduce the radiation level to 7-2 = 3.5 mR/h.
Therefore, the total thickness required is

= 1 TVT + 1 HVT

= 1.6 cm + 0.48 cm of lead

= 2.08 cm of lead = 2 cm (approx.) of lead

Example 13.9 :

The radiation level at 1 metre from a lead container housing an Irridium-192 source
is 10 mR/h. If 1 cm lead is removed from the container, what will be the new
radiation level at the same distance ?

HVT of lead = 0.48 cm

1
No, of HVT in 1 cm of lead = = 2 (approx)
+
0.48+ +
ˆ ++ ˆ ++
Removal of 1 HVT of shielding will increase the radiation level by 2 times.

Removal of 2 HVT of shielding will increase the radiation level by 22 = 4 times.

Hence, Radiation level at 1 metre from the container after removal of 1 cm lead =
22 x 10 = 40 mR/h.

Example 13.10 :

Calculate the required shielding thickness in lead which will reduce the radiation
level from an X-ray equipment (300kv 10mA) to 3mR/h at one metre. [Given-
radiation output per mA. min (for 300 kV X-ray equipment) at 50 cm from the
target is 20 R]

Radiation level per mA. min at 1 m = = 5R

Radiation level at 1 m for 10 mA.min = 10x 5=50 R

Radiation level at 1 m for hour =50 x60 min =3000R/h
This value is to be reduced to 3 mR/h

117
 3000
Reduction factor = = 1000 = 103
3

Shielding thickness required = 3 TVT = 3 x 6 mm

= 18mm = 1.8 cm

Example 13.11

An X-ray machine is operated at 150 kv and 5 kv and 5 mA. What is the thickness
of concrete required to reduce the radiation level at 5 meter to 1 mR/h?
(See Figure 13.2)

1m R/h corresponds to 0.10 R/h

For 150 kV, 5 mA,

the radiation level at 5 m should not exceed 0.001R/h

If the equipment is operated at 1 mA,

the radiation level at 4 m should not exceed (0.001-5 ) R/h i.e., 0.0002R/h

At 1 m, the radiation level should be less than 0.005

From figure 13.2, to achieve this,26 cm of concrete shielding is required

13.2 SAFETY IN RADIOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS

13.2.1 General

Radiography installations are those areas where X and gamma radiations are used for
purpose of radiographic inspection.

In industrial radiography, radiography equipment is used, generally, either in factory

premises or at construction sites. If may he used either inside a radiography
enclosure ( enclosed installation) or in open areas such as workshop or construction
sites ( field installation). All such installations, where radiography equipment is
proposed to be used, shall be got approved by the Head, Radiation protection
Services Division ( RPSD), BARC, are broadly divided into tow categories, viz
controlled areas and uncontrolled areas.

Areas which are occupied only by radiation workers and are under direct supervision
of Radiological Safety Officer are called controlled areas and the radiation levels in
these areas shall not exceed the specified whole body does limits for radiation
workers (40 mR in on week.)

118
 Areas which are occupied only by radiation workers and are called uncontrolled
areas. The radiation levels in these areas shall not exceed the whole body dose limits
recommended for members of public (2 mR in one week).

In the case of enclosed installations, the radiation levels outside are controlled by
providing barriers (shielding) of concrete and brick (for walls) and steel or lead (for
entrance doors). The thickness of the barrier depends upon many parameters, such as
radiation source used and its activity, in case of radioisotopes, the maximum ratings
(kV & mA) of X-ray equipment, X-ray output in case of X-rays, weekly workload,
distance between the barrier and the radiography equipment, occupancy factor, use
factor and dose limits. The HVT and TVT values, can be made use of for
calculating shielding thickness values.

While selecting the area for use as X-ray installation, an area of comparatively low
occupancy is preferred. The area chosen shall be such that it should facilitate easy
and covenant movement of radiography objects.

13.2.2 Enclosed Radiography Installations

Enclosed installations are those area specifically earmarked for radiography purpose
with walls of adequate thickness all around, so that the radiation levels outside the
walls are well below the operational limits. The objects to be radiographed are
always brought to the enclosure for radiography examination. Radiography work can
be carried out safety inside the enclosure without causing hindrance or radiation
hazard to other workers outside. As far as practicable, all radiography exposures
should be given, only in such radiography enclosures, the nature and activity of the
source used, the size of the objects to be radiographed, the total work-load etc.
(figure 13.3 and 13.4)

Fig. 13.3 Enclosed Installation

(Radiography Room with siding door Entry System)

119
 Wherever the objects are huge in size and also heavy, a open-to enclosure or a pit
type enclose (fig. 13.5) may be provided so that the objects for radiography may be
lowered into the exposure room by means of overhead cranes. In such radiography
enclosure, the radiation dose to the cranes operator should be well within the
specified limits. Further, in such installations, the sky shine radiation level (the
contribution due to the radiation scattered by air and other intervening materials
above, such as beam, roof etc.) around the enclosure in the workshop should be kept
below the limits. The maximum activity of the source that can be handled in such
installation is mainly decide by the sky shine considerations. The construction
material used for such installations may be either brick or concrete. These installation
should preferably be located in the least occupied areas. Expert advice on the
planning of such radiography installations is given by the Radiation Protection
Services (RPSD) BARC, Bombay 400 085

Figure 13.4 - Enclosed Installation (Exposure Room with Maze Entry System.)

120
 Fig. 13.5 Enclose Installation (Pit type- Open top)

Safety in Enclosed Radiography Installations

The following are some of the salient points which need to be considered while
planning radiography enclosures as well as during the use of radiography sources
inside such enclosed installations.

1. Prior to undertaking construction approval of the proposed layout of the

radiography enclosure should be obtained from Head, RPSD

2. All walls, floors ceilings and doors shall have sufficient shielding so as to
minimize radiation levels, below the recommended dose limits. The Shielding
material chosen should be structurally strong and should be properly
supported.

3. All exposures should be given from a separate control room, situated outside
the exposure room.

4. The exposure room should be kept locked, when not in use.

5. Entry of unauthorized persons into these areas should be strictly prohibited.

6. The entrance door to the exposure room should be locked during exposures.
A suitable electrical or mechanical interlocking system for the door may be
incorporated so that the radiation beam cannot be made 'ON' when the door
is open.

121
7. Underground conduits should be provided, for cables, between the control
room and the exposure room. There shall not be any through and through
opening or hole in any of the walls of exposure room.

8. If there is a lead glass viewing window in the wall between control room and
exposure room, it is essential to confirm its lead equivalence, so that it
provides adequate protection. It is also necessary to confirm that there is no
radiation streaming through the fixing frame of the viewing window.

9. There should not be any windows on the walls of the exposure room. Exhaust
openings should be provided on walls adjoining unoccupied areas at a height
of at least 2.5 metres above the floor level. These ventilators or exhausts or
any such openings in the walls should be provided with suitable baffles.

10. A red warning light shall be provided above the entrance door, as well as
inside the exposure room and this light shall be made 'NO' whenever the
radiography equipment is energized. Radiation warning signs with legends
"RADIATION-DANGER-KEEP AWAY" SHALL BE conspicuously painted
on the entrance door.

11. A radiation zone monitor should be installed at a suitable location, so as to

indicate the radiation levels during exposures and also positively indicate the
'ON' of safe position of the source.

12. In the case of open top enclosures, red light should be provided on the top of
the walls and should be made 'ON' during exposures as a warning to the care
operator.

13. All operations with the equipment should be done from the control room.

14. An emergency switch to turn the X-ray equipment 'OFF' and a means of
communication shall be provided inside the exposure room, which can be
made use of by persons who are trapped there by mistake. It should be
possible to energise the X-ray equipment from the control panel, only after
pressing a reset switch provided inside the exposure room.

15. Setting up of objects, films, etc. for radiographic inspection should be duly
completed , before starting the exposure.

16. Wherever possible, the radiation beam should be directed towards areas of
minimum occupancy. The beam should never be pointed towards doors,
windows or the control panel. Any restrictions on the beam directions which
are assumed while planning the installation should be strictly followed. This
information should also be prominently displayed in a poster in the
radiography area.

122
 17. All safety accessories, tools and handling devices required for routine or
emergency use in the exposure room must be readily available in good
working condition in the control room.

18. All important information pertaining to radiation safety, such as radioisotope,

activity maximum ratings of the X-ray equipment, the directions towards
which the primary beam can be pointed and the maximum weekly work load,
etc. shall be conspicuously exhibited inside the exposure room, as well as in
the control room.

19. If more than one radiation machine is used in the same room, it should be
ensured that only one of them is operated at a time.

13.2.4 Field Radiography Installation

In some cases, it may not be possible to restrict the radiography work within the
exposure room, eg., huge objects, radiography at erection sites etc. In such cases
radiography work in the field/plan area is permitted subject to the approval of the
site by the RPSD, BARC.

13.2.5 Safety in Field Radiographic Installations

1. There should be a site incharge looking after the radiation safety.

2. Exposure shall be performed only when minimum number of people are

present around the radiography site. [for example ; third shift (during night)
or holidays]

3. Certain area around the source, should be cordoned off using ropes and
radiation warning symbols. The radiation outside the cordoned area should be
within the dose limit for non-radiation workers.

4. The exact area to be cordoned off will depend upon the nature and activity
of the source, type of exposures (collimated or panoramic), the work load and
the nature of occupancy around.

5. The cordoning distance during field radiography, should be computed such

that the radiation level beyond the cordon is less than 1 uSv/h (0.1 mrem/h).
This correspond to 1 mSv/dose limit for general public) for a work load of
20h/wk. If the worload is less than 20 h/wk, then the cordon off distance
may be calculated for a dose limit of 20 uSv/wk.

6. Proper collimators should be used to limit the radiation beam to the job to be
radiographed.

123
 7. The collimated beam or in case of X-rays, the primary beam, shall be
directed only towards unoccupied areas or adequately shielded areas.

8. Entry of unauthorized person into these cordoned areas during exposures

should be strictly prohibit.

9. Radiation warning sign "RADIATION DANGER - KEEP AWAY" in

English as well as in local language should be posted around the site.

10. Setting up procedures required for radiography shall be completed prior to

start of radiographic exposure.

11. Maximum length of the cable, provided between the control panel and
radiography equipment, shall always be made use of.

12. Whenever possible, the control panel of the X-ray equipment should be
positioned behind some temporary shielding barrier. A temporary Shield,
preferably lead, should also be provided behind the object, in the direction of
the direction of the primary beam.

13. The primary X-ray beam shall never be pointed towards the control unit.

14. Properly calibrated radiation monitors, shall always be used, to confirm that
radiation levels, in controlled areas, as well as along the cordon, are below
specified limits.

15. A proper log-book should be maintained in which information of day-to-day

use of radiographic sources and the radiation levels around cordoned off areas
are recorded.

16. Any radiation accident or loss of source/camera should be immediately

reported to Head, RPSD, Bombay.

13.3 TRANSPORT OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

Following procedure should be adopted for the transport of radiography sources.

1. Make sure that the source has returned to the camera.

2. Monitor the guide tube to ensure that the source is not left inside the guide
tube.

3. Lock the camera so as to ensure that the source pigtail would not be released
from the camera.

4. Monitor the camera with a suitable survey meter (eg., MR 4500, SM 140D
or Minirad), in order to determine if there are any hot spots on the camera. If

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 any hot spot is detected the camera should not be despatched without
obtaining specific prior permission from Head, RPSD, BARC, Bombay 400
085.

5. If the camera is free from hot spots, place the camera in a sturdy wooden box,
preferably in the same box in which it was originally received from the supplier or
in an equally sturdy box. Make sure that the box is in good condition.

6. Close the box and lock it.

7. Act as directed in the 'procedure for making, labelling and forwarding the package
containing radioactive materials' given below.

Procedure for Marking, Labelling and Forwarding Package Containing

Radioactive Materials

1. Monitor the radiation level at the external surface of the box using a suitable
survey meter (eg. MR 4500, SM 140D or Minirad) and record the maximum
radiation level at the external surface of the package in mR/h. This should
not exceed the limit of 200 mR/h.

2. Measure the radiation levels at a distance of one meter from the external
surface of the package in mR/h and record the maximum value. This
maximum valve is the transport index (T.I.) of the package.

3. Having thus determined the category of the package, affix the labels of the
determined category on at least two opposite sides, on the external surface of
the package.

TABLE 13.3

Limit on the radiation Limit on

level at the external Transport
surface of the package Index
(mR/h)

Category I-White 0.5

Category II-Yellow 50 1.0

Category III-YELLOW 200 10.0

5. Write the following details on the external surface of the package clearly and
legibly.

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 a. Complete address of the sender and the receiver of the package,

b. gross weight of the package,

c. the legend 'RADIOACTIVE'

d. the legend 'Type B'.

6. Bind a strap around the package as proof against tamper.

7. Obtain the following transport document from the site incharge.

a. Consignor's declaration in the format given below: 'I hereby certify

that the package containing radioactive material has been properly
packed, marked and labelled and as such the consignment is in
conformity with the relevant regulations for Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material.'

8. Forward the package to the carrier along with the above transport documents.

13.4 SOURCE STORAGE FACILITIES

1. An appropriate source storage facility necessary for safe storage and proper
security of the source. Not having a proper storage facility may result in loss
of radiography sources. All the radiography sources, cameras and source
containers (lead pot), when not in use, should be stored necessarily in a
separate storage room/shed with a pit under lock and key. Radiography
cameras and leadpots should never be left at the work site unattended.

2. As soon as the radiography work is completed. The radiography camera

should be immediately returned to the storage place and kept under lock and
key.

3. The radiographer should regularly check the proper and safe storage of
radiography sources inside the radiography camera/storage room by
monitoring the radiation levels around, using a suitable radiation monitor.

4. After storing the radiography camera/lead pot inside the storage place, the
storage place, the storage place should be securely locked and the key should
be handed over to a responsible person for safe custody.

5. If more than one radiography camera is to be stored inside the storage room,
individual storage pits may be provided inside the room for easy
identification so as to avoid any possible mix-up of source. While providing
storage pits, care should be taken to prevent water seepage into the pits
during monsoon.

126
 Fig. 13.6 Radiography source storage room.

6. Radiation warning symbols should be exhibited outside the storage room.

7. Radiation level around the storage room should be less than 0.25 mR/h.

8. Fencing should be provided around the storage facility to prevent

unauthorized entry into storage areas. A typical source storage facility is
shown in Fig. 13.6.

9. A log book should be maintained in order to record the day-to-day use of

radiography sources stored in the storage room.

13.5 SAFE WORK PRACTICES AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The operators of the radiography equipment should ensure that all the safety
instructions, stipulated for the particular radiography equipment, by
Radiological Safety Officer (RSO), are scrupulously followed.

2. Suitable radiation monitors should be used to measure radiation levels.

3. All operators of radiography equipment should wear personnel radiation

monitoring badges and dosimeters.

4. Setting up procedures for radiography shall be completed before start of

radiographic exposure. Job specimens of test objects and film cassettes shall
never be held by hand during exposures.

5. Wherever possible, suitable beam limiting devices, such as collimators/

diaphragms should be used, to limit the area of the primary beam as per the
job requirement.

127
 6. Unauthorized entry into controlled areas shall be prevented. Particulars care
should be exercised while using panoramic X-ray equipment (rod anode
tubes) since in such units, the primary X-ray beam is emitted in all directions
(3600).

7. All radiographic exposure shall be given only by duly approved operators and
they shall be in immediate attendance when the radiographic equipment is in
use.

8. The maximum length of the cable, provide between radiographic equipment

and the control nit/panel, should be made use of and the operator should
always position the control unit/panel himself behind temporary barrier/huge
objects.

9. The radiographic equipment, when not being used, shall be secured in such a
manner as to prevent its operation by unauthorized persons.

10. Maintenance and servicing of radiography equipment shall not be attempted

without consulting the Radiological Safety Officer.

11. The operator of the radiographic equipment shall maintain a log book to
record the details of day-to-day use of the equipment.

12. Any emergency situation which might result in higher radiation dose, should
be immediately brought to the notice of Radiological safety Officer.

13. The operators should be aware of their dose records and of periodical
medical examination.

13.6 SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS

1. NEVER TOUCH OR HANDLE THE SOURCE PENCIL WITH BARE
HANDS.

Gloves (not even lead gloves) do not offer any protection. Always use
suitable manipulator rods/tongs for handling the source pencil.

2. Never carry the radiographic source in an unlocked lead pot or radiographic

camera. Lock the radiographic camera/lead pot securely and carry in a
suitable wooden box. Never transport the radiography source/camera or the
lead pot in a passenger compartment of the train or in a passenger bus. It
should always be transported in the goods compartment or in a separate
vehicle.

128
3. Never forget to carry the remote handling tongs and other source handling
accessories along with the radiography equipment to the site.

4. Never leave the camera or lead pot unattended at the site. Always store the
camera and the lead pot in a separate storage area under lock and key.

5. Never leave the source unattended at the site during exposures. A person
must be present at the site during exposures to have a constant watch so that
the sources are not picked up by others.

6. Never do the radiography work at crowded locations. Do it either during

night or on holidays or when there is very little occupancy around.

7. Never forget to cordon off the area with ropes. Radiation warning symbols or
red lights should also be provided along the cordon to warn people.

8. Never allow anybody to enter these cordoned areas during exposures.

9. Never attempt to take out the source pencil from the camera.

10. Always try to use the minimum required source activity for panoramic
exposures.

LESSER THE SOURCE ACTIVITY, LESSER WILL BE THE DOSE

RECEIVED IN ANY GIVEN TIME.

11. Try dummy operations prior to giving the actual exposures in order to reduce
the time of operation with radiation source.

LESSER THE TIME SPENT NEAR THE SOURCE, LESSER WILL

BE THE DOSE.

12. Always keep maximum possible distance from the source during exposures.

LARGER THE DISTANCE, LESSER WILL BE THE RADIATION

DOSE.

13. NEVER USE A DEFECTIVE CAMERA for giving exposures. Check

everything before starting the day's work as well as during the course of
work.

14. NEVER FORGET TO WEAR FILM/TLD BADGE DURING WORK,

Anybody who handles a radiographic source is entitled to have a FILM/TLD
badge.

15. USE OF RADIATION MONITORS IS A MUST. Never plan radiographic

work without a suitable radiation monitor.

129
16. The control badge provided at each site along with personnel badges must be
kept in a radiation free zone away from the area where the radiography
sources are used/stored.

17. In case of accidents such as damage to the camera or source pencil or loss of
source pencil, cordon-off he area and report the matter, immediately, to the
superiors and subsequently, to Head, Radiation Protection Services Division,
BARC, Bombay 400 085.

18. INFORM YOUR CO-WORKERS ABOUT RADIATION HAZARDS

AND SAFE WORK PRACTICES.

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 CHAPTER - 14

RADIATION ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

14.1 GENERAL

Use of radioactive sources in industrial radiography has been increasing steadily

during the last few decades. Radiation sources of activity few curries to a few
hundred curies are used in industrial radiography. In spite of all the precautions take
during use, some abnormal events/radiation accidents, may happen which may result
in higher dose to concerned people and to other in the vicinity.

An accident in industrial radiography, can be described as an event or series of

events or events which leads to loss of normal control of the source.

Total radiation safety is achieved by built-in safety in the equipment/installation

accompanied by good administrative control. A review of radiation accidents
indicates that human error and error and equipment error are the main causes of
these accidents.

The main factors which contribute to the human error are

1. inadequate training,

2. failure to monitor,

3. failure to maintain the equipment

4. ignorance about operational and handling and

5. taking things for granted.

Of these, the last factor, the tendency of the operators to overlook some of the basic
requirements for proper work practice during routine work, has been the major cause
in maximum number of accidents in industrial radiography. The following are some
of the events which may lead to radiation emergencies.

1. Loss of source during storage, use of transport

2. Source pencil falling out during transport and use.

3. Source pencil getting detached from drive mechanism.

4. Source pencil getting stuck in the guide tube.

5. Rupture of source capsule (this may also lead to contamination).

6. Damage to source housing (radiography camera/lead pot).

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14.2 INCIDENTS ON RADIOGRAPHY

The following are some of the accidents which have occurred in our country.

14.2.1 Detachment of source pigtail

a After completion of exposure with a remote operated camera, the operate,

when he retracted the cable, did not see the rear end of the pigtail assembly.
Even then, without properly checking with a radiation monitor, he rolled the
guide tube and carried it on his shoulder to the dark room, where some
radiography films and personnel monitoring badges were kept. Incidentally,
the guide tube had the source and this was detected only on the next day
with the help of radiation monitors. The dose to the operator could not be
determined by film badge, as it got exposed along with many radiography
films in the dark room. The accident occurred due to faulty coupling and
negligence on the part of the operator to check the integrity of coupling
before use. In addition, he neglected to use a radiation monitor to confirm,
after use, proper return of the source into the camera.

Cause of accident : Failure to monitor, poor maintenance

b In a similar accident elsewhere, the presence of the pigtail assembly in the

guide tube was detected by routine monitoring, immediately after the
retraction of the drive cable. This helped in taking necessary action promptly
and also in averting further damage and excessive dose to the operators and
others in the vicinity.

c The drive cable of a cobalt-60 camera was kept coupled to the source pencil.
Once during use, the source pencil got detached from the drive cable and remained
in the guide tube. The operator thought that the source is safe inside the camera
as he could rotate the shutter drum, after retraction of cable. He failed to confirm
this, with a radiation monitor. After sometime, that too after completion of job
for the day, the source pencil fell out of the guide tube, when it was uncoupled.
He made some efforts to put the source pencil back into the camera. He received,
considerably high dose. This accident occurred because the coupling between
the source pencil and the drive cable was not checked periodically no monitoring
was done with survey meters to confirm the position of the source.

14.2.2 LOSS OF SOURCE DURING USE.

a In an incident, after completion of the day's work, the source pencil of an

IRC-2 camera was kept in a transport container (lead pot) and this was not
brought back to source storage room. This resulted in the theft of the
transport container with the source, by a person not connected with

132
 radiography work. This person, not knowing that he is handling hazardous
material, left the source penicillin the driver's cabin of a lorry and sold the
transport container to a scrap dealer. The source pencil was located only after
two ways. The above incident took place, mainly, because of negligence on
the part of the radiographer in not keeping the radiography camera in the
source storage room, after completion of radiography work.

Cause : Source not stored at proper place after use.

14.2.3 DAMAGE TO SOURCE CAPSULE

a When a radiographer drove back the drive cable, after completion of

radiographic exposure, he detected higher radiation level at the gear box. He
felt that the pigtail has got stuck up in the guide tube and thought, that he
can bring it back by operating the driving system a few times. Later, a
technician opened the gear box to check whether the cable had been
completely retracted or not. Actually, the source capsule had got ruptured and
the source pellets had got dispersed to different parts of the equipment,
because of repeated operations of the driving system. One pellet was even
found on a road nearby. Management of the situation required elaborate
procedure. The above incident resulted not only in high radiation dose to
concerned people, but also led to contamination of the radiography
equipment.

Cause : Poor design of source capsule. Operator failed to apply his common
sense.

14.2.4 TRANSPORT INCIDENT

a A radiography camera was transported in a wooden box without properly

locking the camera and without properly packing the box. The wooden box
reached the destination after a few days and the radiography camera was
found in shutter open condition, with radiation level 10 R/h just outside the
box.

Cause : Failure to monitor and not following packing procedures.

Many more incidents have occurred in industrial radiography. The main cause
is poor preventive maintenance and failure of the operator to monitor. Many
overexposure could be avoided, if radiation monitors are used regularly.
There are about 400 institutions who use radiation sources for radiography.
What is given above are a few typical ones of around 70 accidents, which
have occurred in the country. These accidents occurred mainly because of
ignorance, negligence and carelessness.

Can these not be avoided ?

133
 Many such accident can be easily avoided, if only the people working with
radiation sources adopt proper work practice.

The hazard associated with such accidents would be less serious, if only the people
working with radiation sources, use radiation monitors properly, during their routine
work.

The following are a few points which help in minimizing the occurrence of a
radiation accident and associated hazard.

1. Proper training.

2. Awareness to hazard.

3. Proper record of source and exposure given.

4. a. Regular maintenance and checking of equipment.

b. Confirming proper coupling and rectifying, if defect is noticed.

c. Periodical checking of coupling systems, guide tube drive mechanism.

5. Availability of proper handling equipment.

6. Adopting routine monitoring procedure, particular in case of remote operated

cameras, to confirm safe return of the source.

It should also be noted that, if, inside of all precautions, any unusual incident occurs,
one should never become panicky. The operator should stop work with the
equipment, cordon the area and report the matter to his higher authorities and
Radiation Protection Services Division (RPSD), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Bombay 400 085.

The site incharge/R.S.O. Should monitor around the place of accident and analyze
the situation. No attempt should be made without calm thicking and proper planing.
If he has necessary tools, radiation monitors, pocket dosimeters and if he is familiar
with the equipment and confident of handling the situation with least exposure to
himself and to others in vicinity, he may do it. In such a case, he should inform
RPSD, BARC, Bomaby 400 085, about the accident and write in detail about the
situation and the procedure adopted in handling it and the dose received by those
who handled it. If he feels that he would not be able to handle it and the situation is
complicated, he should cordon the requisite area, provide necessary shielding around
the source and inform RPSD, for further action.

Madding with the equipment or in other words, grouping in the dark when an
unusual incident occurs, would make the situation worse and complicate the
management of the accident.

134
14.3 REQUIREMENTS HANDLE RADIATION EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

* Training and experience.

* Thorough knowledge of equipment.

* Understanding of the situation.

* A safe and systematic approach.

* Sensible and intellectual interrogation of personnel involved in the incident.

* Proper mobilisation and utilisation of men and material.

* Cool and calm thinking and planning.

14.4 POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

** Your are permitted to work with radiography source because you are a trained
person.

** You are using a dangerous material.

** During radiation accident.

1. you are likely to be over-exposed to radiation and

2. members of public including children are likely to be exposed to

radiation.

** Possible injuries to an individual in a radiation accident are

*** severe radiation burns to individual organs, particularly fingers,

*** prolonged medical treatment.

*** amputation of affected parts.

*** late effects of radiation.

*** death, if dose is very high.

OFFENDER IS LIABLE TO BE LEGALLY PROSECUTED.

135
 CHAPTER - 15

REGULATORY ASPECT OR RADIATION

PROTECTION
15.1 GENERAL

Work with radiations sources may involve exposure of workers and public.
Therefore, work with radiation should be controlled by the Government. Such control
can be effective only if rules and regulations are made by the Government. The
Government of India issued Radiation Protection Rules, 1971. These rules prescribe
that a licence should obtained by any person., prior to handling radioactive materials.
The rules are enforced by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), who is the
Competent Authority. Under these rules, a surveillance order was issued in 1980,
with particular reference to industrial radiography. The salient features of this order
are given below.

1. Only approved equipment (ie., camera) should be used for radiography.

2. Radiography cameras should operated only by qualified, trained site incharge.

3. For each radiography site, the licensee should appoint a qualified, trained site
incharge.

4. Prior to appointment of a person as a radiographer of a site incharge, the

licensee should obtain approval from the Competent Authority.

5. All radiographic personnel should be provided with suitable personnel

monitoring badges.

6. Each side should be equipped with suitable area monitoring devices, which is
capable of measuring low dose rates as well high dose rates.

7. Radiography work should be carried out only approved enclosures or sites.

8. The licence should provide adequate facilities for the of the source.

9. Each radiation worker should be periodically subjected to the prescribed

medical tests.

10. The licensee should maintain complete records relating to the details of the
work carried out, personnel dose and medical history.

In order to effectively implement the Rules, the Competent Authority may

arrange for inspection of sites and records

136
15.2 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OR CERTIFIED RADIOGRAPHER

1. Before starting the radiography work, wear personal monitors.

2. Carry the Radiographer's certificate during radiography work.

3. Operate the camera carefully according to the correct procedure.

4. After completing each exposure, make sure that the source is safely back in the
camera, by means of a suitable radiation monitor.

5. In the event of an emergency, report the matter to the site incharge without delay.
Unit the emergency situation is brought under control, take suitable measures for
prevention of excessive exposure of other radiation workers and public to radiation.

6. When you leave your employer, inform the Competent Authority.

137
 CHAPTER - 16

RADIATION DETECTORS AND MONITORING

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Use or radiation sources is associated with a certain amount of radiation hazard.

With proper card, this can be minimized. Radiation hazards may be broadly
classified as external hazards an internal hazards. External hazards occur when the
source of radiation is outside the body and internal hazards arise when the source for
radiation gets into the human system. Hazard evaluation is necessary in order to
adopt suitable measures to control radiation exposure. The problem of internal hazard
does not arise in the use of X-ray equipment. It is considerably easy to estimate the
external radiation hazard and there are a number of devices suitable for this purpose.
These devices incorporate radiation detectors to sense the presence of radiation, so
that radiation level or dose to individuals can be evaluated. They function on the
basis that radiation can cause ionization in medium, i.e., produce charged particles
from originally neutral atoms and molecules. The detectors are linked with the
display part to indicate the detector response. Radiation monitoring devices differ
from each other in the medium in which the ionization takes place and in the
method by which this ionization is detected and indicated. The following are the
media generally used for radiation detection.

1. Gases - Ionization chamber, Geiger Mueller (GM) counter

2. Scintillation media

3. Photographic emulsions (Film)

4. Solid state detectors (Thermoluminescent dosimeters) The selection of a

particular type of detector depends on the purpose for which it is needed.

16.2 GAS FILLED DETECTORS

Radiation produces ionization in a gas medium an the ions so produced are collected
as current of pulses. Gas filled detectors are generally, of cylindrical shape, with two
electrodes, a central electrode and an outer sheath, separated by an insulator (figure
16.1). A positive voltage is applied to the central electrode, with respect to outer
sheath. On exposure to radiation, ionization takes place in the gas medium, ie.,
electrons are knocked off the gas molecules. The ionized gas molecule is called the
positive ion. The ;positive ions and the negative electrons, thus formed, respectively
move to the outer (Negative) and central (Positive) electrodes. These ion pairs are
collected and measured. These gas filled detectors function differently, at different
voltages applied to the central electrode. There are five different regions of response.
Of these, two regions are of interest to us.

138
 Fig. 16.1 Gas Filled Detector System

a. Ionization Chamber Region : In this low voltage region (-200 volts), the
number of ion pairs produced and collected are same. For radiation
monitoring, the ionization chamber are filled with air, generally, at
atmospheric pressure. The effective atomic number of the wall material would
be close to that of air. Hence, such an ionization chamber would give energy
independent response. Beta Gamma Exposure Rate Meter (SM 140) of
Electronics Corporation of India Ltd., Hyderabad, Incorporates an ionization
chamber as a radiation detector. Pocket dosimeter is another device which has
an ionization chamber. It has a built-in capacitance which can be charged by
an external voltage and when exposed to radiation, the ionization in the
chamber decreases the voltage across the capacitance. The reduction in the
voltage across the capacitance is a measure of the amount of ionization and
hence the quality of radiation exposure.

b. Gieger Mueller (GM) Region : This occurs at higher voltage (300-1400 volts),
wherein multiple ionization takes place in the medium. As a result, the number
of ion Paris collected are much more than that collected ionizing radiation, because
it has high sensitivity. In a GM counter, the central electrode is fine wire (0.2
mm to 0.1 mm diameter) of tungsten and the outer electrode is usually of metal.
The filling gas is generally argon with quenching gases, like ethyl alcohol or
halogen vapour, suppress secondary discharge. Depending upon the gas used
and the pressure, the voltage difference between the two electrodes may anywhere
between 300 volts to 1400 volts. There are GM detectors of different shapes and
sizes, depending on the purpose of use and radiation level to be monitored. GM
detectors may fail to respond when the radiation level is very high. Many radiation
monitors incorporate GM detectors.

16.3 SOLID STATE DETECTORS

a. Scintillation Detectors : In this, the medium for detection is a scintillator.

We radiation interacts with the scintillator, the absorbed energy is
instantaneously converted into light flashes. A large portion of the light flash
from the scintillator is transmitted to photomultiplier, where electrons are

139
 produced, multiplied as a large electrical pulse. Thallium activated iodide-NaI
(TI) schitillator is used for gamma radiation detection. These detectors are
used for monitoring very low radiation levels.

b. Thermoluminescent Detectors : In this solid detector, the radiation energy

absorbed, by the detector material, is retained for a long time. On heating this
material, visible light is emitted, whose intensity is proportional to the
radiation energy absorbed and thus, the dose. Dysprosium activated calcium
sulphate (CaSO4 :Dy) is a very useful thermoluminescent detector used for
personnel monitoring purpose.

16.4 PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS

Photographic film consists of a sensitive layer of silver crystals in gelatin spread on

cellulose acetate base. The thickness of the emulsion layer ranges from 10-25 um.
Radiation, incident on the film causes ionization in the silver bromide crystal. Silver
clumps containing several silver atoms are formed on the surface of the crystal. During
development, each exposed grain is reduced to metallic silver. The unaffected,
undeveloped silver halide crystals are dissolved by immersing the film in fixer solution.
The processed film shows blackening and the amount of blackening expressed in terms
of optical density is related to the quantity of radiation absorbed in the film. The optical
density is measured using an instrument known as Densitometer.
0

Optical Density (O.D.) = log10

Where, Io is light intensity without the processed film and

I is light intensity through the processed film. Photographic films are used in
industrial radiography for revealing defects in castings, welds, etc. Photographic films
are also used for personnel monitoring, by loading personnel monitoring films in
film cassettes containing different metallic filters, designed for monitoring different
types of radiations.

16.5 NEUTRON DETECTION

Since neutrons are uncharged particles, their detection methods are different from
those of charged particles and gamma radiation. Neutrons are classified on the basis
of their energy. Thermal neutrons (energy - 0.025 eV) are generally detected by
using boron trifluride gas (BF3) filled proportional counters. Here, thermal neutrons
interact with boron to release alpha particles and these alpha particles produce ion
pairs in the gas medium an in turn electrical pulses. In personnel monitoring film
badge, a cadmium filter is used for the detection of thermal neutron dose. Cadmium

140
 filter gives prompt gamma radiations on absorption of thermal neutrons and these
gamma radiations produce blackening on the film, which become visible after
processing. Fast neutrons are generally detected by first reducing their energy to a
very low value (thermal neutrons) using devices are classified as personnel
monitoring devices and areas monitoring devices.

16.6 PERSONNEL MONITORING

Personnel monitoring is the evaluation of radiation doses received by the personnel

working with radiation sources and X-rays. The most commonly used personnel
monitoring device is the film badge which consists of photographic film (PM film)
kept in a cassette containing a set of filters (Fig. 16.2).

Using film badges doses from 0.1 mSv to 10 Sv (10 mrem to 1000 rem) of different
types of radiations can be evaluated. The film serves as a permanent record and if
worn on chest, gives the most representative value of the whole body dose under
normal working conditions. Films can be used to assess the radiation dose received
from exposure to beta rays, X-rays, gamma rays or thermal neutrons. Thermal
neutrons cannot affect the film directly. They are detected through emission of
gamma radiations by cadmium subsequent to absorption of thermal neutrons. For fast
neutron monitoring, a special NTA film is used. This film records tracks of recoil
protons formed due to interaction of cast neutrons with hydrogen atoms. The recoil
proton tracks are counted and correlated to fast neutron dose.

Fig. 16.2 Personnel Monitoring Film Badge.

The dose received by radiation worker can also be determined by the use the TLD
badges. This consists of three CaSO 4: Dy TLD discs embedded in a metallic
framework and enclosed in a multifilter cassette (Fig. 16.3). The TLD badge can be
used to monitor beta, gamma and X-ray. The TLD badge can cover a wide range of
doses from 0.1 mSv to 10 Sv (10 mrem to 1000 rem). Radiation dose to personnel
can also be assessed by using pocket dosimeters (fig. 16.4). Pocket dosimeter are
very useful in certain operations, where the radiation levels very considerably and
may be quite hazardous. They give an on the-spot information of radiation dose, as

141
 the dose record can be read directly by the person. Pocket dosimeters in the range of
200 mR, 5 R, 10 R etc., are available.

Fig. 16.4 Pocket Dosimeter

16.7 AREA MONITORING

The assessment of radiation levels at different locations in the vicinity of radiation

sources and X-ray equipment is generally known as area monitoring. On the basis of
the measurements taken, One would be able to determine the adequacy/inadequacy of
the existing radiation protection measures. Normally, area monitoring systems should
be able to determine radiation levels in the range of 0.2 mR/h to 5 R/h and also have
audio indication. Lower range in the instrument is useful in assessing radiation level
at occupied areas and for general radiation survey around X-ray installations. The most
commonly used radiation monitors (eg. MINIRAD, MR 4500) have miniature GM
counters, making them useful over wide range of exposure-rates

142
 MINIRAD monitor can measure upto 5R/h and MR 4500 can measure upto 50 R/h
making it useful in radiation emergencies. Both these instruments can be used for
area monitoring as well as for monitoring, leakage radiation level around source
housing, X-ray equipment.

Other monitoring instruments in use : BETA-GAMMA Exposure-rate Meter (SM-

140) is an ionization chamber type survey meter marketed by M/S Electronics Corp.
of India Ltd., (ECIL) Hyderabad. It has a 400 cc ionization chamber and can
measure exposure-rate from 50 mR/h due to X and gamma radiation in three ranges.
The chamber is provided with a window and by opening the window beta radiations
can also be monitored. This instrument is useful for general purpose monitoring and
for checking the radiation levels around radian source housings and X-rays
equipment.

Other monitoring instruments in use : Beta-Gamma Exposure-Rate Meter (SM-

140) is an ionization chamber type survey meter marketed by M/S Electronics Corp.
Of Indian Ltd., (ECIL), Hyderabad. It has a 400 cc ionization chamber and can
measure exposure-rate form 50 mR/h due to X and gamma radiation in three ranges.
The chamber and can provided with a window and by opening the window, beta
radiations can also be monitored. This instrument is useful for general purpose
monitoring and for checking the radiation levels around radiation source housings
and X-ray equipment.

16.8 RADIATION SURVEY METER (MR-121) also marketed by M/S ECIL,

Hyderabad, is a GM counter type survey meter. It has a glass walled GM counter
and can cover exposure-rates from 0.1 mR/h to 20 mR/h due to X and gamma
radiation in three ranges. It can also respond to high energy beta radiations. It is
very useful for low level area monitoring. This instrument, however, has a drawback
that is does not respond at high radiation levels. The area monitors mentioned above,
are a few typical ones. There are many other radiation monitors which can cover the
range of interest monitors above, a zone monitor, located at a suitable place inside
the exposure room, would help in warning people when the radiography equipment
is being operated, so that they can avoid entering the exposure room. A zone
monitor, generally contains audio and visual indication, which gets switched 'ON'
when the radiation level at the location of the zone monitor, exceeds a certain preset
level.

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 TABLE 16.1

SOME INSTRUMENTS USED FOR AREA MONITORING

Instrument Type of Range of Ramarks

Detector Measurement

MR-121 G.M. Counter 0-20 mR/h. Fails at higher

ION Chamber 0-5 R/h

Minirad G.M. Counter 0-5 R/h

MR 4500 G.M. Counter 0-50 R/h

16.9 CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE OF RADIATION MONITORS THE

Radiation monitors should be kept in good working condition. They should be

periodically checked confirm that reliable reading are indicated. They should also be
checked after any servicing or repairs. The most simple method of checking in the
instrument performance is to use the instrument just after it has been calibrated by
the manufacturer and record for future reference the exposure-rate at a specific
distance from a check radiation source of known activity. Performance checks can
then be made at any time by comparison of the recorded reading with check with
check reading made at the same distance from the source, after making necessary
correction for radioactivity decay. It the check reading, after corrections, varies
considerably, the instrument should be sent for servicing and recalibration. In
addition, the operational and handling instructions should be scrupulously observed
to ensure prolonged and trouble-free performance of the instrument.

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