Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000) 3231

S0013-4651(00)01-030-2 CCC: $7.00 © The Electrochemical Society, Inc.

A Novel Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicle Batteries

Using Phase-Change Material
S. Al Hallaj* and J. R. Selman**,z
Center for Electrochemical Science and Engineering, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute
of Technology, Chicago, Illinois 60616, USA

A novel thermal-management system that incorporates phase-change material (PCM) is proposed and investigated for electric vehi-
cle (EV) applications. A commercial finite-element (FE) software, PDEase2D™, was used to simulate the thermal behavior of EV
battery modules with a PCM thermal management system. Simulation results show that the temperature profile of the cells integrated
in the module design was substantially more uniform during discharge at different rates than without PCM. The PCM system is effec-
tive in thermally sensitive batteries such as Li-ion and most Li-polymer batteries with a significant reversible heat effect. The heat
generated during discharge and stored as latent heat is then largely utilized during charge, and a smaller part of it is transferred to
the surroundings. The stored heat will be rejected to the module when the battery is left to relax or when its temperature drops below
the melting point of the PCM. This is an important advantage for EV operation under cold conditions or in space applications where
the battery temperature drops significantly when an orbiting satellite moves from the light to the dark side of the earth.
© 2000 The Electrochemical Society. S0013-4651(00)01-030-2. All rights reserved.

Manuscript submitted January 10, 2000; revised manuscript received May 23, 2000.

Temperature excursions and nonuniformity of the temperature
are the main concern in any attempt to scale-up lithium-ion cells to
the larger sizes desirable for high-power applications such as electric
vehicle (EV) propulsion systems. Basically, battery design requires
a trade-off between the risk of overheating individual cells of rela-
tively large sizes, and the cost of insulating or cooling a complex
array of small cells. However, this trade-off can be assumed to yield
an optimum cell size that is significantly larger than the present com-
mercial Li-ion cells (somewhat larger than AA size). Thus, a well-
designed thermal management system is required to ensure good
battery performance, safety, and high capacity.
Baker et al.1 demonstrated the usefulness of Green’s functions to
analyze the steady-state temperature distribution in batteries and fuel
cells. Lee et al.2 used a three-dimensional (3D) thermal model to
simulate the temperature profile of a Ni/Fe EV battery. In their
model, the composite electrode stack was considered as quasi-
homogenous medium with averaged properties. The numerical val-
ues of the thermal properties and heat generation rates were estimat-
ed from separate experimental data. Simulation results showed that
the thermal behavior of a module is affected by several design para-
meters such as ampere-hour capacity, number of cells, packing and
cooling orientations, and the space between cells.
Evans and White3 describe a two-dimensional thermal model for
a spiral-wound Li/SOCl2 battery. The model was solved using a
finite-element computer code. It assumes a thermally homogenous
but nonisotropic region made up of cathode, anode, electrolyte, and
separator. Simulation results showed a much larger temperature gra-
dient in the radial direction compared to that in the axial direction. A
similar conclusion was reported later by Chen and Evans.11 In their
work they estimated from component properties an effective thermal
conductivity for the Li-ion cell as a whole. Their calculations showed
that the cell conductivity in the axial direction is twenty times higher
than that in the radial direction.
Chen and Evans4-6 had earlier presented two- and three-dimen-
sional mathematical models to describe the thermal behavior of a rec-
tangular stack of prismatic lithium-polymer electrolyte cells. In both
models the battery interior was treated as a homogenous but not nec-
essarily isotropic phase, having effective average properties. Heat
generation was assumed to be uniform within the cell stack. Their ob-
jective was to determine the maximum size without the thermal-man-
agement problems of a compact cell stack of 400 mm and 20 cm cell
thickness and width, respectively. Simulation results showed that the
** Electrochemical Society Student Member.
** Electrochemical Society Active Member.
*z E-mail: selman@charlie.cns.iit.edu
temperature distribution in the thickness direction is dominated by
the low thermal conductivity of the polymer electrolyte so that a uni-
form temperature profile is obtained only at high rates. At low dis-
charge rates, the temperature profile is nonuniform, especially if
forced convection cooling is used at the battery surface. The relative-
ly high temperature gradient under these conditions may cause ther-
mal stresses in battery components and affect the battery performance
negatively. Thermal management is not expected to be a problem for
such a stack if an optimum number of cells is used in the stack, but
this may limit the energy capacity of the battery.
Pals and Newman7 studied the effect of temperature changes on
the cell performance of lithium-polymer electrolyte batteries during
galvanostatic discharge. In their study they utilized a general energy
balance for battery systems developed earlier by Bernardi et al.;9
however, the dEeq/dT term was set to zero for lack of experimental
data. The energy balance was coupled with a one-dimensional model
describing the cell performance at different current densities pre-
sented by Doyle et al.10 Their results show a significant effect of the
temperature on the degree of utilization of these batteries. This was
explained by the exponential temperature dependence of the Li-ion
diffusion coefficient and the electrolyte ionic conductivity. Adiabat-
ic operation at different discharge rates was simulated to estimate the
adiabatic short-circuit temperature, which is defined as the energy
capacity divided by the effective heat capacity of the battery. The
single-cell model results were used later by Pals and Newman8 to
predict the temperature profile along a cell stack for EV application.
Data available in the literature for spirally wound Sony Li-ion
batteries were used by Chen and Evans11 to study the thermal behav-
ior of a rectangular stack of prismatic scaled-up cells, with the same
material of 20 3 20 cm cross-sectional area. To achieve a 40 kWh
energy, a battery volume of 1.64 3 105 cm3 is required. The elec-
trochemical behavior was simulated by means of a one-dimensional
model for charge transfer and a three-dimensional model for the heat
transfer. Empirical equations (e.g., the Shepherd equation11) were
used to describe experimental charge-discharge curves for different
rates. However, they did not take into account the fact that the Shep-
herd equation was developed for isothermal conditions. Heat gener-
ation rates used in the model were assumed to be independent of the
cell temperature. They were calculated as a function of degree of dis-
charge from the cell voltage under load and at open-circuit condi-
tions. A constant value of 10 mW/cm3 was estimated during dis-
charge at moderate rates (e.g., C/2). During charge, a net cooling
effect was found for the same rate. Temperature profiles of the bat-
tery thickness were simulated as functions of time for different dis-
charge rates and under simulated adiabatic conditions. Although

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 3232 Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000)
S0013-4651(00)01-030-2 CCC: $7.00 © The Electrochemical Society, Inc.
continuous cycling at high rates may cause the battery temperature
to rise significantly, Chen and Evans11 concluded that the tempera-
ture within the stack is unlikely to reach thermal runaway conditions
during normal operation.
Kanari et al.12,13 presented a two-dimensional model to simulate
the temperature profile of cylindrical Sony-type US18650 cell. The
model was used to simulate the cell temperature profile during
charge and discharge at 0.2C to 2C rates and compared with meas-
ured values of the center, top, and bottom sides of the cell. The cell
was regarded as a homogenous material which has effective values
of thermophysical properties. Heat was assumed to generate uni-
formly in the cell and was estimated from experimentally measured
values of cell overpotential and entropy coefficients (dEeq/dT). Sim-
ulation results showed fairly good agreement with measured values
during charge and discharge for all measured points. No significant
temperature difference (ca. 0.58C) was noticed between the temper-
ature measurements taken at different locations of the cell. Howev-
er, the open-circuit voltage measurements yielded scattered results.
This was due to the long time the measurements took (more than two
months). They explained that “the state of charge of the cell may
change due to the self-discharge, and the ampere-hour capacity of
the cell may decrease due to the cell degradation.” Therefore, stair-
case voltage step coulometry (Vsvsc) was used instead of the open-
circuit measurements.
Rao and Newman14 discussed two different methods to estimate
the heat generation rates in insertion battery systems. A new calcu-
lation method was presented and compared to the general energy
balance method presented earlier by Bernardi et. al.9 The new meth-
od accounts for cell components in order to estimate the heat-gener-
ation rate for the whole cell. It utilizes the porous electrode model to
distinguish between heat generation in the cell due to ohmic, kinet-
ic, and entropic effects. Analysis of simulation results showed that
most of the heat generated in the porous electrodes is due to the
ohmic drop in the electrolyte phase contained in the pores of the
electrodes.
In contrast, Al Hallaj et al.15 demonstrated that, for a Type 18650
cell under normal conditions of battery use, lumped properties and
overall heat-generation rates are adequate to model the temperature
excursion. For such an application, a minimum set of data is neces-
sary to develop a satisfactory model to predict the thermal behavior
of Li-ion batteries. A one-dimensional thermal mathematical model
was presented to simulate the temperature profile of cylindrical Li-
ion cells. The heat generation rates required as input in the comput-
er simulation were estimated from experimental measurements of
overvoltage and entropic heat effects using electrochemical calori-
metric techniques.
Thermal Management Using PCM
Thermal management systems using active cooling (forced cir-
culation of air or liquid) have been proposed and simulated for lead-
acid batteries in electric vehicle applications.16 Simulation results
showed that thermal management systems of this kind may improve
battery performance by 30-40%. However, such active cooling sys-
tems introduce another level of complexity into the design and oper-
ation of the battery system.
Thermal management for battery systems can be achieved with-
out excessive complexity by a passive cooling system that incorpo-
rates phase-change materials (PCM), as described in this work. The
PCM integrated into the cell and/or battery design will act as a heat
sink for heat generated, for example, during discharge of a Li-ion
battery, which is a highly exothermic process. The heat stored will
be evolved later when the battery temperature drops during battery
charge or under cold weather conditions.
The ideal PCM candidate for Li-ion battery application will have
a melting point between 30 and 608C, high latent heat per unit mass,
and a narrow melting temperature range. The material will be ther-
mally cyclable, safe, inert with respect to other battery components,
nontoxic, cheap, and light. Paraffin waxes are good candidate materi-
als, being cheap and not easily decomposed, with a low melting tem-
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Figure 1. A schematic of the proposed EV module with eight 100 Ah cells.
perature within the recommended range of operation of Li-ion cells.
Alternatively, mixtures of chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, which
crystallize with very similar structure and have a low and narrow tem-
perature range of crystallization, are suitable for precise temperature
control between 30 to 458C.17 Other candidates18 are stearic acid,
which has a melting point of 708C, and various commercially avail-
able esters of stearic acid with methyl, propyl, and butyl alcohols,
having melting points of 17-348C. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is
another candidate, but it has thermal degradation problems.19
Battery Pack Design
The design of a battery pack consisting of scaled-up Li-ion cells
can be facilitated by models that incorporate information from elec-
trochemical calorimetric measurements. Details of such a model are
explained elsewhere.15 The battery pack consists of several modules,
and the module consists of a number of individual cells connected in
series or parallel. The targeted module energy should be in the range
of 1 to 4 kWh, to make it suitable for EV applications. As an exam-
ple, in a module of four to eight scaled-up Li-ion cells, of cylindri-
cal or rectangular (prismatic) design, the cells may be connected in
series and in parallel to achieve the required capacity and voltage.
The cell module would be enclosed in a rectangular container of
shape and size similar to that of lead-acid batteries.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of a battery module with eight
100 Ah cells. Specifications for the cells and the module are sum-
marized in Table I. This module is similar to the prototype module
designed recently by Sony Corporation and is being used in the NIS-
SAN ALTRA-EV.24 A battery pack that consists of 12 modules con-
nected in series similar to the one described here, should have a full
energy of 30 kWh. This capacity enables an EV to achieve a driving
range of 120 miles. In this work, the thermal behavior for the mod-
ule is simulated by assuming that the scaled-up prototype cells in the
module have the same chemistry as the Sony (US 18650) cell.
Therefore, the thermophysical properties and heat generation rates
per unit volume determined for the Sony (US 18650) cell15,20 are
used as input in the simulation.
To achieve an effective thermal-management system, the voids
between cells in the module are assumed to be filled with PCM of a
type capable of preventing overheating problems. The PCM acts as
Table I. Specifications of the proposed scaled-up cell and EV
module. The module contains eight cells which are connected
in series.
Specification
Property Module Cell
Shape Rectangular Cylindrical
Dimensions (mm) W290 3 L440 3 H186 H240 3 D80
Voltage (V) 20 to 33 2.5 to 4.2
Rated capacity (Ah) <100 100
 Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000)
S0013-4651(00)01-030-2 CCC: $7.00 © The Electrochemical Society, Inc.
a heat sink to absorb the heat generated during discharge and as a
heat source during charge or at low operating temperature. A simu-
lation of the module performance with a PCM is presented here and
compared to the performance of conventional thermal management
systems using air and/or liquid circulation. PDEase2D™ (Macsyma
Corporation, Arlington, MA), a commercial two-dimensional (2D)
finite-element (FE) software, was used to simulate the thermal be-
havior of the battery pack. It was primarily used to account for the
complications of cell shape and pack configuration.
Model Formulation and Method of Solution
Since phase change is involved, the energy equation must be
written separately for the solid and liquid phases. One difficulty of
using such an approach is how to track the moving interface. For
simplified shapes and designs, an analytic solution may be obtained,
as in the case of a thin slab having a 1D or 2D thermal profile and a
single melting temperature.21 In the case of complicated shapes and
a PCM having a melting range, the enthalpy form of the energy bal-
ance, in addition to the temperature form, may be advantageous to
use. The enthalpy method applies a single energy equation in both
phases; hence, there is no need to consider liquid and solid phases
separately. This makes it easier to use numerical methods such as
finite difference (FD) or finite element (FE). Another advantage of
the enthalpy method is that it can be applied easily in the case of
phase change over a temperature range (e.g., glassy substances and
solid solutions) rather than a single melting temperature (i.e., pure
crystalline substances and eutectics).
The enthalpy form of the energy equation is21
∂H (T )
= ?( k = T ) 1 s 5 r
∂t
initial condition
T 5 To at t 5 0
boundary conditions
n?(k=T) 5 h(T 2 Ta) at the module boundaries
Here T is the temperature (K), k the thermal conductivity (W m21
K21), s is the volumetric heat generation (W m23), r the density
(kg m23), H the enthalpy (J kg21), t time (s), To initial temperature,
Ta ambient temperature, and h is the effective heat-transfer coeffi-
cient (W m22 K21) between the module and its surrounding.
The enthalpy form is similar to the temperature form of the ener-
gy balance if the heat conduction equation is written separately for
the solid and liquid regions and coupled with an energy balance at
the solid-liquid interface. As a result, the enthalpy method can be
applied to the solution of phase-change problems in the case of a sin-
gle temperature as well as a temperature range. The physical prop-
erty values change significantly when the material changes phase,
and this should be taken into consideration in a numerical solution
of the problem. Some researchers23 pointed out that natural convec-
tion during melting of the PCM has a significant effect on the heat
transfer inside the battery pack. For simplification, we did not
account for it in the present model; however, in future work the
effect of natural convection should be included.
The PCMs used in battery applications are expected to be a mix-
ture of different materials with an extended temperature range of
phase change. The corresponding relationships for temperature as a
function of enthalpy are shown in Eq. 4 to 621
H
T5 for H < Cp Ts (solid region)
Cp
H (Tl 2 Ts ) 1 LTs
T5
Cp (Tl 2 Ts ) 1 L
for CpTs < H < (CpTl 1 L) (mushy region)
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3233
H2L
T5 for H > (Cp Tl 1 L) ( liquid region) [6]
Cp
Here Ts and Tl (in K) are the start and end temperatures of the
phase-change region, respectively, Cp is the heat capacity (in J kg21
K21), and L is the latent heat of phase change (in J kg21).
The finite element method (FEM) was used to simulate the tem-
perature profile for the different battery packs described above. The
corresponding temperature relations in terms of enthalpy, shown in
Eq. 4 to 6, were used to calculate the temperature. The physical
properties and temperature values are dependent on the phase in
question (liquid, solid, or mushy) and the level of energy and were
defined accordingly during simulation. The source heat term was
taken to be a function of time and C rate. For various C rates, a cor-
relation with time was developed based on the heat generation rates
for Sony cells reported earlier.20 The heat source term was nonzero
for the elements representing the Li-ion cells only and was consid-
ered zero elsewhere. The model accounts for the change in thermal
property values of the PCM by assigning different values for the
solid, mushy, and liquid phases, respectively.
Results and Discussion
Sony-type (US 18650) cell.—Figures 2 and 3 show the radial and
axial, simulated temperature profiles of the Sony-type (US 18650)
cell, respectively, at C/1 discharge rate and at different depths of dis-
charge (DOD). The model accounts for the experimental setup of the
cell during cell testing, where the cell top and bottom surfaces were
insulated using Teflon layers. Results are in good agreement with
experimental measurements for all discharge rates. Results for the
[1] C/1 discharge rate are in better agreement with experimental meas-
urements than those presented earlier, where a one-dimensional (1D)
thermal model with radial variation was used.8 However, some devi-
ation from experimental measurements still exists. During fast dis-
[2] charge in a real cell, heat accumulates in the center of the cell, which
causes a nonuniformity in local heat generation across the cell. How-
ever, simulated temperature profiles did not show any significant dif-
ference, because of the assumption that the heat is generated uni-
[3] formly across the cell.
Figure 4 shows the direction of the heat flow inside the cell. A
significant variation is noted in the radial direction, and a less sig-
nificant variation in the axial direction. This is due to the layers of
insulation placed on the top and bottom ends of the cell and the
lower magnitude of the thermal conductivity in the radial direction
compared to the axial direction (i.e., ky/kr <20). The high axial con-
[4]
Figure 2. Simulated radial temperature profile for the Sony (Type US 18650)
[5] cell during discharge at C/1 rate with h5 6.4 W m22 K21.
 3234 Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000)
S0013-4651(00)01-030-2 CCC: $7.00 © The Electrochemical Society, Inc.

Figure 5. Final temperature increase vs. discharge rate at the center of the
Figure 3. Simulated axial temperature profile for the Sony (Type US 18650) 100 Ah scaled-up cell under different cooling rates.
cell during discharge at C/1 rate with h 5 6.4 W m22 K21.

ductivity and insulated end conditions result in a uniform axial tem-

perature profile and a negligible axial heat flux. However, in the
radial direction, significant temperature nonuniformity is generated
by the low thermal conductivity and appreciable heat flux in the radi-
al direction.

The 100 Ah scaled-up cylindrical cell with natural and forced

cooling.—Figure 5 shows the temperature increase at the center of a
100 Ah scaled-up cylindrical cell as a function of the discharge rate
and under different cooling rates. Results showed that the tempera-
ture increase is highly dependent on the discharge rate and the heat-
transfer coefficient. At C/1 discharge rate and under near insulating
conditions (i.e., h 5 1 W m22 K21), the cell temperature rise at the
end of discharge was near 60 K while with a high cooling rate (i.e.,
h 5 100 W m22 K21) the temperature increase is less than 20 K.
At a low cooling rate (i.e., 1 < h < 10 W m22 K21), the cell per-
forms as a lumped system with a uniform temperature profile across
the cell due to the low Biot number (Bi 5 hl/k < 0.1). However, for
a high heat-transfer coefficient (h > 20 W m22 K21) Bi is higher than
0.1, and, as shown in Fig. 6 for h 5 100 W m22 K21, a significant
Figure 6. Radial temperature profile at different DOD for the 100 Ah scaled-
up cell at C/1 discharge rate and h 5 100 W m22 K21 heat-transfer
coefficient.

temperature difference is expected between the cell surface and cen-

ter at all DOD.

The EV module with PCM.—As an illustration, paraffin wax was

used as a PCM in the simulation of the proposed EV pack. Physical
properties of the n-type paraffin wax are listed in Table II. 23 Figure
7 shows the simulated temperature profile for cells 1 and 2 in the EV
module shown in Fig. 1, at different DOD values during C/1 dis-

Table II. Physical properties of the paraffin wax23 used in the

simulation (Fig. 7-9).

Wax
Melted Solid

Density, kg/m3 182211. 191011.

Heat capacity, J/kg-K 177011. 177011.
Thermal conductivity, W/m-K 11110.21 1110.29
Figure 4. Simulated profile of heat flow for the Sony (Type US 18650) cell Melting temperature, 8C 156
during discharge at C/1 rate with h 5 6.4 W m22 K21. Heat of fusion, kJ/kg 195

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 Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000) 3235
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Figure 7. Temperature profile at different DOD across the center of cells 1 Figure 8. Radial temperature profile at different DOD for the 100 Ah scaled-
and 2 in the battery module with PCM at C/1 discharge rate and h 5 6.4 up cell at C/1 discharge rate with and without PCM at h 5 1 W m22 K21
W m22 K21 heat-transfer coefficient. heat-transfer coefficient.

charge with h 5 6.4 W m22 K21. The results shown are the temper- gated in this work. A finite-element software was used to simulate
ature profiles along a cross section through the center lines of both the temperature profile for a 100 Ah scaled-up cell of a Sony
cells. This end contains two out of a total of eight cells integrated in US18650 chemistry and design, and for an EV battery module dur-
the module. Results for the other three corners (cells) follow by sym- ing discharge at different rates and under different cooling condi-
metry, which implies h 5 0 across the dividing lines between the tions. Simulation results for the module using the PCM showed that
corners. The heat-transfer coefficient at the cell surface was assumed the temperature rise of the module was significantly lower than that
to be h 5 6.4 W m22 K for all discharge rates. The temperature rise for the same 100 Ah cell under the same cooling conditions. The
at the center of both cells at the end of discharge was near 53 K, temperature rise for the 100 Ah cell with medium to high heat-trans-
while a temperature rise of only 11 K was found for the PCM mate- fer coefficients is expected to be lower than that for cells in the mod-
rial. The temperature difference between cell surface and center was ule with a PCM thermal management system. However, at high cool-
less than 2 K for both cells at all DOD values. The lower tempera- ing rates (e.g., h 5 100 W m22 K21), the temperature variation be-
ture rise in the PCM is due to the latent heat of phase change; hence, tween the cell center and surface in 100 Ah cells is significant.
at To 1 11 K the PCM changes phase from solid to liquid, which is A major advantage of the PCM thermal management system is
accompanied by large heat absorption. Most of the heat rejected that the heat generated during discharge and stored as latent heat in
from the cell during discharge was stored as latent heat in the PCM the PCM is transferred to the cell module during relaxation and keeps
by changing its phase from solid to liquid. This stored heat is it at a temperature above the surrounding temperature for a long time
released after the end of discharge during the time when the cell is and will increase the overall energy efficiency of the battery system.
left to relax. This can be a significant advantage in EV applications under cold
Figure 8 shows the radial temperature profile at different DOD conditions, when the battery operates intermittently. The PCM will
for cell 2 in the module with and without PCM surrounding the cell
under near-insulating conditions (i.e., h 5 1 W m22 K21). Results
for different DODs showed a uniform temperature increase for the
cell with and without PCM due to the low Bi, as explained above.
However, the temperature increase with PCM was less than that
without PCM for all DODs.
As shown above, the temperature rise for cells 1 and 2 was 53 K
at the end of C/1 discharge rate with h 5 6.4 W m22 K. Figure 9
shows the temperature profile for the module at different times dur-
ing relaxation while the module is not operating. The temperature of
both cells was nearly 10 K higher than the initial (surrounding) tem-
perature after 24 h of relaxation. This is important in particular when
the battery is used in an EV under cold conditions. Smart et al.22
showed that the effective (or utilized) capacity of Li-ion batteries is
strongly dependent on the temperature, especially at low operating
temperatures. The effective capacity of the battery is increased sig-
nificantly if the cells remain at elevated temperatures throughout
operation. The heat stored in the PCM enables the cell temperature
to remain higher than the surrounding temperature during relaxation;
hence, the effective capacity during a subsequent charge or discharge
is higher.
Conclusions
A novel thermal management system for EV batteries that incor- Figure 9. Temperature profile during relaxation across the center of cells 1
porates a phase-change material (PCM) was presented and investi- and 2 in the battery module with PCM at h 5 6.4 W m22 K21.

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 3236 Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 147 (9) 3231-3236 (2000)
S0013-4651(00)01-030-2 CCC: $7.00 © The Electrochemical Society, Inc.
help to keep the battery temperature higher and therefore enable the
battery to operate with higher effective capacity. Another example is
space application, where Li-ion batteries are used in satellites. As the
satellite is orbiting the earth, it goes through a sudden temperature
change when it moves from the light side to the dark side of the earth.
The sudden drop in temperature affects the performance of the bat-
tery. The heat stored in the battery pack using a PCM can be used to
decrease the effect of this sudden temperature change.
Illinois Institute of Technology assisted in meeting the publication costs
of this article.
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