Government Polytechnic, Muzaffarpur.

Name of the Lab: OPERATING SYSTEM

Practical: OPERATING SYSTEM
Subject Code: 1618309

1. Demonstrate giving brief history of Operating System, types of Operating

Systems in use these days, how it is necessary for a computer functioning.
Computer operating systems (OSes) provide a set of functions needed and used by most
application programs on a computer, and the links needed to control and synchronize computer
hardware. On the first computers, with no operating system, every program needed the full
hardware specification to run correctly and perform standard tasks, and its own drivers for
peripheral devices like printers and punched paper card readers. The growing complexity of
hardware and application programs eventually made operating systems a necessity for everyday
use.

History of Operating System

Unix and Unix-like operating systems

Main article: Unix

Evolution of Unix systems

 Unix was originally written in assembly language.Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on
BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix,
rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which
have been influential in every modern operating system.

 The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories
including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group
which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their
definitions. "UNIX-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which
resemble the original UNIX.
  Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for
servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free
UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.

 Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can
be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.

Macos
Main article: macOS
macOS (formerly "Mac OS X" and later "OS X") is a line of open core graphical operating
systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all
currently shipping Macintosh computers. macOS is the successor to the original classic Mac OS,
which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, macOS is a
UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second
half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. ".

Linux
Main articles: Linux and Linux kernel

 Ubuntu, desktop Linux distribution

The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student in
Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and
programmers, and received support and assistance from volunteers who succeeded in creating a
complete and functional kernel.

 Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants.
Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and
modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from
supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only
1.82% of all "desktop" (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and
embedded systems such as cell phones.

 Microsoft Windows
Main article: Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft
Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated
88.9% total usage share on Web connected computers. The latest version is Windows 10.

In 2011, Windows 7 overtook Windows XP as most common version in use.

Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an operating environment running on top of
MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal
computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released which only used MS-DOS as a
bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real-mode MS-DOS and 16-bit
Windows 3. drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family.
Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of
Windows run on IA-32, x86-64 and 32-bit ARM microprocessors. In addition Itanium is still
supported in older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported
additional architectures.

Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant
capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating system. However,
Windows' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers as Windows competes
against Linux and BSD for server market share.

ReactOS is a Windows-alternative operating system, which is being developed on the principles

of Windows – without using any of Microsoft's code

Types of Operating Systems

Single- and multi-tasking:
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating
system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time-
sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple processes that are each
interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling subsystem of the operating system..
Single- and multi-user:
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple
programs to run in tandem. A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-
tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to
multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time.
Distributed:
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to
be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and
communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are
carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they
form a distributed system.

Templated:
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual
machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual
machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is
common in large server warehouses.

Embedded:
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are
designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate
with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design.
Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

Real-time
 A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events or data by a
specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when
multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior
is achieved. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external
events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts

Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides,
such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and
configuration code to construct a unikernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image
that can be deployed to cloud or embedded environments

Need of Operating System:

In earlier day’s user had to design the application according to the internal structure of the hardware.
Operating System was needed to enable the user to design the application without concerning the
details of the computer’s internal structure. In general the boundary between the hardware &
software is transparent to the user.

Usage of Operating System:

1. Easy interaction between the human & computer.
2. Starting computer operation automatically when power in turned on.
3. Loading & scheduling users program.
4. Controlling input & output.
5. Controlling program execution.
6. Managing use of main memory.
7. Providing security to users program.

Functions of Operating System :

The main functions perform by most Operating System of today are as follow: -
 Process Management: - The process management module of an Operating System takes care
of the creation & deletion of processes, scheduling of various system resources to the different
process requesting them, & providing mechanism for synchronization & communication
among processes.
 Memory Management: - The memory management module of an Operating System takes
care of the allocation & reallocation of memory space to the various program in need of this
resource.
 File Management: - computer use a lot of data & programs, which are, stored on secondary
storage devices. File management functions of an Operating System. Involves keeping track of
all different files & maintaining the integrity of data stored in the files including file directory
structure.
 Security: - The security modules of an Operating System protect the resources & information
of a computer system against destruction& unauthorized access.
 Command Interpretation: -The Command Interpretation module of an Operating System
takes care of interpreting of user commands, & directing the system resources to handle the
requests. With this mode of interaction with the system, the user is usually not too concerned
with the hardware details of the system.
 Input/Output or Device Management: - coordination & control of various input & output
devices is an important function of the Operating System. This involves receiving the request
for I/O interrupts, & communicating back to the requesting process.
 Job Control: - When the user wants to run an application program, he must communicate with
the Operating System telling it what to do. He does this using Operating System job control
language or JCL. JCL consists of a number of Operating Systems commands, called system
commands that control the functioning of the Operating System.
2. Prepare a report on different views of the Operating System, the journey of a
command execution, Design and implementation of Operating System.
Operating System - User View and System View. Operating System is designed both by taking
user view and system view into consideration.
 User View
The goal of the Operating System is to maximize the work and minimize the effort of the user.
Most of the systems are designed to be operated by single user, however in some systems
multiple users can share resources, memory. In these cases Operating System is designed to
handle available resources among multiple users and CPU efficiently.
Operating System must be designed by taking both usability and efficient resource utilization into
view.
In embedded systems(Automated systems) user view is not present.
Operating System gives an effect to the user as if the processor is dealing only with the current
task, but in background processor is dealing with several processes.
 System View
From the system point of view Operating System is a program involved with the hardware.
Operating System is allocator, which allocate memory, resources among various processes.
o It controls the sharing of resources among programs.
o It prevents improper usage, error and handle deadlock conditions.
o It is a program that runs all the time in the system in the form of Kernel.
o It controls application programs that are not part of Kernel.

A command-line user interface (CLI), also known as a console user interface, and character user
interface (CUI), is a means of interacting with a computer program where the user (or client)
issues commands to the program in the form of successive lines of text (command lines). A
program which handles the interface is called a command language interpreter or shell.

Advantages

 Requires fewer resources

 Concise access to options
 Expert-friendly
 Easier to automate via scripting or batch files
 Commands can be logged to review or repeat
 Easy to add special sub-options
 Shorter to show multi-step actions

Disadvantages

 Requires help guide for commands

 Commands can foster complex options
 Not visually rich, results might scroll off-screen
 Beginner-unfriendly
Design Goals

 At the highest level, system design is dominated by the choice of hardware and system type.
 Beyond this level, the requirements can be divided into two groups: user goals, and system
goals.
o User goals include convenience, reliability, security, and speed.
o System goals include ease of design, implementation, maintenance, flexibility,
and efficiency.

Implementation

 At first, operating systems were written in assembly, but now a days C/C++ is the language
commonly used
 Small blocks of assembly code are still needed, especially related to some low level I/O
functions in device drivers, turning interrupts on and off and the Test and Set
Instruction for Synchronization Facilities.
 Using higher level languages allows the code to be written faster. It also makes the OS much
easier to port to different hardware platforms.
3. Prepare a report on memory management of Operating System.
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages
primary memory and moves processes back and forth between main memory and disk during
execution. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location, regardless of
either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to
processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some
memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Process Address Space
The process address space is the set of logical addresses that a process references in its code. For
example, when 32-bit addressing is in use, addresses can range from 0 to 0x7fffffff; that is, 2^31
possible numbers, for a total theoretical size of 2 gigabytes.

The operating system takes care of mapping the logical addresses to physical addresses at the time
of memory allocation to the program. There are three types of addresses used in a program before
and after memory is allocated −

S.N. Memory Addresses & Description

1
Symbolic addresses

The addresses used in a source code. The variable names, constants, and instruction labels are
the basic elements of the symbolic address space.

2
Relative addresses

At the time of compilation, a compiler converts symbolic addresses into relative addresses.

3
Physical addresses

The loader generates these addresses at the time when a program is loaded into main memory.

Virtual and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding
schemes. Virtual and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme.

The set of all logical addresses generated by a program is referred to as a logical address space.
The set of all physical addresses corresponding to these logical addresses is referred to as
a physical address space.

The runtime mapping from virtual to physical address is done by the memory management unit
(MMU) which is a hardware device. MMU uses following mechanism to convert virtual address to
physical address.
  The value in the base register is added to every address generated by a user process, which is treated as
offset at the time it is sent to memory. For example, if the base register value is 10000, then an attempt by
the user to use address location 100 will be dynamically reallocated to location 10100.

 The user program deals with virtual addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses.

Static vs Dynamic Loading

The choice between Static or Dynamic Loading is to be made at the time of computer program
being developed. If you have to load your program statically, then at the time of compilation, the
complete programs will be compiled and linked without leaving any external program or module
dependency. The linker combines the object program with other necessary object modules into an
absolute program, which also includes logical addresses.

If you are writing a Dynamically loaded program, then your compiler will compile the program and
for all the modules which you want to include dynamically, only references will be provided and
rest of the work will be done at the time of execution.

At the time of loading, with static loading, the absolute program (and data) is loaded into memory
in order for execution to start.

If you are using dynamic loading, dynamic routines of the library are stored on a disk in
relocatable form and are loaded into memory only when they are needed by the program.

Static vs Dynamic Linking

As explained above, when static linking is used, the linker combines all other modules needed by a
program into a single executable program to avoid any runtime dependency.

When dynamic linking is used, it is not required to link the actual module or library with the
program, rather a reference to the dynamic module is provided at the time of compilation and
linking. Dynamic Link Libraries (DLL) in Windows and Shared Objects in Unix are good examples
of dynamic libraries.

Swapping
Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of main memory (or
move) to secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some
later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary storage to main memory.

Though performance is usually affected by swapping process but it helps in running multiple and
big processes in parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for memory
compaction.
The total time taken by swapping process includes the time it takes to move the entire process to a
secondary disk and then to copy the process back to memory, as well as the time the process takes
to regain main memory.

Let us assume that the user process is of size 2048KB and on a standard hard disk where swapping
will take place has a data transfer rate around 1 MB per second. The actual transfer of the 1000K
process to or from memory will take

2048KB / 1024KB per second

= 2 seconds
= 2000 milliseconds

Now considering in and out time, it will take complete 4000 milliseconds plus other overhead
where the process competes to regain main memory.
Memory Allocation
Main memory usually has two partitions −

 Low Memory − Operating system resides in this memory.

 High Memory − User processes are held in high memory.

Operating system uses the following memory allocation mechanism.

S.N. Memory Allocation & Description

1
Single-partition allocation

In this type of allocation, relocation-register scheme is used to protect user processes from each
other, and from changing operating-system code and data. Relocation register contains value of
smallest physical address whereas limit register contains range of logical addresses. Each
logical address must be less than the limit register.

2
Multiple-partition allocation

In this type of allocation, main memory is divided into a number of fixed-sized partitions where
each partition should contain only one process. When a partition is free, a process is selected
from the input queue and is loaded into the free partition. When the process terminates, the
partition becomes available for another process.

Fragmentation
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little
pieces. It happens after sometimes that processes cannot be allocated to memory blocks considering
their small size and memory blocks remains unused. This problem is known as Fragmentation.

Fragmentation is of two types −

S.N. Fragmentation & Description

1
External fragmentation

Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to reside a process in it, but it is not
contiguous, so it cannot be used.
2
Internal fragmentation

Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some portion of memory is left unused, as it
cannot be used by another process.

The following diagram shows how fragmentation can cause waste of memory and a compaction
technique can be used to create more free memory out of fragmented memory −

External fragmentation can be reduced by compaction or shuffle memory contents to place all free
memory together in one large block. To make compaction feasible, relocation should be dynamic.

The internal fragmentation can be reduced by effectively assigning the smallest partition but large
enough for the process.

Paging
A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the system. This
extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a hard that's set up to emulate
the computer's RAM. Paging technique plays an important role in implementing virtual memory.

Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken into blocks of
the same size called pages (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). The size of the
process is measured in the number of pages.

Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory
called frames and the size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum utilization
of the main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.
Address Translation
Page address is called logical address and represented by page numberand the offset.

Logical Address = Page number + page offset

Frame address is called physical address and represented by a frame number and the offset.

Physical Address = Frame number + page offset

A data structure called page map table is used to keep track of the relation between a page of a
process to a frame in physical memory.

When the system allocates a frame to any page, it translates this logical address into a physical
address and create entry into the page table to be used throughout execution of the program.

When a process is to be executed, its corresponding pages are loaded into any available memory
frames. Suppose you have a program of 8Kb but your memory can accommodate only 5Kb at a
given point in time, then the paging concept will come into picture.
When a computer runs out of RAM, the operating system (OS) will move idle or unwanted pages of
memory to secondary memory to free up RAM for other processes and brings them back when
needed by the program.

This process continues during the whole execution of the program where the OS keeps removing
idle pages from the main memory and write them onto the secondary memory and bring them back
when required by the program.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging

Here is a list of advantages and disadvantages of paging −

 Paging reduces external fragmentation, but still suffer from internal fragmentation.

 Paging is simple to implement and assumed as an efficient memory management technique.

 Due to equal size of the pages and frames, swapping becomes very easy.

 Page table requires extra memory space, so may not be good for a system having small RAM.

Segmentation
Segmentation is a memory management technique in which each job is divided into several
segments of different sizes, one for each module that contains pieces that perform related functions.
Each segment is actually a different logical address space of the program.

When a process is to be executed, its corresponding segmentation are loaded into non-contiguous
memory though every segment is loaded into a contiguous block of available memory.
Segmentation memory management works very similar to paging but here segments are of variable-
length where as in paging pages are of fixed size.

A program segment contains the program's main function, utility functions, data structures, and so
on. The operating system maintains a segment map table for every process and a list of free
memory blocks along with segment numbers, their size and corresponding memory locations in
main memory. For each segment, the table stores the starting address of the segment and the length
of the segment. A reference to a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an
offset.
4. Prepare a report on file management of Operating System.
A file management system is a type of software that manages data files in a computer system. It has
limited capabilities and is designed to manage individual or group files, such as special office
documents and records. It may display report details, like owner, creation date, state of completion
and similar features useful in an office environment. A file management system is also known as a
file manager.
File Management System
A file management system should not be confused with a file system, which manages all types of
data and files in an operating system (OS), or a database management system (DBMS), which has
relational database capabilities and includes a programming language for further data manipulation.
A file management system's tracking component is key to the creation and management of this
system, where documents containing various stages of processing are shared and interchanged on an
ongoing basis.
The system may contain features like:
o Assigning queued document numbers for processing
o Owner and process mapping to track various stages of processing
o Report generation
o Notes
o Status
o Create, modify, copy, delete and other file operations
o File Structure
o A File Structure should be according to a required format that the operating system can
understand.
o A file has a certain defined structure according to its type.
o A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines.
o A source file is a sequence of procedures and functions.
o An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks that are understandable by the
machine.

When operating system defines different file structures, it also contains the code to support these file
structure. Unix, MS-DOS support minimum number of file structure.

File Type
File type refers to the ability of the operating system to distinguish different types of file such as text
files source files and binary files etc. Many operating systems support many types of files.
Operating system like MS-DOS and UNIX have the following types of files −
o Ordinary files
o These are the files that contain user information.
o These may have text, databases or executable program.
o The user can apply various operations on such files like add, modify, delete or even remove
the entire file.
Directory files- These files contain list of file names and other information related to these files.
Special files- These files are also known as device files. These files represent physical device like
disks, terminals, printers, networks, tape drive etc.
These files are of two types −

o Character special files − data is handled character by character as in case of terminals or

printers.
 o Block special files − data is handled in blocks as in the case of disks and tapes.

File Access Mechanisms

File access mechanism refers to the manner in which the records of a file may be accessed. There
are several ways to access files −
o Sequential access
o Direct/Random access
o Indexed sequential access
o Sequential access
A sequential access is that in which the records are accessed in some sequence, i.e., the
information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other. This access method is the
most primitive one. Example: Compilers usually access files in this fashion.

Direct/Random access
o Random access file organization provides, accessing the records directly.
o Each record has its own address on the file with by the help of which it can be directly
accessed for reading or writing.
o The records need not be in any sequence within the file and they need not be in adjacent
locations on the storage medium.

Indexed sequential access

o This mechanism is built up on base of sequential access.
o An index is created for each file which contains pointers to various blocks.
o Index is searched sequentially and its pointer is used to access the file directly.

Space Allocation
Files are allocated disk spaces by operating system. Operating systems deploy following three
main ways to allocate disk space to files.
o Contiguous Allocation
o Linked Allocation
o Indexed Allocation
Contiguous Allocation
o Each file occupies a contiguous address space on disk.
o Assigned disk address is in linear order.
o Easy to implement.
o External fragmentation is a major issue with this type of allocation technique.
Linked Allocation
o Each file carries a list of links to disk blocks.
o Directory contains link / pointer to first block of a file.
o No external fragmentation
o Effectively used in sequential access file.
o Inefficient in case of direct access file.
Indexed Allocation
o Provides solutions to problems of contiguous and linked allocation.
o A index block is created having all pointers to files.
o Each file has its own index block which stores the addresses of disk space occupied by
the file.
o Directory contains the addresses of index blocks of files.
5. Demonstrate the Security and Protection features of an Operating System.
Security refers to providing a protection system to computer system resources such as CPU,
memory, disk, software programs and most importantly data/information stored in the computer
system. If a computer program is run by an unauthorized user, then he/she may cause severe
damage to computer or data stored in it. So a computer system must be protected against
unauthorized access, malicious access to system memory, viruses, worms etc. We're going to
discuss following topics in this chapter.

 Authentication
 One Time passwords
 Program Threats
 System Threats
 Computer Security Classifications
Authentication
Authentication refers to identifying each user of the system and associating the executing programs
with those users. It is the responsibility of the Operating System to create a protection system which
ensures that a user who is running a particular program is authentic. Operating Systems generally
identifies/authenticates users using following three ways −

 Username / Password − User need to enter a registered username and password with
Operating system to login into the system.

 User card/key − User need to punch card in card slot, or enter key generated by key
generator in option provided by operating system to login into the system.

 User attribute - fingerprint/ eye retina pattern/ signature − User need to pass his/her
attribute via designated input device used by operating system to login into the system.

One Time passwords

One-time passwords provide additional security along with normal authentication. In One-Time
Password system, a unique password is required every time user tries to login into the system. Once
a one-time password is used, then it cannot be used again. One-time password are implemented in
various ways.

 Random numbers − Users are provided cards having numbers printed along with
corresponding alphabets. System asks for numbers corresponding to few alphabets
randomly chosen.

 Secret key − User are provided a hardware device which can create a secret id mapped with
user id. System asks for such secret id which is to be generated every time prior to login.
  Network password − Some commercial applications send one-time passwords to user on
registered mobile/ email which is required to be entered prior to login.

Program Threats
Operating system's processes and kernel do the designated task as instructed. If a user program
made these process do malicious tasks, then it is known as Program Threats. One of the common
example of program threat is a program installed in a computer which can store and send user
credentials via network to some hacker. Following is the list of some well-known program threats.

 Trojan Horse − Such program traps user login credentials and stores them to send to
malicious user who can later on login to computer and can access system resources.

 Trap Door − If a program which is designed to work as required, have a security hole in its
code and perform illegal action without knowledge of user then it is called to have a trap
door.

 Logic Bomb − Logic bomb is a situation when a program misbehaves only when certain
conditions met otherwise it works as a genuine program. It is harder to detect.

 Virus − Virus as name suggest can replicate themselves on computer system. They are
highly dangerous and can modify/delete user files, crash systems. A virus is generatlly a
small code embedded in a program. As user accesses the program, the virus starts getting
embedded in other files/ programs and can make system unusable for user

System Threats
System threats refers to misuse of system services and network connections to put user in trouble.
System threats can be used to launch program threats on a complete network called as program
attack. System threats creates such an environment that operating system resources/ user files are
misused. Following is the list of some well-known system threats.

 Worm − Worm is a process which can choked down a system performance by using system
resources to extreme levels. A Worm process generates its multiple copies where each copy
uses system resources, prevents all other processes to get required resources. Worms
processes can even shut down an entire network.

 Port Scanning − Port scanning is a mechanism or means by which a hacker can detects
system vulnerabilities to make an attack on the system.

 Denial of Service − Denial of service attacks normally prevents user to make legitimate use
of the system. For example, a user may not be able to use internet if denial of service attacks
browser's content settings.

Computer Security Classifications

As per the U.S. Department of Defense Trusted Computer System's Evaluation Criteria there are
four security classifications in computer systems: A, B, C, and D. This is widely used specifications
to determine and model the security of systems and of security solutions. Following is the brief
description of each classification.

S.N. Classification Type & Description

1 Type A
Highest Level. Uses formal design specifications and verification techniques.
Grants a high degree of assurance of process security.

2 Type B
Provides mandatory protection system. Have all the properties of a class C2
system. Attaches a sensitivity label to each object. It is of three types.
 B1 − Maintains the security label of each object in the system. Label is used
for making decisions to access control.
 B2 − Extends the sensitivity labels to each system resource, such as storage
objects, supports covert channels and auditing of events.
 B3 − Allows creating lists or user groups for access-control to grant access
or revoke access to a given named object.

3 Type C
Provides protection and user accountability using audit capabilities. It is of two
types.
 C1 − Incorporates controls so that users can protect their private
information and keep other users from accidentally reading / deleting their
data. UNIX versions are mostly Cl class.
 C2 − Adds an individual-level access control to the capabilities of a Cl
level system.

4 Type D
Lowest level. Minimum protection. MS-DOS, Window 3.1 fall in this category.
6. Demonstrate the functions of Multi Processor Systems.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single computer
system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor or the
ability to allocate tasks between them. There are many variations on this basic theme, and the
definition of multiprocessing can vary with context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined
(multiple cores on one die, multiple dies in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).

Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central processing units (CPU)
within a single computer system. These multiple CPUs are in a close communication sharing the
computer bus, memory and other peripheral devices. These systems are referred as tightly coupled
systems.

These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to process a large volume of data.
These systems are generally used in environment like satellite control, weather forecasting etc. The
basic organization of multiprocessing system is shown in fig.

Multiprocessing System
Multiprocessing system is based on the symmetric multiprocessing model, in which each processor
runs an identical copy of operating system and these copies communicate with each other. In this
system processor is assigned a specific task. A master processor controls the system. This scheme
defines a master-slave relationship. These systems can save money in compare to single processor
systems because the processors can share peripherals, power supplies and other devices. The main
advantage of multiprocessor system is to get more work done in a shorter period of time. Moreover,
multiprocessor systems prove more reliable in the situations of failure of one processor. In this
situation, the system with multiprocessor will not halt the system; it will only slow it down.
In order to employ multiprocessing operating system effectively, the computer system must have the
followings:
1. Motherboard Support: A motherboard capable of handling multiple processors. This means
additional sockets or slots for the extra chips and a chipset capable of handling the multiprocessing
arrangement.

2. Processor Support: processors those are capable of being used in a multiprocessing system.
The whole task of multiprocessing is managed by the operating system, which allocates different
tasks to be performed by the various processors in the system.
Applications designed for the use in multiprocessing are said to be threaded, which means that they
are broken into smaller routines that can be run independently. This allows the operating system to
let these threads run on more than one processor simultaneously, which is multiprocessing that
results in improved performance.

In a multiprocessor system, the dynamically sharing of resources among the various processors may
cause therefore, a potential bottleneck. There are three main sources of contention that can be found
in a multiprocessor operating system:

Locking system: In order to provide safe access to the resources shared among multiple processors,
they need to be protected by locking scheme. The purpose of a locking is to serialize accesses to the
protected resource by multiple processors. Undisciplined use of locking can severely degrade the
performance of system. This form of contention can be reduced by using locking scheme, avoiding
long critical sections, replacing locks with lock-free algorithms, or, whenever possible, avoiding
sharing altogether.

Shared data: The continuous accesses to the shared data items by multiple processors (with one or
more of them with data write) are serialized by the cache coherence protocol. Even in a moderate-
scale system, serialization delays can have significant impact on the system performance. In
addition, bursts of cache coherence traffic saturate the memory bus or the interconnection network,
which also slows down the entire system. This form of contention can be eliminated by either
avoiding sharing or, when this is not possible, by using replication techniques to reduce the rate of
write accesses to the shared data.

False sharing: This form of contention arises when unrelated data items used by different
processors are located next to each other in the memory and, therefore, share a single cache line: The
effect of false sharing is the same as that of regular sharing bouncing of the cache line among several
processors. Fortunately, once it is identified, false sharing can be easily eliminated by setting the
memory layout of non-shared data.

Apart from eliminating bottlenecks in the system, a multiprocessor operating system developer
should provide support for efficiently running user applications on the multiprocessor. Some of the
aspects of such support include mechanisms for task placement and migration across processors,
physical memory placement insuring most of the memory pages used by an application is located in
the local memory, and scalable multiprocessor synchronization primitives.
 7. Demonstrate and produce report on computer network algorithms for
distributed processing.
A distributed algorithm is an algorithm designed to run on computer hardware constructed from
interconnected processors. Distributed algorithms are used in many varied application areas
of distributed computing, such as telecommunications, scientific computing,
distributed information processing, and real-time process control. Standard problems solved by
distributed algorithms include leader election, consensus, distributed search, spanning
tree generation, mutual exclusion, and resource allocation.
Distributed algorithms are a sub-type of parallel algorithm, typically executed concurrently, with
separate parts of the algorithm being run simultaneously on independent processors, and having
limited information about what the other parts of the algorithm are doing. One of the major
challenges in developing and implementing distributed algorithms is successfully coordinating
the behavior of the independent parts of the algorithm in the face of processor failures and
unreliable communications links. The choice of an appropriate distributed algorithm to solve a
given problem depends on both the characteristics of the problem, and characteristics of the
system the algorithm will run on such as the type and probability of processor or link failures, the
kind of inter-process communication that can be performed, and the level of timing
synchronization between separate processes

 Communication in networks is implemented in a process on one machine communicating with a

process on another machine
 See CS430 for details
 A distributed algorithm is an algorithm, run on a distributed system, that does not assume the
previous existence of a central coordinator.
 A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock. Each
processor has its own memory, and the processors communicate via communication networks.
 We will consider two problems requiring distributed algorithms, the coordinator election problem
and the value agreement problem (Byzantine generals problem)

Election Algorithms
 The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on
different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator.
 An election algorithm is an algorithm for solving the coordinator election problem. By the
nature of the coordinator election problem, any election algorithm must be a distributed
algorithm.
-a group of processes on different machines need to choose a coordinator

-peer to peer communication: every process can send messages to every other process.

-Assume that processes have unique IDs, such that one is highest

-Assume that the priority of process Pi is i

(a) Bully Algorithm

Background: any process Pi sends a message to the current coordinator; if no response in T time
units, Pi tries to elect itself as leader. Details follow:

Algorithm for process Pi that detected the lack of coordinator

1. Process Pi sends an “Election” message to every process with higher priority.

2. If no other process responds, process Pi starts the coordinator code running and sends a
message to all processes with lower priorities saying “Elected Pi”
3. Else, Pi waits for T’ time units to hear from the new coordinator, and if there is no
response à start from step (1) again.

Algorithm for other processes (also called Pi)

If Pi is not the coordinator then Pi may receive either of these messages from Pj

if Pi sends “Elected Pj”; [this message is only received if i < j]

Pi updates its records to say that Pj is the coordinator.

Else if Pj sends “election” message (i > j)

Pi sends a response to Pj saying it is alive

Pi starts an election.
(b) Election In A Ring => Ring Algorithm.

-assume that processes form a ring: each process only sends messages to the next process in the ring

- Active list: its info on all other active processes

- assumption: message continues around the ring even if a process along the way has crashed.

Background: any process Pi sends a message to the current coordinator; if no response in T time
units, Pi initiates an election

1. initialize active list to empty.

2. Send an “Elect(i)” message to the right. + add i to active list.

If a process receives an “Elect(j)” message

(a) this is the first message sent or seen

initialize its active list to [i,j]; send “Elect(i)” + send “Elect(j)”

(b) if i != j, add i to active list + forward “Elect(j)” message to active list

(c) otherwise (i = j), so process i has complete set of active processes in its active list.

=> choose highest process ID + send “Elected (x)” message to neighbor

If a process receives “Elected(x)” message,

set coordinator to x

Example:

Suppose that we have four processes arranged in a ring: P1 à P2 à P3 à P4 à P1 …

P4 is coordinator

Suppose P1 + P4 crash

Suppose P2 detects that coordinator P4 is not responding

P2 sets active list to [ ]

P2 sends “Elect(2)” message to P3; P2 sets active list to [2]

P3 receives “Elect(2)”

This message is the first message seen, so P3 sets its active list to [2,3]
P3 sends “Elect(3)” towards P4 and then sends “Elect(2)” towards P4

The messages pass P4 + P1 and then reach P2

P2 adds 3 to active list [2,3]

P2 forwards “Elect(3)” to P3

P2 receives the “Elect(2) message

P2 chooses P3 as the highest process in its list [2, 3] and sends an “Elected(P3)” message
P3 receives the “Elect(3)” message

P3 chooses P3 as the highest process in its list [2, 3] + sends an “Elected(P3)” message

Byzantine Generals Problem

Intuition: Only want to proceed with the plan of attack if they are sure everyone else agrees

Can't trust other generals.

-If generals can't trust one another they can never be sure if they should attack.
8. Prepare a brief history of Windows Operating System.
Microsoft Windows is a family of operating systems. We look at the history of Microsoft's
Windows operating systems (Windows OS) from 1985 to present day.
The Windows operating systems (Windows OS) are more formally called Microsoft
Windows and is a family of operating systems for personal computers. Windows dominates the
personal computer world, running, by some estimates, more than 90 percent of all
personal computers – the remainder running Linux and Mac operating systems.
Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking,
and support for many peripheral devices. In addition to Windows OS for personal computers,
Microsoft also offers operating systems for servers and personal mobile devices.

Microsoft Windows Operating Systems for PCs

The following details the history of MS-DOS and Windows operating systems designed for personal
computers (PCs).

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

Originally developed by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system for IBM-
compatible personal computers. The initial versions of DOS were very simple and resembled another
operating system called CP/M. Subsequent versions have become increasingly sophisticated as they
incorporated features of minicomputer operating systems.
Windows 1.0 – 2.0 (1985-1992)
Introduced in 1985, Microsoft Windows 1.0 was named due to the computing boxes, or "windows"
that represented a fundamental aspect of the operating system. Instead of typing MS-
DOS commands, windows 1.0 allowed users to point and click to access the windows.
In 1987 Microsoft released Windows 2.0, which was designed for the designed for the Intel 286
processor. This version added desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved graphics support.

Windows 3.0 – 3.1 (1990–1994)

Windows 3.0 was released in May, 1900 offering better icons, performance and advanced graphics
with 16 colors designed for Intel 386 processors. This version is the first release that provides the
standard "look and feel" of Microsoft Windows for many years to come. Windows 3.0 included
Program Manager, File Manager and Print Manager and games (Hearts, Minesweeper and Solitaire).
Microsoft released Windows 3.1 in 1992.

Windows 95 (August 1995)

Windows 95 was released in 1995 and was a major upgrade to the Windows operating system. This
OS was a significant advancement over its precursor, Windows 3.1. In addition to sporting a new
user interface, Windows 95 also includes a number of important internal improvements. Perhaps
most important, it supports 32-bit applications, which means that applications written specifically for
this operating system should run much faster.
Although Windows 95 can run older Windows and DOS applications, it has essentially removed
DOS as the underlying platform. This has meant removal of many of the old DOS limitations, such
as 640K of main memory and 8-character filenames. Other important features in this operating
system are the ability to automatically detect and configure installed hardware (plug and play).

Windows 98 (June 1998)

Windows 98 offers support for a number of new technologies, including FAT32, AGP, MMX, USB,
DVD, and ACPI. Its most visible feature, though, is the Active Desktop, which integrates the Web
browser (Internet Explorer) with the operating system. From the user's point of view, there is no
difference between accessing a document residing locally on the user's hard disk or on a Web server
halfway around the world.
Windows ME - Millennium Edition (September 2000)
The Windows Millennium Edition, called "Windows Me" was an update to the Windows 98 core
and included some features of the Windows 2000 operating system. This version also removed the
"boot in DOS" option.
Windows NT 31. - 4.0 (1993-1996)
A version of the Windows operating system. Windows NT (New Technology) is a 32-bit operating
system that supports preemptive multitasking. There are actually two versions of Windows NT:
Windows NT Server, designed to act as a server in networks, and Windows NT Workstation for
stand-alone or client workstations.

Windows 2000 (February 2000)

Often abbreviated as "W2K," Windows 2000 is an operating system for business desktop and laptop
systems to run software applications, connect to Internet and intranet sites, and access files, printers,
and network resources. Microsoft released four versions of Windows 2000: Professional (for
business desktop and laptop systems), Server (both a Web server and an office server), Advanced
Server (for line-of-business applications) and Datacenter Server (for high-traffic computer
networks).

Windows XP (October 2001)

Windows XP was released in 2001. Along with a redesigned look and feel to the user interface, the
new operating system is built on the Windows 2000 kernel, giving the user a more stable and reliable
environment than previous versions of Windows. Windows XP comes in two versions, Home and
Professional. Microsoft focused on mobility for both editions, including plug and play features for
connecting to wireless networks. The operating system also utilizes the 802.11x wireless security
standard. Windows XP is one of Microsoft's best-selling products.

Windows Vista (November 2006)

Windows Vista offered an advancement in reliability, security, ease of deployment, performance and
manageability over Windows XP. New in this version was capabilities to detect hardware problems
before they occur, security features to protect against the latest generation of threats, faster start-up
time and low power consumption of the new sleep state. In many cases, Windows Vista is noticeably
more responsive than Windows XP on identical hardware. Windows Vista simplifies and centralizes
desktop configuration management, reducing the cost of keeping systems updated.

Windows 7 (October, 2009)

Windows 7 was released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009 as the latest in the 25-year-old line of
Windows operating systems and as the successor to Windows Vista (which itself had followed
Windows XP). Windows 7 was released in conjunction with Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 7's
server counterpart. Enhancements and new features in Windows 7 include multi-touch support,
Internet Explorer 8, improved performance and start-up time, Aero Snap, Aero Shake, support for
virtual hard disks, a new and improved Windows Media Center, and improved security.

Windows 8

Windows 8 was released on August. 1, 2012 and is a completely redesigned operating system that's
been developed from the ground up with touchscreen use in mind as well as near-instant-on
capabilities that enable a Windows 8 PC to load and start up in a matter of seconds rather than in
minutes.
Windows 8 will replace the more traditional Microsoft Windows OS look and feel with a new
"Metro" design system interface that first debuted in the Windows Phone 7 mobile operating system.
The Metro user interface primarily consists of a "Start screen" made up of "Live Tiles," which are
links to applications and features that are dynamic and update in real time. Windows 8 supports both
x86 PCs and ARM processors.

Windows 10
Windows 10 is Microsoft's Windows successor to Windows 8. Windows 10 debuted on July 29,
2015, following a "technical preview" beta release of the new operating system that arrived in Fall
2014 and a "consumer preview" beta in early 2015. Microsoft claims Windows 10 features fast start
up and resume, built-in security and the return of the Start Menu in an expanded form. This version
of Windows will also feature Microsoft Edge, Microsoft's new browser. Any qualified device (such
as tablets, PCs, smartphones and Xbox consoles) can upgrade to Windows 10, including those with
pirated copies of Windows.
9. Demonstrate features, tools and accessories of Windows 98.
Windows 98 is released by Microsoft in June 25, 1998. It is a mixed 16 bit/32 bit Windows operating
system. The version number is 4.1 and the code name is Menphis.

Introduction
Windows98 has integrated the Internet standard comprehensively. It unifys ans simplifys desktop
with Internet technology and allows the users to find and browse the information on the computer or
on the internet more simply and faster. It has a faster speed and greater stability. With the brand new
self-maintenance and updating function, users can have more spare time to concentrate on work or
games instead of system management.

Features
This new system is edited on the base of Windows95. It improves the hardware standard, such as
MMX, and AGP. It has other features like supporting FAT32 file system, multi-display, Web TV
and the Internet Explorer integrated to the Windows GUI. That is called Active Desktop.

Besides, in the internal memory management, it improved the problem that when the 16 bit and
32 bit source code are saved to one same storage space, one program error will cause the whole
system downtime. From Windows98, the reformation of memory management is to put 16 bit and
32 bit source code to different memory spaces. Once there is a program error, you can just stop
that program and the system will not be affected.

From Windows98, the multiprocess operating systems have completely different improvement
with the preemptive multitasks of Windows95. The user can choose to averagely distribute
system resource for multitasking or put a prigram that needs a lot of time to the backstage. Thus
increase the practical applicability of multitasking. Although Windows98 is not perfect in evry
aspect, as all the Windows9x can enter into the pure DOS operation interface so that it needn't
DOS startup disk to repair when the system crashes, this is one of its advantages. The present
Windows XP/VISTA/2000 can no longer enter into the pure DOS interface, so if you need to
repair you have to use DOS starup disk, the other Windows9x or connect the hardware to the
other Windows9x computer.
Advantages
A great improvement compared to Windows95
1. Convenient to install: when installing Windows98, system will lead you to complete the
installation, and examine all the common hardwares such as moderm, CD-ROM driver, audio
card, and printer, etc.
2. More coordinating with the present soft and hard wares: Windows98 provides internal support for
more than 1900 present hardware devices, and has passed the test of compatibility with more than
3500 popular softwares. The internal support includes the 32 bit device driver program. That
means the hardware being supported will run faster and more effectively under Windows98
environment.
3. Plug and paly function: when you are using the "plug and play" device on the computer
Windows98 will set it automatically.
4. Improved UI: the desktop of Windows98 makes you concentrate more on your own task. There
are only a few graphic objests on the desktop, and that is simpler than before. The "start" button
leads you to start the daily work with the computer. If you want to quickly start a frequently-used
program or document, you can just pull it to the "start" button. It will be listed with other
functions (like set-up procedure, open a document, get help, change system settings, and find
files) together in the "start" menu. "My computer" makes browsing the content (all kinds of files,
folders, and procedures) of computer more convenient. "Network neiborhood" makes examing
and using network simpler. "Recycle bin" provides you a temporary space for placing deleted
files. You can choose to shift delete or get back to use.
5. Provide better support for MS-DOS without MS-DOS: different from Windows3.1, Windows98
will not run on the MS-DOS operating system. Windows98 is a tightly integrated system. It enters
into the GUI directly instead of command line. But Windows98 still supports MS-DOS.
6. Support long file name: in Windows98, the longest file name can be 255 characters. That makes
finding files very easy.
7. The function of mouse stands out: in Windows98, point to any object with the mouse pointer and
click the right button, you will see a pop-up menu that lists out all the orders related to the object.
With this menu, you can copy, delete, rename, create shortcut, and view the file and folder's
attributes.
8. Play CD automatically: if you put a CD that supports automatically playing, Windows98 will paly
the CD automatically instead of tedious operation procedure to choose play tool.
9. Added and improved the tools of accessories: Windows98 provides a group of tools that adapts to
the new interface. "Tablet" is the 32 bit editor. It replaces the "Write" and "Notebook" of
Windows3.1. "Picture" is the 32 bit tool that replaces "Brush". As "Picture" is the OLE software,
its images can be connected or inset to other documents. The backup of 32 bit makes the backup
from computer or disk, magcard easier.
10. Connection with Internet: after the installation of IE4.0 in Windows98, there is a option to open
active desktop. That makes IE4.0 one intefrated part of Windows98 desktop. Through choosing
active desktop, users can set the wallpaper as the HTML page that can directly get informations
from Internet. Besides, changing the traditional explorer to the Internet Explorer makes different
Windows intefaces. "Start" menu includes address bar and interlinkage, collection, and so on,
making net play more covenient.

New Functions
Web-Aware UI
Using the Web-aware UI included in Windows98, Internat has become one part of UI. The users
needn't leran multi-applications—one for the local information, one for browsing network, and of
course one for Internet or Intranet. With this interface, Windows98 makes the process a tool for
browsing local, network, Intranet, and Internet data. Therefore you can get informations you want in
a faster and easier way.

Tools for Internet Communication

Windows98 also provides abundant tools for on-line communicatiom:
Out Look TM Express: a full-function E-mail and News reader client-side.
o Microsoft Net Meeting TM: a solution that provides sound, data, images, meeting function
for the Internet meetings.
o Personal Web Sewer (and Web Publishing Witard): it provides a simple way to publish a
webpage on the Intranet or Internet.
o Microsoft Front Pad: a HTML editor that WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). It is
developed on the base of the edit tool which is the prize winner, full-function webpage
creator and management tool of Microsoft FrontPage97.
Microsoft Net Show: a platform that transfers multimedia through network. The range of network
can be from the low bandwidth dial-up Internet to the high bandwidth switching local network.

Updating
Windows Update website is the expansion of Windows98.
Improvement of dail-up network
The dial-up network has been updated, and it provides: dial-up script (it can connect to the call-
board and online service); the UI of dial-up network has been improved for simplifying settings and
dial-up connecting; supporting Multilink Channel Aggregaction enables the users to combine all the
dial-up lines for higher transmission rate.

Support for VPN users

Virtual Private Networking is the new network support for the remote users that enter into their
company's network through security association.

Online help of HTML

For helping users to find "help" information, Windows98 provides a HTML online help system.

These guides can help you quickly diagnosing and solving technology problems of Windows98.

Setup Enhancements
The setup of Windows98 has been enhanced for reducing the time cost and increasing the reliability
of setup.

FAT 32 file system

FAT 32 is the improved version of FAT file system. It allows formatting a 2G hardware to a single
driver. That makes the space of disc more effective.

FAT32 Conversion Utility

Improvement of power source management
Windows98 supports built-in Advaned Configuration and Power Interface port. That allows you to
turn on or off your PC as TV.

Windows script host

Windows98 supports direct script from UI or command line (one script is only a command line that
can be carried out automatically).

New accessory tools

Windows98 provides two new tools: Accessibility Configuration Wizard and a screen magnifying
glass.

Win32 Driver Model

Win32 Driver Model is a brand new and unified driver model for Windows95 and Wndows NT.

Windows Maintenance Wizard

Windows Maintenance Wizard is designed to enhance the self-maintainability of PC.

Scan Disk
When the operating system is turned off improperly or heavey mistake of hardware, Windows98 can
run the Scan Disk automatically.

Disk Clean Up
Disk Clean Up is a tool that cleans up the useless files from the disc automatically. It can increase
the effective space.

Microsoft system information tool4.1

Windows98 provides a compositive information tool to collect system configuration informations
about technology support.

System File Checker Utility

Sytem File Checker Utility follows the key files of your computer. If these files are moved or
changed, SFCU can restore them in an easy way. Once the file changes are sensed by SFCU, it will
provide you a few kinds of solutions.

Registry Checker
Registry Checker is a program that finds and solves registry problems, and back-up registry in time,
and also provides experiential support.

Dr. Watson
Windows98 provides a enhanced Dr Watson Utility.

System Configuration Utility

System Configuration Utility replaces Sysedit with imaging way.

Version Conflict Manager

Version Conflict Manager checks the conflict of different versions of installed programs.

New backups Utility

This new program supports SCSI tape device and makes backing up faster and easier.

Remote access server

Windows98 included all the parts of making the desktop a dial-up server.

Display Setting Enhancements

Display Setting Enhancements supports dynamic alteration of screen resolution and color depth.

Active Movie TM
Active Movie is a new media transmission system for Windows. It provides high quality video
palying; at the same time providing a group of ports that support multimedia applications and tools.

Support for MMX CPU of Intel

Support the third applications developed on the base of next generation Intel Pentium Multimedia
Extesions (MMX) server for faster audio and video support.

Multiple Display Support

Multiple Display Support allows users use multiple displays or graphic adaptor on one single PC.

Support for new generation hardwares

The main purpose of Windows98 is providing support for the innovation of hardwares rencent years.

PCMCIA enhancement
There are a few enhancement of PCMCIA technology:
Support for PC Card32 (Card bus)
Support for PC Card running in 3.3 volts
Support for Multifunction PC Cards
Support for built-in infrared data transmission
Windows98 supports IrDA (Infraed Data Association Standard).
Distributed Component Object Model
Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM) allows software developers creating component
applications.
Net ware Directory Services support
Windows98 supports Client Services of Novell Netware Directory Services (NDS).
32 bit Data Link Control
Data Link Control (DLC) agreement is mainly used to enter into IBM mainframe and IBM AS/HOO
computer.

Strong functions of computer and supplemental devices

Microsoft Windows98 operating system provides built-in support for external devices, making the
using of these widely used devices easier.

Much more fun

Adding more entertainment functions and built-in support for new technology such as MMX, DVD
and Microsoft DirectX5.0, Microsoft Windows98 system creates a harmony relationship between
users and the computer and brings more fun.

Development
December 4, 2003, MSDN users download plan manager Andy Boyd announced in a public news
group that according to the settlement agreement with Sun Company in 2001, a series of products
including Winsdows98 would be obsoleted gradually and deleted from the MSDN users download
content from December 15. MSDN distribution channel would not provide these products, either. It
is the time to say goodbye to Window98.
These obsoleting products are inset with Java virtual machine technique. The Sun Company who
owns Java has sued Microsoft in 1998 for the improper use of Java technique. Sun and Microsoft
have reached an accommodation in 2001. Microsoft compensates Sun 200 million dollars and
promises to obsolete those old version Java products which infringe the patent and trademark right
of Sun.
Winodws98 has stopped the major security update as of July 11, 2006
10. Prepare a brief report on features and benefits of Unix Operating System.
Features of the UNIX Operating System
High reliability, scalability and powerful features make UNIX a popular operating system, according
to Intel. Now beyond its 40th year as of 2010, UNIX is the backbone of many data centers including
the Internet. Big players using UNIX include Sun Microsystems, Apple Inc., Hewlett-Packard and
AT&T, which is the original parent company of UNIX. The Open Group owns all UNIX
specifications and the trademark, which are freely accessible and available over the Internet.

Multitasking and Portability

The main features of UNIX include multiuser, multitasking and portability capabilities. Multiple
users access the system by connecting to points known as terminals. Several users can run
multiple programs or processes simultaneously on one system. UNIX uses a high-level language
that is easy to comprehend, modify and transfer to other machines, which means you can change
language codes according to the requirements of new hardware on your computer. You, therefore,
have the flexibility to choose any hardware, modify the UNIX codes accordingly and use UNIX
across multiple architectures.

The Kernel and the Shell

The hub of a UNIX operating system, the kernel manages the applications and peripherals on a
system. Together, the kernel and the shell carry out your requests and commands. You
communicate with your system through the UNIX shell, which translates to the kernel. When you
turn on your terminal, a system process starts that overlooks your inputs. When you enter your
password, the system associates the shell program with your terminal. The shell allows you to
customize options even if you are not technically savvy. For example, if you partially type a
command, the shell anticipates the command for which you are aiming and displays the command
 for you. The UNIX shell is a program that gives and displays your prompts and, in conjunction
with the kernel, executes your commands. The shell even maintains a history of the commands
you enter, allowing you to reuse a command by scrolling through your history of commands.

Files and Processes

All the functions in UNIX involve either a file or a process. Processes are executions of
programs, while files are collections of data created by you. Files may include a document,
programming instructions for the system or a directory. UNIX uses a hierarchical file structure in
its design that starts with a root directory--signified by the forward slash (/). The root is followed
by its subdirectories, as in an inverted tree, and ends with the file. In the example
"/Demand/Articles/UNIX.doc," the main directory "Demand" has a subdirectory "Articles,"
which has a file "UNIX.doc."

Advantages
 Full multitasking with protected memory. Multiple users can run multiple programs each at
the same time without interfering with each other or crashing the system.
 Very efficient virtual memory, so many programs can run with a modest amount of physical
memory.
 Access controls and security. All users must be authenticated by a valid account and
password to use the system at all. All files are owned by particular accounts. The owner can
decide whether others have read or write access to his files.
  A rich set of small commands and utilities that do specific tasks well -- not cluttered up with
lots of special options. Unix is a well-stocked toolbox, not a giant do-it-all Swiss Army
Knife.
 Ability to string commands and utilities together in unlimited ways to accomplish more
complicated tasks -- not limited to preconfigured combinations or menus, as in personal
computer systems.
 A powerfully unified file system. Everything is a file: data, programs, and all physical
devices. Entire file system appears as a single large tree of nested directories, regardless of
how many different physical devices (disks) are included.
 A lean kernel that does the basics for you but doesn't get in the way when you try to do the
unusual.
 Available on a wide variety of machines - the most truly portable operating system.
 Optimized for program development, and thus for the unusual circumstances that are the rule
in research.
Disadvantages
 The traditional command line shell interface is user hostile -- designed for the programmer,
not the casual user.
 Commands often have cryptic names and give very little response to tell the user what they
are doing. Much use of special keyboard characters - little typos have unexpected results.
 To use Unix well, you need to understand some of the main design features. Its power comes
from knowing how to make commands and programs interact with each other, not just from
treating each as a fixed black box.
 Richness of utilities (over 400 standard ones) often overwhelms novices. Documentation is
short on examples and tutorials to help you figure out how to use the many tools provided to
accomplish various kinds of tasks.