IJCE Volume1 Issue3 Pages1-351IranianJournalofComparativeEducation.

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A Comparative Study on the Position of Formal Education System of Islamic

Republic of Iran among its Neighboring Countries
Article · August 2019

DOI: 10.22034/IJCE.2019.194969.1031
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Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35
Research Article DOI: 10.22034/IJCE.2019.194969.1031 http://journal.cesir.ir
A Comparative Study on the Position of Formal Education

System of Islamic Republic of Iran among its Neighboring
Countries
Abbas Madandar Arani1, Mehdi Navid2, Majid Ranaei3
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Received: 18 February 2018 This study aims to compare the position of the formal education
Revised: 6 April 2018 system of the Islamic Republic of Iran with those of neighboring
Accepted: 9 August 2018 countries. This is a comparative quantitative study, in which the
online: 9 August 2019
statistical population was analyzed at the world
regions/continents level based on the Bray and Thomas cube. The
research sample consisted of Iran and 13 neighboring countries.
There were six education indices classified generally as student,
human resources, environment and equipment, financial, outcome,
and qualitative groups with 20 micro indices. The information was
collected by analyzing documents, contents of reports, and citable
references, such as international databanks, official websites of the
Ministry of Education, and governmental sources and reports as
well as those of research institutions and the mass media.
Regarding the fulfillment percentage of education indices, the
research findings indicate that Iran was ranked seventh among
neighboring countries. Among seven Arab countries except for
Iraq, countries on the southern border of the Persian Gulf were
ranked from first to six; thus, they outstripped Iran and other
neighboring countries. According to other research findings, Iran
KEYWORDS was ranked below fifth in seven indices, compared with 13
Education index
neighboring countries, and between sixth and tenth in 11 indices.
Formal education system
Iran was ranked third in apparent intake ratio, first in actual intake
Iran
ratio, and second in the ratio of technical and vocational students
to the entire students. It was also ranked first along with
Azerbaijan and the UAE in the ratio of qualified teachers to the
entire number of teachers, fourth in the share of education budget
from the public budget, and fifth in the graduation rate of primary
students among neighboring countries.
1
Assistant Prof. Lorestan University, Email:arani.a@lu.ac.ir
2
Assistant Prof. Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University
3
PhD Student, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch
A Comparative Study on the Position …
Introduction and Problem Statement
In the late 1970s, the Islamic Revolution of Iran brought about many changes in different
social aspects. For nearly four decades, Iran’s education system has witnessed fundamental
developments, the outcome of which can be evaluated and regarded as the “performance” of
this system in terms of quantitative and qualitative aspects at national, regional, and
international levels. According to the Islamic Republic of Iran 2025 Outlook Document, the
Iranian society is characterized by the attainment of the first position in economy, science,
and technology across South-western Asia (including Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Middle
East, and neighbouring countries). For this purpose, the emphasis is put on the software
movement, science production, rapid and continuous economic growth, relative enhancement
of per capita income, and the realization of full employment. According to this document,
Countries of South-western Asia (including Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, and
neighbouring countries) are considered the rivals of Iran in the region (Supreme Council of
Cultural Revolution, 2019).
Given the limited period of time allocated to the realization of goals set by the 2025 Outlook
Document (6 years), it is a high priority to determine the position of the education system. In
fact, the primary undeniable challenge is the lack of systematic scientific information on the
position of Iran among its neighbouring countries with regard to the performance of the
formal education system. According to the available information on other resources
determining the national power such as the scientific ranking, many of the neighbouring rival
countries, such as Turkey and countries on the border of the Persian Gulf are highly
incomparable in ranking (Mullaei Nejad, 2008; Afshardi, and Madani, 2009). For instance,
Sabbagh Kermani, Yavari, Baskah, and Shah Tahmasebi, (2009) employed the data
envelopment analysis (DEA) to analyse the performances of Islamic countries’ health and
education sectors. According to their findings, Iran’s health and education systems efficiency
is %31 and %28 respectively, compared to other Islamic countries, showing weak
performance.
Legatum’s report pointed out that Iran’s education was ranked 57th in 2012-2014 and 71st in
2016 (Legatum, 2016). According to the Global Competitiveness Report issued by prominent
experts of the World Economic Forum in 2016, Iran was ranked 60th in the quality of primary
education, 49th in the general quality of higher educations, 36th in the education quality of
mathematics and sciences, and 91st in the school management quality among 140 countries
2 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

evaluated by international standards. Iran was also ranked 129th in employee training rate,
120th in the Internet accessibility for learners at schools, and 76th in the availability of
specialized education services (Schwab, 2015). In addition, Iranian students have not been
very successful in international examinations such as TIMSS and PIRLS since 2007(cf.
Bouhlila, 2011).
At the same time, few studies on Iran’s neighbouring countries in the Middle East show that
the education systems of this region follow a growing but gradual trend. For instance,
UNICEF-UNESCO joint report of outcome indices and dropping out in particular confirms that
the Middle Eastern and Northern African countries (MENA) spent considerable economic
resources and a plethora of political capitals bringing more children to classrooms in the past
decade (Lake, 2015). However, developments have stopped in recent years, inasmuch as 4.3
million children of primary school age and 2.9 million adolescents of junior high school age
have not attended schools yet. Who are these children? Generally, they are the poorest
children and mainly girls living in rural areas or belonging to minorities. Despite this
inappropriate implication, the literacy level index usually shows a relatively better
performance of educational systems of MENA. In 2008, UNESCO estimated that %40 of people
above 15 years old – nearly 70 million people – were still unlettered in Arab countries (Magin,
2012). However, Najd (2016) indicated that the Middle East countries took huge steps in
developing education:
 Achieving nearly complete gender equality in primary education

 Increasing the registration rates of schools considerably over the past decade
 Providing general primary education for girls and boys in most countries of the region
 Enhancing the literacy level of adults (above 15 years old) from %59 in 1990 to %78
in 2010
 Increasing financial commitments of governments: the average investment in
education is %5.3 of GDP in the entire region.
Although many Arab countries have been acquainted with the globally acceptable criteria for
“Education for All” (UNESCO, 2012), lack of teachers is a serious challenge of their education
systems. According to the report published by Arab Research Centre for the Study of Politics,
Arab countries must employ 213000 new teachers by 2015, over 345000 new teachers by
2020, 399000 new teachers by 2025, and 454000 new teachers by 2030 to achieve the goal of
“Education for All”. Obviously, increasing the number of teachers requires financial resources.

Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen are facing severe economic bottlenecks because of
certain political problems. According to a report published by UNESCO in 2011, Arab
countries allocated %4.8 of their GDPs and %18.1 of their total governmental expenses to
education. It is predicted that they will spend %6 of their GDPs and %20 of their public budget
(Demirjian, 2015). It can briefly be concluded that the Middle Eastern countries differ greatly
in human resources development. The difference is so significant among the neighbours of
Iran.
On the one hand, Iran borders Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq facing horrible states of
political, social, and economic conditions adversely affecting their education systems. On the
other hand, Iran has wealthy neighbours such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, and the UAE,
which have been able to improve the social welfare and economic state of their people
through the relatively optimal management of money gained from the petroleum business.
These countries have managed to achieve educational goals. This significant difference caused
MENA to have the lowest rate of growth in comparison with other regions (except for the
countries in the Sub-Sahara Africa) in the past decade. In the Middle East, lack of high rates of
development in human resources is mainly due to the dependency of countries on petroleum,
relatively low quality of governments, and international political crises (Pinar, Stengos, &
Yazgan, 2013).
Given the fact that Iran is in the center of conflicts due to its geopolitical position, the Supreme
Council of Education, serving as the main policymaking and legislative center for education,
decided to objectively evaluate the current status of Iran’s education system and those of
neighbouring countries in accordance with the goals of the 2025 Outlook Document ratified
by the Islamic Parliament of Iran. Given the passage of four decades after the establishment of
the Islamic republic system in Iran as well as global developments along with the missions of
the Supreme Council of Education, decision-makers and directors need to take a comparative
glance at the status of the education system, analyse existing challenges, and discuss an
outlook. Accordingly, this study aims to compare the position of Iran’s educational system
with those of 13 neighbouring countries with respect to the fulfilment percentage of
education indices. The secondary research goals are as follows: discussing similarities and
differences of 14 countries in quantitative education indices, determining and explaining the
current position of Iran by each index, presenting a model for explaining the superiority of
five successful countries of the region (based on the selection strategy), and identifying and

explaining successes of each country to the education policymakers and planners of Iran.
Research Method
This is a comparative quantitative study based on Bereday’s approach. Given the sampling
method employed in comparative research, this study can be categorized into the “Large N,
More Variable” group. The selection strategies were based on the Bray and Thomas cube at a
“regional” level (Bray, Adamson, & Mason, 2014). The selected countries included Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkey, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,
Qatar, the UAE, Oman, and Iran. The countries were selected on the basis of the “similar
systems, similar outputs” strategy. In other words, it was assumed that all of the selected
countries were similar in geographical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects. Thus,
they are expected to show similar results in the education system performance.
Regarding the analysis of an education system, it is necessary to employ indices which are
universal enough. There should also be a relative agreement on the definitions and ranges of
these indices. Hence, this study utilized specific indices approved by international
organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and their official statistics and
reports as well as the reports, statistics, and information published by the websites affiliated
with each country’s ministry of education. However, it should be noted that relevant statistics
of all indices were unavailable for some countries for a specific year due to the fact that some
countries refused to publish their statistics or that international organizations had no access
to such information. Therefore, researchers used the latest statistics available in international
reports and documents for each country. Since this study was completed in 2017, most of the
statistics pertain to that year backward. Despite the fact that this study was conducted nearly
one and a half years ago, the present authors have recently indicated that there is no new
statistics for most of the indices. Even if there is, variations are so slight and ignorable. Hence,
20 education indices were selected from the “evaluation indices of the education system”
approved by the Iranian Supreme Council of Education. These indices were generally
classified as student (6 indices), human resources (1 index), environment and equipment (2
indices), financial (4 indices), outcome (5 indices), and qualitative (2 indices) categories.
Results
Given the massive amount of research information, this study presents only the results
pertaining to descriptive and comparative approaches. The first and last countries analysed

were Pakistan and Iran, respectively. The research region ranged from the easternmost part
of Iran (Pakistan) to the southernmost part (Omen).
A: Description
1. Pakistan
Regarding student indices, the statistics show that there are 47 learners per teacher in
Pakistan (Global Economy, 2017) when the net registration rate of the pre-primary school is
%57 with the apparent and actual coverage rates of %92.71 and %73.85, respectively
(UNESCO, 2015a). According to the report published by the Economic Analysis Office of
Pakistan, over %81 of students registered in public schools (ASER, 2016). The ratio of
technical and vocational students to the entire students was %6 (UNSESCO, 2015b).
Moreover, %82.46 of teachers were qualified (World Bank, 2015), and %51 of Pakistani
schools had access to the Internet (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2016). In Pakistan, the
student per capita was 551 USD in 2015 (UNESCO, 2015b) when the monthly salary of
teachers was 17968 rupees on average (Indeed, 2017). The education budget had only
%13.19 of the public budget (Trading Economics, 2015a), and education expenses accounted
for %2.2 of GDP (Yusufzal, 2016). The student promotion rate was %78.55 (UNESCO, 2014)
and the graduation rate was %58.9 (Trading Economics, 2015b). The student grade repetition
rate was %1.64 (Trading Economics, 2015c), and the accumulated dropout rate was %20.41
(Trading Economics, 2015d). The literacy rate was %57.9 in 2015 (IndexMundi, 2017) and
the human resources development index (HDI) was 0.562, putting Pakistan on the average
tier for human resources development (UNDP, 2018).
2. Afghanistan
According to the available statistics, there is one teacher for every 44 students in Afghanistan
(World Bank, 2015). The pre-primary school coverage rate is %1 when the apparent intake
ratio and actual coverage rates are %97.5 and %54.6, respectively (UNICEF, 2012). The
student registration rate of private schools is nearly % 2.5 (Knoema, 2017), and the ratio of
technical and vocational students to the entire students is below %1 (UNESCO, 2015). Given
the fact that the lowest education standard for teachers in Afghanistan’s education system is
to have an associate’s degree, only %43 of teachers can be considered qualified (UNESCO,
2015). Nearly %12 of people can access the Internet in Afghanistan (Internet World Stats,
2015), and there is no specific statistics on the number of computers at schools and students’

access to the Internet. The student per capita is 157.56 USD (UNESCO, 2016), and the average
salary of teachers is 167 USD per month (Roehrs & Suroush, 2015). The share of education
budget from the public budget followed a descending trend, inasmuch as it reached %18.4 in
2014, and the share of education expenses from GDP reached %3.32 in 2015 (Knoema, 2017).
The student improvement rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate, and dropout rate were
%88.5, %63, %3.9, and %6, respectively (UNESCO, 2015). By 2015 in Afghanistan, the literacy
rate was %38, which was significantly lower than the international average (%84) (Craddock,
2016). From 1990 to 2017, Afghanistan’s human resources development index increased from
0.295 to 0.498, insofar as life expectancy at birth reached 60.7 years (UNDP, 2018).
3. Turkmenistan
According to the available statistics, there is one teacher for every 24 students in
Turkmenistan (EPDC, 2013). In 2014, %62.85 Turkmen children were covered by pre-
primary education on average (UNESCO, 2014a). With an apparent intake coverage rate of
%87.3 (UNESCO, 2014b), UNESCO’s report shows that there were no private schools or
institutes in Turkmenistan by 2007 (UNESCO, 2007). Latest statistics indicate that the
population of students of technical and vocational high schools increased to %21.7 in
Turkmenistan (UNESCO, 2014c). According to UNICEF’s report, there was one computer for
every 57 students, and the Internet accessibility rate was %39 (UNICEF, 2017). Although
there is no official statistics, the published information by the mass media indicates that the
monthly salary of a teacher ranged averagely from 800 to 900 Turkmenistan manats
(equivalent to 260-232 USD) in 2013 (Chronicles of Turkmenistan, 2013). The share of
education budget from the public budget was %20.8 (Global Economy, 2013a), and the share
of education budget from GDP was %3.05 (Global Economy, 2013b). According to UNICEF’s
report, the student promotion rate, graduation rate, dropout rate, and literacy learning rate
were %99.8, %102.8 (UNICEF, 2017), %1 (UNICEF, 2010), and %99.7, respectively. The
average years of schooling in this country is 11 years (Hays, 2016). In 2017, the value of
Turkmenistan’s human resources development index was 0.706, putting this country on the
average ranking of human resources development (UNDP, 2018).
4. Azerbaijan
According to the available statistics, there is one teacher in Azerbaijan for every 12.62
students (UNESCO, 2014), and the pre-primary education coverage is %48.75 (UNESCO,
2015). The apparent intake rate, actual education coverage rate, and registration rate of
private schools are %107 (Trading Economics, 2015), %94.14 (UNESCO, 2015), and %15.50
(Knoema, 2014), respectively. According to the reports published by Azerbaijan’s Ministry of
Education, there were %5-8 in technical and vocational majors in 2012 (Ministry of
Education, 2012). The report of the United Nations Development Programme pointed out that
there were %100 trained teachers in Azerbaijan in 2016 (UNDP, 2016) and that there was one
computer for every 33 learners by 2014 (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2016). In 2011, the
former president of Azerbaijan increased the salaries of teachers and governmental
employees to 344 USD by %10 (RFE/RL, 2011). The public expenses of the government for
education, the share of education from GDP, student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade
repetition rate, and dropout rate reached %7.37 (Trading Economics, 2015a/b), %2.63
(Trading Economics, 2015c), %99.45 (UNESCO, 2014), %98.1 (Knoema, 2014), % 0.143
(Trading Economics, 2015d), and %2.7 (Knoema, 2012), respectively. The literacy rates of
men and women are %99.72 and %99.86, respectively (UNESCO, 2015). The human resources
development rate was 0.754 in 2017 when Azerbaijan was ranked 78th among 188 countries
(UNDP, 2018).
5. Armenia
In 2007, there was one teacher for every 19.31 students in Armenia (Trading Economics,
2007a). The pre-primary admission rate reached %52.4 in 2015 (Trading Economics, 2015a).
The apparent education coverage rate reached %101.4 among boys and %103.9 among girls
(UNICEF, 2012a), and the actual education coverage rate reached %84.1 in 2007 (Trading
Economics, 2007b). According to Knoema located in Washington, the US, the ratio of private
school students to the entire primary and high school students reached %1.9 and %2.3,
respectively in 2014 (Knoema, 2012a; Knoema, 2012b). The ratio of technical and vocational
students was %10.88 (Trading Economics, 2014). According to the latest statistics, %77.45 of
teachers were scientifically qualified (World Bank, 2005). There was one computer for every
15 users in Armenia, and %100 of schools accessed the Internet (UNESCO Institute for
Statistics, 2016). The student per capita was %11 (Knoema, 2013). According to the study
conducted by UNICEF, the average monthly salary of teachers was 314 USD in 2011 (UNICEF,
2011). The share of public expenses of education from the total governmental expenses was
%10.66 (Trading Economics, 2015b), whereas it took up %2.80 of GDP (Trading Economics,
2015c). The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate, and dropout rate
were %99 (UNESCO, 2014), %100.1 (Knoema, 2008), %0.37 (Trading Economics, 2015d), and

%9.8 (Knoema, 2013), respectively. In 2015, the literacy rate was %99.8 among individuals
aged 15 and older (Trading Economics, 2015d). In 2017, the human resources development
rate was %0.755 (UNDP, 2018).
6. Turkey
According to the statistics reported by the World Bank, there were 19 students for each
teacher in Turkey in 2014 (World Bank, 2014). The pre-primary admission rate of children in
need of education was %28.93. The apparent and actual education coverage rates were
%102.49 and % 94.14, respectively (UNESCO, 2015). Nearly %5 of students studied in private
schools (Gur, 2016). The registration rate of technical and vocational schools was %34 (OECD,
2016), and there was one computer for every 45 students as users (UNESCO Institute for
Statistics, 2016). The per capita expense of each primary school student was 1860 USD,
whereas that of a high school student was 2470 USD (OECD, 2013). The average annual salary
of teachers with 15 years of experience was 60044 USD in 34 OECD member countries;
however, this number decreased to 28110 USD in Turkey (Hurriyet Daily News, 2015). The
share of education expenses from the public budget was %12.4 (UNESCO, 2015), whereas %5
of GDP was allocated to them (OECD, 2016). The promotion rate, average graduation rate,
grade repetition rate, and dropout rate were %99.04 (UNESCO, 2015), %96.78 (OECD, 2016),
%1.77 (World Bank, 2015), and %2.5 (EPDC, 2014), respectively. The literacy rate of adults
was %95.69 (Knoema, 2015) when the total human resources development index was 0.791
in 2017. Therefore, Turkey was ranked well in human resource development (UNDP, 2018).
7. Iraq
There is one teacher for every 17 students at all levels in Iraq (UNICEF, 2016), and the pre-
primary school admission rate was %6.61 in 2007 (UNESCO, 2007). The apparent and actual
education coverage rates were %107 and %92, respectively (World Bank, 2014). Only %1 of
girls and %5.2 of boys studied in different technical and vocational majors in Iraq (World
Bank, 2007). In 2016, only %77 of teachers of all grades were scientifically qualified (UNICEF,
2016). In 2016, nearly %37 of people accessed the Internet and cyberspace in Iraq (Internet
World Stats, 2016), and %5.7 of governmental expenses was for education; the lowest rate
among all Middle Easter countries (UNICEF, 2016). The share of education expenses from GDP
reached %9 in 2009, while there is no newest statistics (Kulaksiz et al., 2014). The student
promotion rate and the latest graduation rate were %71.5 (World Bank, 2014) and %57.82
(Global Economy, 2007), respectively. During 2014, %16.8 of Iraqi students had to repeat
their grades, and %13.5 of children (1.2 million children) had no access to primary education
(UNICEF, 2016). The World Bank reported that the literacy rate was %81.54 in Iraq in 2015
(World Bank, 2015). According to the data of the UN, the human resource development rate
was 0.685 in Iraq in 2017 (UNDP, 2018).
8. Kuwait
There is one teacher for every 5.6 students in Kuwait (World Bank, 2015a). According to the
available reports, the pre-primary school admission rate was %66.4, which is higher than the
global average (%53.8). The apparent intake rate was %102 (Oxford Business Group, 2016)
when the actual intake rate was %92.87 in 2014 (UNESCO, 2016). According to the statistics
published by Kuwait’s Ministry of Education, nearly %18 of students studied in private
schools (al-Azemi, 2017), and %2.17 of the entire students enrolled in technical and
vocational high school courses in 2014 (Trading Economics, 2014b). In 2015, only %78.93 of
teachers were scientifically qualified in Kuwait (World Bank, 2015b). According to the latest
statistics, there was one computer for every 13 students in public schools in Kuwait on
average. This ratio is very close to the mean of OECD member countries (AlMarwani, 2013).
Equal to 14300 USD, the expenses of each student in Kuwait were higher than the mean of
OECD member countries (Oxford Business Group, 2016). According to an employment agency
for the recruitment of teachers in Kuwait, the average monthly salary of teachers ranged
between 500 and 800 Kuwaiti dinars (nearly equivalent to 1800-3700 USD) without taxes
(Teach Away, 2017). Kuwait’s state allocated %9.5 of the public budget to education in 2016
(Oxford Business Group, 2016). The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition
rate, and dropout rate were %98.33 (UNESCO, 2012), %103.4 (World Bank, 2013), %0.51
(UNESCO, 2016), and %4.3, respectively, in Kuwait (Knoema, 2012). The literacy rate was
reported %96.2 (UNESCO, 2015). According to the data of the UN, Kuwait’s human resources
development rate was 0.803 in 2017, and it was ranked 51st among 188 countries (UNDP,
2018).
9. Saudi Arabia
The ratio of students to teachers was 10.9 in Saudi Arabia in 2015, and the primary school
admission rate of students was %44.4 (UNESCO, 2015). The apparent and actual education
coverage rates were %106.8 and %97.9, respectively, while the ratio of scientifically qualified
teachers to the entire teachers was %97 (Global Economy, 2013). The ratio of technical and
vocational students was %5.13 (UNESCO, 2015), and %11.4 of students enrolled in private
schools (Oxford Business Group, 2016). By 2009, %100 of schools were equipped with
computers in Saudi Arabia, and there was one computer for every 13 students (CITC, 2009).
The student per capita was 7099 USD in 2007, and there was no newer statistics (UNESCO,
2007). The average monthly salary of a teacher was 13952 rials (equivalent to 3718 USD) in
Saudi Arabia. According to the World Economic Forum, the share of education budget was
%23 from the public budget (Oxford Business Group, 2016). The latest statistics published in
2008 indicated that the share of education expenses from GDP was %5.14 in Saudi Arabia
(Global Economy, 2008). The primary student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade
repetition, and dropout rate were %89.73 (UNESCO, 2015), %110.9 (Global Economy, 2014),
%0.91 (Trading Economics, 2014), and %0.78 (Trading Economics, 2013), respectively. The
literacy rate was %99.35 among individuals aged between 15 and 24 years old (Trading
Economics, 2015). The human resources development rate was 0.853 in 2017, and Saudi
Arabia was ranked 38th among 188 countries (UNDP, 2018).
10. Bahrain
The ratio of students to teachers was 11 in Bahrain where %55.8 of children below six years
old were covered by pre-primary education (World Bank, 2015). The apparent and actual
education coverage rates were %101.1 and %96.4, respectively (Borgen Project, 2017). The
ratio of scientifically qualified teachers was %82 (World Bank, 2015), and nearly %34 of
students enrolled in private schools in Bahrain. All schools were equipped with computers
and the Internet access (Oxford Business Group, 2016). The ratio of technical and vocational
students was %14.77 (UNESCO, 2015). The student per capita was 6700 USD (UNESCO,
2015), and the average salary of a teacher is 2064 USD per month (Fas al-Youm, 2014). The
share of education budget from the public budget is %7.66, and the education expenses
account for %2.67 of GDP. The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate,
and dropout rate were %99.88 (UNESCO, 2015), %98.7, %0.65 (World Bank, 2015), and %2.2,
respectively (Knoema, 2011). In 2015, the literacy rate was %99.8, and Bahraini women had
the highest rate of literacy among the women of other Arab countries (Borgen Project, 2017).
According to the data of the UN, Bahrain’s human resources development rate was 0.846 in
2017 when it was ranked 47th among 188 countries (UNDP, 2018).
11. Qatar
The ratio of students to teachers was 11.6 in Qatar in 2015, and %58.7 of children below 6
years old were covered by pre-primary education in this country. The apparent and actual
education coverage rates were %103 and %92.1 (UNESCO, 2015). The ratio of scientifically
qualified teachers to the entire teachers was %48.8 (World Bank, 2009). The ratio of technical
and vocational students was %1.52 (UNESCO, 2015), and the registration rate of students in
private schools was %45.9 (World Bank, 2015). There was one computer for every 7 students
(UNESCO Institute for Statistic, 2016). Since 2009, Qatar’s state has provided international
organizations with no new information on the student per capita. According to the latest
statistics, the average student per capita was 11719 USD (UNESCO, 2009). The average
monthly salary of a teacher is 6880 USD in Qatar (Fas al-Youm, 2014), the share of education
budget from the public budget is %12.74 and education expenses account for %3.61 of GDP.
The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate, and dropout rate were
%99.89, %99.51 (UNESCO, 2014), %1.51, and %2.16, respectively, in 2015 (UNESCO, 2015).
The literacy rate of adults was %97.8 (Knoema, 2015), and the human resources development
rate was 0.856 in 2017 (UNDP, 2018).
12. United Arab Emirates
The ratio of students to teachers is 23.62 in the UAE (Trading Economics, 2015), and %69.87
of children below six years old are covered by pre-primary education. The apparent education
coverage and actual education coverage rates were reported %116.35 and %93.38,
respectively (UNESCO, 2015). The ratio of scientifically qualified teachers was reported %100
(World Bank, 2015). The ratio of technical and vocational students to the entire students is an
index which does not show an appropriate image of education systems in the Persian Gulf
countries. In the UAE, the ratio of technical and vocational students reached %1.82 (Trading
Economics, 2014). The registration rate of private schools is %61.33, and %98 of educational
institutions had computer laboratories. There were 38 computers in each institution on
average. Moreover, %93 of schools accessed the Internet, and %95 of teachers participated in
professional ICT courses (Watt, 2012). According to Fas al-Youm (2014), the average monthly
salary of teachers was 2840 USD in the UAE. The share of education expenses from the public
budget was %21.2, and these expenses account for %3 of GDP (Export Gov., 2016). The
promotion rate and graduation rate were the same (%99.9) (UNESCO, 2013), and grade
repetition rate and dropout rate were %0.17, and %8 (UNESCO, 2015), respectively. The
literacy rate of adults was %93 in the UAE (Knoema, 2015). According to the data of the UN,
the human resources development rate was 0.863 in the UAE in 2017, and the country was
rated 42nd among 188 countries (UNDP, 2018).

13. Oman
According to the latest statistics, the ratio of students to teachers was 19.9 in the UAE (Global
Economy, 2003), and %54.3 of children below six years old were covered by pre-primary
education. The apparent and actual education coverage rates were %109.2 and %94.5,
respectively (UNESCO, 2015). The ratio of scientifically qualified teachers was %99.8 (World
Bank, 2001). In Oman, only boys are allowed to enroll in technical and vocational courses
(UNESCO, 2011); thus, the ratio of these students to the entire students is %0.08 (UNESCO,
2015). Nearly %90 of schools are state-run in Oman (Watt, 2013), and there is one computer
for every 12 students. Moreover, %77 of schools accesses the Internet (UNESCO Institute for
Statistics, 2016). The current salary of teachers can range from 1000 to 3500 USD per month;
thus, the average monthly salary of teachers is 2250 USD with very low life expenses
(nearly700 USD per month) (Fitzpatrick, 2017). Since 2011, Oman’s state has provided
international organizations with no new information on the student per capita. According to
the statistics published in 2011, the primary and high school education per capita rates were
6552 and 7378 USD, respectively, with a mean of 6965 USD (UNESCO, 2011). The share of
education expenses from the public budget was %11.08, accounting for %4.96 of GDP
(UNESCO, 2013). The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate, and
dropout rate reached %99.36 (UNESCO, 2014), %109 (Trading Economics, 2014), %1.94
(UNESCO, 2015), and %1.3 (Knoema, 2012), respectively. The literacy rate was %98.7
(UNESCO, 2016) when the human resources development rate in 2017 was 0.821, which
ranked Oman 52nd among 188 countries (UNDP, 2018).
14. Iran
According to the latest statistics, the ratio of students to teachers is 22 in Iran (Abdollahi,
2016). The apparent and actual education coverage rates are %108.9 and %99.2, respectively
(UNESCO, 2015). The ratio of scientifically qualified teachers is %100 (World Bank, 2015).
The ratio of technical and vocational students was reported nearly 36 (Hosseini Moghadam,
2017). Nearly %14 of students enrolled in private schools (World Bank, 2015). By 2014, there
was one computer for every 33 students, and %82 of schools accessed the Internet (UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, 2016). The student per capita based on the purchase power decreased
from 3388 USD in 2007 to 2429 USD in 2015 (UNESCO, 2015). The average salary of teachers
is 1500000 Tomans (Bathai, 2014). If each USD is considered to be equivalent to 3320
Tomans, then the average salary of teachers is 737 USD per month. At present, and in the free

market due to high inflation, the unofficial price of US $ 1 is about 11,000 Tomans. Therefore,
we can say that the average salary of teachers in Iran is not more than 250 USD per month.
According to the statistics published by UNESCO, the share of education budget from the
public budget is %18.57 in Iran, and education expenses account for %2.93 GDP (UNESCO,
2015). The student promotion rate, graduation rate, grade repetition rate, and dropout rate
reached %97.2 (UNESCO, 2011), %101.77, %1.35 (UNESCO, 2015), and %3.8 (Knoema, 2011),
respectively. The literacy rate is %87.17 (World Bank, 2015), and the human resources
development rate was 0.798 in Iran in 2017 when it was ranked 69th among 188 other
countries (UNDP, 2018).
Table 1. Education Indices in Iran

No. Index Percentage Year
Student Indices
1 Ratio of students to teachers (primary schools) 47 2017
2 Admission rate of pre-primary education 57 2015
3 Apparent intake ratio 92.71 2015
4 Actual intake ratio 73.85 2015
5 Ratio of private school students 24 2016
6 Ratio of technical and vocational students 6 2016
Human Resources Indices
7 Ratio of scientifically qualified teachers 82.4 2015
Environment and Equipment Indices
8 Number of students per computer No info. -
9 Students’ access to the Internet 10 2014
Financial Indices
10 Student per capita 551 USD 2015
11 Ratio of average monthly salary of teachers 171 USD 2011
12 Share of education budget from public budget 13.19 2015
13 Share of education expenses from GDP 2.66 2016
Outcome Indices
14 Student promotion rate 78.5 2014
15 Graduation rate of primary school students 58.9 2015
16 Repetition rate of primary school students 1.64 2015
17 Dropout rate of primary school students 33.1 2014
18 Literacy rate of age groups (above 15 years old) 57.9 2017
Qualitative Indices
19 Value of total human resources development index 0.562 2017
20 Rank of total human resources development index among 147 2015
188 countries

B: Comparison
According to the statistics presented in the previous section, the rank of each country can be
determined among all of the 14 countries with respect to the minimum or maximum score
obtained for each index. Before presenting information pertaining to the position of each
country, three important points should be considered. First, if the ranks of some countries are
positive in one index, the same rank is considered for them. However, the ranks of next
countries are determined with respect to the number of previous countries. For instance, if
the ranks of Afghanistan and Pakistan are first in “the ratio of students to teachers” due to the
equality of scores, the rank of the next country is third. Second, all of the research indices can
be divided into two groups: positive and negative indices. Out of 20 indices, 18 indices were
positive. As a result, if the ranks of countries approach 1 in these indices, the education system
has a better and higher position. On the contrary, if the rank of a country approaches 14 in
negative indices (i.e. grade repetition rate and dropout rate), the education system has a
better position. The following classification was employed to determine the position of each
country based on the acquired rank:
Table 2. Comparison of Countries Based on Ranking

Row Ranking Classification Status
1 +5 and lower Good
2 Between +5 and +10 Medium
3 +11 and higher Weak
4 -5 and lower Weak
5 Between -6 and -10 Medium
6 -10 and higher Good
Therefore, if the ranking of a country is +5 and lower (18 positive indices), the education
system of that country has a better position and performs better. Regarding negative indices,
the conditions are inverse. In fact, if the ranking of a country is -11 and higher, the education
system performs better. Hence, it is possible to determine how much each country succeeded
in obtaining the first ranks (1-5). The following table shows the position of each country
based on the frequency of ranks:

Table 3. The Positions of Iran and Neighbouring Countries Based on the Ranking
Obtained in Positive Indices
Country Frequency of Five and Frequency of 6-10 Regional

Lower Ranks Ranks Position
Saudi Arabia 12 5 First
Kuwait 11 7 Second
Qatar 11 6 Third
The UAE 11 4 Fourth
Bahrain 9 6 Fifth
Oman 8 9 Sixth
Iran 7 11 Seventh
Azerbaijan 7 8 Eighth
Turkmenistan 6 3 Ninth
Armenia 5 10 Tenth
Turkey 4 12 Eleventh
Iraq 2 4 Twelfth
Pakistan 2 3 Thirteenth
Afghanistan 1 0 Fourteenth
To interpret this table, a few points should be taken into account. First, the ranking of each
education index is not logically related to the ranking acquired in another index. Therefore, if
the frequency of rankings below 5 and lower is higher for a country, the education system is
more successful. Accordingly, Saudi Arabia was among the first five countries in 12 indices out
of 18 positive indices. Second, since the rankings of five and lower had the same frequency for
some countries, the frequency of rankings between 6 and 10 was considered the criterion for
the supremacy of an education system. Accordingly, Kuwait was ranked higher than Qatar and
the UAE. It is now possible to analyse the performance of each education system more
accurately. The first group of indices included six student indices. According to the research
results, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia had the smallest numbers of learners per employed teacher.
On the contrary, the number of learners in Pakistan and Afghanistan was 8 times more than
that of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the pre-primary education coverage rates of 8
countries were better than that of Iran. Regarding the apparent education coverage index, the
education systems of the UAE, Oman, and Iran managed to cover larger numbers of
individuals in need of education. In addition, Iran’s education system managed to come on top
among 14 countries in terms of the actual education coverage index. Regarding the
registration rate of private schools, Iran was ranked 7th. Based on the ratio of technical and

vocational students to the entire students, it was ranked 2nd. Iran, the UAE, and Azerbaijan
were commonly ranked first in the only human resources index, i.e. scientifically qualified
teachers.
According to the research findings pertaining to environment and equipment, Qatar and
Kuwait managed to purchase and provide more computers for their schools and learners.
Regarding the Internet access for learners, the education systems of Armenia, Qatar, and
Bahrain were commonly ranked first, whereas Iran was ranked seventh. Regarding the four
financial indices, Armenia was ranked the lowest with 11 USD when Kuwait was ranked the
top with 14000 USD allocated to the student per capita. In this regard, Iran was ranked sixth
with nearly 2500 USD among neighbouring countries. Iran was also ranked eighth with a
three-time difference from the nearest country (Qatar with a mean of 2064 USD) because
teachers are paid less than 750 USD monthly in Iran. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Turkmenistan
allocated over %20 of their public budgets to the education sector. Therefore, they were
ranked first to third. However, Iraq and Azerbaijan allocated the lowest shares. In this regard,
Iran was ranked fourth. According to the information pertaining to the share of education
expenses from GDP, Iraq was ranked first (by allocating %9 of GDP) among Iran’s
neighbouring countries. Iran was ranked tenth and is behind certain countries such as
Afghanistan, Iraq, and Turkmenistan.
According to the findings pertaining to outcome indices, most of the countries showed
improvement rates above %95 with slight differences. However, Iran was ranked ninth.
Regarding the graduation rate, the education systems of Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait were
ranked the top. However, the special demographic and political conditions of Afghanistan and
Pakistan made the graduation rates of these two countries be lower than %60. Iran was
ranked fourth with a slight difference from the four leading countries. Regarding the grade
repetition index, Iraq was ranked first with higher than %16. Interestingly, with almost the
same political conditions, the grade repetition rate of Afghanistan was four times lower than
that of Iraq. Regarding this index, Iran was ranked seventh. Except for Pakistan and Iraq, the
dropout rate was lower than %10 in other countries analysed. Iran was ranked seventh one
more time. Despite many efforts of the education system, Iranian people were ranked
eleventh among the people of neighbouring countries in literacy. Qualitative indices included
the total index value and total index ranking of human resources development among 188
countries. According to the research findings, the total index value of human resources

development was at the highest level in six Arab countries on the southern border of the
Persian Gulf in comparison with other neighbours of Iran. However, Turkey and Iran were
commonly ranked seventh. Regarding the total index of human resources development, Iran
was ranked 69th and 7th among 188 countries and 14 neighbours, respectively.
Conclusion
If we take a look at demographic, political, and social facts and general trends in Iran from
four decades ago onward, a relatively realistic and rather optimistic evaluation of the
education system can be obtained. In fact, it is fair to state that Iran’s education system has
performed well in terms of a very young population, a massive number of students, dedicated
budget of education, and initial investments in education infrastructures. Hence, if reforms are
applied to other social systems along with more allocated financial resources, the education
system will be able to reduce its gap with the countries on the southern border of the Persian
Gulf in ten years. It will also be able to accelerate the movement towards educational
development and be the supreme power in the region. Accordingly, the current position of
Iran can be considered average. However, if Iran’s education system is to be evaluated by
comparing the statistics existing in neighbouring countries, it should be acknowledged that
Iran has not been successful. The comparison can begin with Afghanistan. The social/military
conditions of Afghanistan deprived this country of any opportunities for the improvement of
social systems such as education, health, and economy in the past four decades. Therefore,
Afghanistan was ranked the lowest because of the poorest performance. Nevertheless,
Afghanistan can still teach the practitioners of Iran’s education system an important lesson.
Regarding the share of education expenses from GDP, Afghanistan was ranked 7th, whereas
Iran was ranked 10th. In the east of Iran, Pakistan has become an underdeveloped country
because of a larger population, lack of petroleum sources, a political system based on a shaky
democracy, long-lasting religious and ethnic conflicts, regional politics based on problematic
and costly competitions, and the continuity of wrong sociocultural traditions among masses of
people. The availability of one teacher for every 47 students, the highest rate of primary
school dropout (%33), and an illiteracy rate of %57 can obviously show the status of a third-
world country, in which other priorities are valued instead of spending resources on
education.
In the west of Iran, people of Iraq are encountering many hardships because of political
problems, ethnical and religious conflicts, and linguistic and ethnic diversity. This counter was

ranked 5th and higher in only two indices, i.e. the apparent education coverage rate and the
share of education expenses from GDP. Interestingly, Iraq was ranked first among 14
countries in the share of education expenses from GDP. According to findings, Turkey was
ranked 11th, which seems to be unbelievable. Regarding development in the fulfilment of
education indices, Turkey surpassed only the two war-ridden countries, i.e. Afghanistan and
Iraq. With a population of 193 million people, Pakistan surpassed Turkey. Although a separate
study should be conducted to perceive the reasons for such weak positions, possible causes of
Turkey’s weak performance in education developments can be listed as lack of powerful
economic backbones based on sales of petroleum for the procurement of financial resources
required for educational reforms, negligence of the governing political system especially in
the education system during the past two decades, continuity of the traditional sociocultural
ruling structure, and the politicization of the education system.
Known as three small and economically weak countries, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and
Turkmenistan were ranked eighth, ninth, and tenth. Azerbaijan is closer to Iran.
Socioeconomic developments, presence of petroleum resources, and political relationships
based on the simultaneous presence of Russia and the West explain the accelerated
movement of this country towards economic development with a promising outlook in the
next two decades. However, developments follow a slower trend in Armenia and
Turkmenistan. Iran has surpassed Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and
Turkmenistan and been ranked seventh (jointly with Azerbaijan). It is now following the six
Arab countries located on the southern border of the Persian Gulf. Iran’s position can be
analysed and interpreted in different aspects. First, if we take a look at the countries
surpassing Iran, this position can be quite frustrating for policymakers and planners. Iran was
ranked 5th and lower in seven positive education indices. In fact, it was surpassed by Saudi
Arabia with 12 indices and the UAE, Qatar, and Bahrain with 11 indices. Obviously, this gap
can partly be explained by specific reasons such as low population, minor geographical extent,
massive petroleum incomes, and absence of tense conflicts with the great world powers and
countries on the southern border of the Persian Gulf. Nonetheless, there are many similarities
between Iran’s social systems and those of these countries, something which necessitates
conducting more in-depth studies to figure out why and how a 30-year-period has caused a
great education gap between Iran and those six countries. It is also essential to find out what
factors the Iranian practitioners could control and manage in political and education systems
to reduce the gap.
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A Comparative Study on the Position of Formal Education System of Islamic

Article · August 2019

Abbas Madandar Arani

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A Comparative Study on the Position of Formal Education

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Introduction and Problem Statement

2 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

 Achieving nearly complete gender equality in primary education

3 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

4 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

5 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

6 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

8 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

12. United Arab Emirates

12 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

13 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Table 1. Education Indices in Iran

14 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Table 2. Comparison of Countries Based on Ranking

15 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Country Frequency of Five and Frequency of 6-10 Regional

16 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

17 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

18 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Mullaei Nejad, A. and Alizadeh, A. 2008. A Comparative Study of Teacher Education

20 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Knoema, (2017). Afghanistan - Primary Education - Private enrolment in primary education

UNESCO, (2016). Browes by Country: Afghanistan, UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Available

UNICEF, (2012). Attendance in early childhood education 2005-2012, Available at:

21 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Knoema, (2012a). Armenia - Primary Education - Private enrolment in primary education as

Knoema, (2012b) . Armenia - Secondary Education - Private enrolment in secondary

Knoema, (2013). Armenia - Expenditures on Education - Expenditure per student in primary

Trading Economics, (2007a). Armenia - Pupil-teacher ratio, primary Pupil-teacher ratio,

Trading Economics, (2014). Armenia - Percentage of students in secondary education

Trading Economics, (2015b). Armenia - School enrollment, preprimary (% gross), Available

22 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Trading Economics, (2015c). Armenia - Public spending on education, total (% of GDP)

Trading Economics, (2015d). Armenia - Repeaters, primary, total (% of total enrollment),

UNICEF, (2011). Teachers: A Regional Study on Recruitment, Development and Salaries of

Ministry of Education, (2012). Development Concept of Vocational Education in the Republic

23 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Trading Economics, (2015a). Azerbaijan - School enrollment, primary (% gross), Available

Trading Economics, (2015b). Azerbaijan - Public spending on education, total (% of

Trading Economics, (2015c). Azerbaijan - Public spending on education, total (% of GDP),

Trading Economics, (2015d). Azerbaijan - Repeaters, primary, total (% of total enrollment,

UNDP, (2016). Azerbaijan: Human Development Indicators, Human Development Report

UNESCO, (2014). Browse by Country: Azerbaijan, Available at:

UNESCO, (2015). Browse by Country: Azerbaijan, Available at:

24 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

Borgen Project, (2017).10 Facts About Education in Bahrain, 20 March , Available at :

UNESCO, (2015) .Browse by Country: Bahrain, available at:

25 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35

UNESCO, (2011) .Browse by Country: Iran, available at: http://uis.unesco.org/country/IR

UNESCO, (2015) .Browse by Country: Iran, available at: http://uis.unesco.org/country/IR

World Bank, (2015). Percentage of enrolment in secondary education in private institutions

Global Economy, (2007).Iraq: Primary school completion rate, Available at:

Kulaksiz, S; Al-Ghelaiqah, I; Stolp, S; Esen, F; Ekman, B; Laing, A. (2014). Republic of Iraq -

UNESCO, (2007). Browse by Country: Iraq, Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/country/IQ

26 Iranian Journal of Comparative Education 1(3), 1-35