Electrical System in Oil and Gas by IFP PDF

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Electrical Systems in Oil & Gas Industry
E‐617 “Electricity and Electric motors”
29‐30‐31/10/2012
Patrick LEROUX
Electrical_ systems_in_O&G_Industry ‐ Part 1
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Contents
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1. General
• General considerations
• Electrical system description
2. Regulation and Standardization
• What is a regulation? – What is a standard?
• Regulations (American‐European)
• Standards (International – European – American – Others)
• Technical /Corporate specifications
3. Overall architecture of electrical systems
• Network structure
• Distribution
© 2011 ‐ IFP Training
• Power availability
• Voltages /Frequencies
• One line diagrams (typical)
Electrical_ systems_in_O&G_Industry ‐ Part 1 2
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4. Power Generation
• Gas Turbine package
• Generator
• Selection sizing rules
• Operation, maintenance
• Power generation (centralized vs. local)
5. Electrical equipment
• Transformers
• Switchgear
• Electrical control system (ECS)
• Batteries and UPS
• Cables
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6. Sub‐station arrangement
• Electrical room design
• Pre‐fabricated (modular) electrical room
7. Electric Motors
• Electric motor overview
• LV motors
• HV motors
• Starting
• Variable Speed Drive (VSD)
8. Lighting
9. Electrical maintenance
10.Offshore aspects
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11.FPSO
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12. Electrical installation works

13.Electrical safety
• Dangers of electricity
• Electrical faults
• Protection against electrical faults
14.Electrical equipment for explosive atmospheres (Ex)
• Type of protection
• ATEX directives (European regulation)
• IECEx system (Worldwide)
ANNEXES
• Annex A: GTUA handbook (extract)
• Annex B: ATEX – IECEx comparison guide
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1. General
Electrical_ systems_in_O&G_Industry ‐ Part 1
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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
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General considerations
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The following are general considerations, as seen by an electrical

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engineer (past, present, future)

 Permanent expansion with years (to maintain / increase production)
 Numerous modifications with years (oil & gas data changes) all along the field
life duration
 Provisions in the design for future expansion since the very beginning: power
plant / transformers / switchboards / lay‐out (indoor / outdoor)
 Connection to a public grid (reliability?) or local own generation
 Power supply to satellites (cluster) either by local generation or centralized

power generation and distribution (overhead lines or buried cables)
 Connection to plant existing facilities with sometimes power plants
interconnection
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 Construction works with sometimes electrical equipment energized (to

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reduce/limit shutdowns
 Revamping often complex, more and more with plant in production to limit
plant shut down
 Numerous people working together during construction (risk of clash)
 Intensive preparation of works required
 Logistics aspects… construction camp with 8000 people and more in the desert!
 Careful coordination of works during construction and revamping
 People might be completely isolated due to weather conditions(offshore)
 Extreme conditions to be taken into account at design stage (jungle, desert,
arctic areas)
 Safety aspects are becoming of major importance
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 Power increase since the 80’s (5/10 MW – 40 MW – 100 MW and more)

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 Use of Multiphasic pumps and PCP with variable speed drive (extra heavy oil)
 Use of Electro‐submersible pump (ESP) at variable speed (offshore). Operation

and maintenance always a tricky topic as well as rod beam pump (donkey
pump)
 LNG plants: trend to supply all the large compressors by electric motors (all
electric LNG plant) leading to power plants rated 1000 MW with internal
distribution at 230 kV. Main advantage: larger turbo‐generator unit (higher
efficiency), reduced number of units, global better availability, etc.
 Tar sands extraction (Canada) requires huge quantities of energy (steam).

Production in large quantities is a challenge
 Deep offshore requires installation of FPSO (especially in Africa)
 All electric FPSO are developing
 Development of all electric well

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 Sustainable Development input to be integrated in facilities

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design but with which impact? (CO2 emission, energy efficiency…)
 Motor efficiency: many efforts from manufacturers to increase

motor efficiency (and so reduce power consumption). Legal
aspects in Europe
 Consideration for use of Renewable Energies (solar energy

already used on remote satellites, power grid supply if origin from
hydraulic power (e.g.: Venezuela, Norway, etc.)
 First development of platforms supplied by HVDC subsea cable

from the shore ,suppressing power plant on platform (North sea)
 Project costs are higher and higher ( billions of US $ )
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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
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Electrical system description
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 An electrical system includes always 3 parts whatever the type of

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industry concerned
• POWER SUPPLY
• DISTRIBUTION
• CONSUMERS
 This section aims at covering only a few basics
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General
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1. Power supply
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To supply the plant with electrical power

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2 options:
1. Public utility: Main intake
2. Own generation: Generating sets
2. Distribution
Power transmission from electrical source to consumers
• Distances and power determine rated voltages to be selected (standardized values)
• Voltage transformation for use by consumer (in one or several steps) transformers
• Equipment energization (switching on/off) switchgear
• Interconnection of equipment by cables requiring many accessories: bulk materials
3. Consumers
Users of electrical energy:
• Motors
• Lighting
• Heaters
• Ups
• Power electronics (drives)
• Etc.
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Typical one line diagram (onshore)
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IF OWN GENERATION EMERGENCY
PUBLIC UTILITY ( TURBO GENERATOR POWER SUPPLY
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OR ( DIESEL GENERATOR )
DIESEL GENERATOR )
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Metering Metering E
Protections Protections N
Measures Measures
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CB CB R
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A
IS IS IS IS G G T
Bars A T
~ ~ I
Bars B O
TI IS IS IS IS N
CB CB
230kV 230kV 11kV

TR TR TR
33kV 33kV 33kV
'' 33kV '' HV

SWITCHBOARD CB CB CB
CB CB
CB CB CB
D
33kV 33kV 33kV I
TR TR TR S
11kV 6.6kV 6.6kV T
R
'' 6.6kV '' HV SWITCHBOARD I
CB CB B
CB U
CB CB CB T
I
O
6.6kV 6.6kV
N
TR TR
0.4kV 0.4kV
'' 400V '' LV SWITCHBOARD

CB CB CB
CB CB
MCC LIGHTING DC BATTERIES LIGHTING

LIGHTING MCC
CHARGER /
AC UPS
C
O
N
LIGHTING LIGHTING S
CIRCUITS CIRCUITS U
M
M PACKAGE INSTRUMENTS PACKAGE E
M & VITAL R
M M CONSUMERS
M M
S
NORMAL EMERGENCY ESSENTIAL

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Typical offshore key one line diagram
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( NC )
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EDG
(1)
TG auxiliaries
HVAC
(1) Other solution is to supply
from QP platform EDG
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Power supply
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1. Public utility
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Intake substation
• A substation at which the supply provided by the Public Utility is
interconnected with the site’s electrical distribution system
• The Intake substation may receive its power from the Public Utility
generating stations through 1 or 2 overhead lines
For: REFINERIES, PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS and sometimes ONSHORE
OIL/GAS PRODUCTION PLANTS
2. Own generation (private)
Generating sets = G.S
• GS  Rotating machine transforming mechanical or thermal energy into
electricty
• GS = DRIVER + GENERATOR
• DRIVER = gas turbine / steam turbine / diesel engine / gas engine
• GENERATOR = A machine which converts mechanical power into electrical
power
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Power supply
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3. Selection between public utility and own generation
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• Depends on:
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− Public Utility (P.U) network capacity (MW available)

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− Power availability (frequency of power cuts / outages / disturbances) – may be

sometimes difficult to appraise
− Cost of local kWh
− Cooling water availability (when required), etc.
• Requires a technico‐economical analysis to be carried out at an early Project stage
based on CAPEX + OPEX evaluation using NPV calculations.
− CAPEX = CAPital EXpenditures (initial investment)
− OPEX = OPerating EXpenditures (maintenance, fuel, … costs)
− NPV = Net Present Value (Value of 1$ today spent in n years)
• Sometimes power supply to the plant may be a combination of P.U + own
generation (e.g = REFINERY)
4. POWER SYSTEM AVAILABILITY
• Electrical loads (electrical consumers) are classified as performing a service which is:
− VITAL
− ESSENTIAL
− NORMAL
• The power system shall be designed in accordance with the required SERVICE
• VITAL SERVICE (SAFETY MATTER) – REGULATIONS  Duplication of energy source /
lines supply / equipment is necessary.
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Power supply
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 EXAMPLES:
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• Emergency lighting and escape lighting, and beaconing (offshore)

• Public address / general alarm system
• Boiler feed water supply system by means of 1 electrically driven and 1 steam
driven pump, or 2 electrically driven pump supplied from 2 independent sources ‐
U.P.S
• Fire & Gas system, etc.
• Power comes generally from UPS (batteries system)
 ESSENTIAL SERVICE (ECONOMIC MATTER) NO REGULATIONS
• Consequences of service interruptions shall be analyzed in relation with complete
or partial duplication of sources / lines / equipement or automatic restarting or
changeover facilities
• Plant area lighting (% of normal lighting)
• Air instrument compressors by means of duplicated compressors
• Production transport by means of duplicated pumps
• Power comes generally from an emergency diesel generator
NORMAL SERVICE

• Loss of production, quality
• Power comes from Public Utility or Own generation
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Distribution
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The architecture of the electrical system is always a compromise between:

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• Cost:
Low cost requires use of a simple radial system (instead of a dual system), power
supply by a single transformer (no redundancy), a system design with low short
circuit current (fault level) to reduce switchgear cost, etc.
• Power availability:
A higher availability requires redundancy in electrical sources, lines supply,
equipment. e.g:
− 2 transformers in // to supply 1 switchboard
− 1 emergency diesel generator (in case of normal power failure) which increase
costs!
 The solution, i.e the ONE LINE DIAGRAM, will be a compromise between an acceptable
cost for an acceptable power availability.
 The distribution system includes mainly: transformers, switchboards (including
switchgear) and cables
 The switchgear includes mainly switching devices having 3 different functions:
• Isolation (of 2 portion of circuits)
• Control (opening, closing upon an order)
• Protection against fault (overload, short circuit, earth fault, etc.)
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Distribution
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Electrical apparatus Capability to switch
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Isolator switch At no load only
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Switch Rated current only
Circuit breaker Rated current + short circuit current
Fuse Short circuit current (only once)
Contactor Automatic switch (with a high number
of opening / closing)
DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, COSTS OF THESE ITEMS ARE VERY DIFFERENT

 Switchgear is enclosed in metallic switchboard (for safety reasons) located in
switchrooms.
 A main switchboard is a switchboard to which generators and outgoing feeders are
connected.
 A distribution switchboard is mainly used for distributing power to several plant
substations.
 A plant substation is mainly used for feeding one process or utility area.
 A power plant:
• installation to generate electricity including civil engineering works, all equipment
for energy conversion and ancillary equipment
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Consumers
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Electrical Consumers (loads) are mainly motors, lighting, heaters,

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and sometimes Variable Speed Drives (V.S.D.).

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 MOTORS:
From 0.25 kW to several MW, they are practically:
• AC type (squirrel cage type) – Most of them
• A few are of DC type(small ratings)
• A few are of synchronous type (very large ratings)
They drive pumps, compressors, fans, agitators, etc., either directly (no
gear) or through a gearbox, or a belt / pulley system.
 LIGHTING:
Generally made of fluorescent lighting fittings (e.g. 2 x40 W), and also
sodium HP lamp floodlights (for large area). Emergency lighting includes
luminaries fitted with internal batteries to give 1‐2 hours autonomy.
 HEATERS:
Made of resistors connected through contactors (regulation by steps) or
through a thyristor controlled system (smooth regulation).
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Consumers
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 V.S.D. (Variable Speed Drive sometimes referred as ASD=Adjustable Speed

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Drive )
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A V.S.D. (Variable Speed Drive) equipment is made of:

• an input transformer (optional)
• a rectifier bridge for AC transformation to DC
• an inverter bridge for DC transformation to AC
• an inductance (optional)
• harmonic filters (optional)
• motor (induction or synchronous)
• Oil & Gas plant: drilling platforms use DC drives (mud pumps…).
Production plants use small AC drives for pumping (onshore),
medium size drives for ESP (Electro Submersible Pumps) and
sometimes large drives for gas compressors (40MW!), or water
injection.
• Petrochemical plants use VSD for extruders (10 W), mixers, etc.
• Refineries have very few VSD applications.
Note: ASD (Adjustable Speed Drive) is a more appropriate wording
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UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply)

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 These units aim at supplying consumers which cannot tolerate

power failure or disturbances coming from the normal power
supply
 They include a rectifier bridge, a battery, an inverter + a

distribution panel to supply loads at AC .
 For loads to be supplied at DC, the units include a rectifier bridge

a battery + a distribution panel (they are not normally called UPS)
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2. Regulation & Standardization
What is a regulation? What is a standard?
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 2
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Foreword
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 Attention is drawn to readers that this chapter MUST not be

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ignored by engineers, technicians, supervisors, whatever the

domain in which they will work, since their responsibility may be
engaged!
 Only principles and main basis are given in this short presentation
and update is necessary for any related activity
The World of “Electricity” is a domain
which is highly regulated and standardized!
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 2 2
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Regulation & standardization
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 Industrial facilities, including electrical installations, are subject to

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meet requirements of rules
 These rules can be divided into 2 categories:

• REGULATION application is mandatory (law)
• STANDARD application is on a voluntary basis, except if it has
been enforced by law or is adopted in a business
contract
 The rule of LAW is a « legal maxim » that states no person is

immune to law
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Regulation
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 REGULATION is controlling human or societal behaviour by rules

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or restrictions
 Several forms:
• Legal restrictions promulgated by a government authority
• Self regulation by an industry (e.g. through a trade association as an
example the European Chemical Industry Council (CEFIC) – Conseil
Européen des Fédérations des Industries Chimiques
• Social regulation
• Market regulation, etc.
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Examples of regulation
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 USA:
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• O.S.H.A. (Occupational Health and Safety Administration) for onshore

• M.O.S.H.A. (for mines)
• Coast Guards (offshore…)
 EUROPE
• DIRECTIVE (European Law)
A European DIRECTIVE requires that the member states add or modify
their legislation to be in conformity with a single / commons text
(approved by all the E.U. members), sometimes referred as “transposition
into national law”
 Other international regulations:
• International Marine Organisation (I.M.O.)
− For each domain there are often several applicable regulations
− RULES for classification of ships (not considered as regulations)
• Bureau Veritas, Det Norske Veritas, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, American
Bureau of Shipping…
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European law
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 The main goal of the European Union EU is the progressive

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integration of Member States’ economic and political systems

and the establishment of a single market based on the free
movement of goods, people, money and services.
 To this end, its Member States cede part of their sovereignty

under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
(TFEU) which empowers the EU institutions to adopt laws.
 These laws (regulations, directives and decisions) take

precedence over national law and are binding on national
authorities. The EU also issues non‐binding documents, such as
recommendations
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European law
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 Regulation:
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automatic enforcement, no action from national government for

implementation
 Directive:
addressed to national authorities who must then take action to
make them part of national law (transposition)
used to bring different national laws into line which each other
(e.g.: product safety standards)
 Decision: specific cases for particular authorities
The Commission’s role is to ensure EU laws are properly applied

(possible sanctions up to the European Court of Justice)
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New approach directives
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 The European Union directives known as the “New Approach

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directives” define “essential requirements” as to health, safety

and environment issues. Products must meet these requirements
in order to be placed on the European market.
 The three European Standardisation Organisations, CEN

(European Committee for Standardisation), CENELEC (European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation) and ETSI
(European Telecommunications Standards Institute) enable these
requirements to be fulfilled through the path of harmonised
European standards.
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European directives
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 Electromagnetic Compatibility  Medical Devices: Active Implantable
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2004/108/EC 90/385/EEC
 Explosive Atmospheres 94/9/EC  Medical Devices: In Vitro Diagnostic
98/79/EC
 Gas Appliances 90/396/EEC
 Non‐automatic Weighing Instruments
 Interoperability of European High‐speed 90/384/EEC
Railway 96/48/EC + 2008/57/EC
 Personal Protective Equipment
 Interoperability of trans‐European 89/686/EEC
conventional rail 2001/16/EC +
2008/57/EC  Pressure Equipment 97/23/EC
 Low‐Voltage Equipment 2006/95/EC  Radio & Telecom Terminal Equipment
99/5/EC
 Machinery 2006/42/EC
 Recreational Craft 94/25/EC
 Measuring Instruments 2004/22/EC
 Safety of Toys 88/378/EEC +
 Medical Devices 93/42/EEC 2009/48/EC
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International standard (definition as per ISO)*
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 An International standard is a document, established by

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consensus and approved by a recognized body, that provides, for

common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for
activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the
optimum degree of order in a given context.
 This international standard is made available to the public.
 The word "consensus" is important since it represents a common

viewpoint of those parties concerned with its provisions, namely
producers, users, consumers and general interest groups
(stakeholders)
 Consensus does not imply unanimity!
* ISO =International Standardization Organization (created by the United Nations in 1946)
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Standardization bodies
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LEVEL NON ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

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INTERNATIONAL ISO IEC IUT

EUROPEAN CEN CENELEC ETSI
North American ASTM ASME NFPA (NEC)
ANSI API NEMA IEEE
National
 France AFNOR UTE
 Germany DIN VDE
 U.K BSI BSI
 Italy CEI
 Russia GOST GOST
ISO = International Standardization Organization
IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission
NFPA =National Fire Protection Association
NEC = National Electrical Code
NEMA =National Electrical Manufacturers Association
IEEE =Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers
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International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
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 Leading global organization that prepares and publishes

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international standards for all electrical, electronic and related

technologies
Serve as a basis for national standardization and as references
when drafting International tenders and contracts.
 IEC promotes international cooperation on all questions of
electrotechnical standardization and related matters
 IEC charter embraces all electrotechnologies including electronics,
magnetics and electromagnetics, electroacoustics, multimedia,
telecommunication, and energy production and distribution, as
well as associated general disciplines such as terminology and
symbols, electromagnetic compatibility, measurement and
performance, dependability, design and development, safety and
the environment.
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IEC Standards
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 Adoption of IEC standards by any country, whether it is a member

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of the Commission or not, is entirely voluntary.
 IEC's international standards facilitate world trade by removing

technical barriers to trade (TBT) leading to new markets and
economic growth.
 Trend to a worldwide harmonization: differences between I.E.C.

and national standards should become the exception.
 Head office in Geneva
 IEC Standards published in English /French
 Translation in Russian available
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IEC Structure
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IEC in figures
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 Founded in 1906  Language: French/English
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 Head office in Genova (Switzerland)  Countries without standards: IEC
used as reference documents
 Country members = 79 national
committees  Countries with their own standards:
IEC used as a basis for writing of
 Affiliate countries = 81 participants national standards
 90% world’s population  Standards published = 5500 !
 95% world’s electrical energy  Technical specifications= 200
 IEC: electrical division of ISO  Technical reports = 350
 IEC publishes standards (worlwide  Working groups (WG) = 400
minimum consensus)
 Maintenance teams (MT) = 500
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Relationship with other organizations
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The IEC works closely with international standardization

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partners:
 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 the World Health Organization (WHO)
 the International Labour Office (ILO)
 the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
 the International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE)
 the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
 the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML)
 the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC)
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Governmental agencies
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 One of the IEC's principal partners is the World Trade

Organization (WTO), whose 100‐plus central government
members explicitly recognize, through their Agreement on
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), that international standards
play a critical role in improving industrial efficiency and
developing world trade. These relations at government level are
of particular importance in heavily regulated areas like safety,
health and the environment.
 The IEC encourages industrializing nations to share in the benefits
of joining in its work and liaises closely with the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD), the World Bank, and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP).
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 Co‐operation between the IEC and CANENA

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• The co‐operation agreement between the IEC and CANENA (Council for
Harmonization of Electrotechnical Standards of the Nations of the
Americas) – September 2000 – relates to:
− promote the use of IEC standards with CANENA members and enhance
technical cooperation
 Co‐operation between the IEC and CENELEC

• The co‐operation agreement between the IEC and CENELEC (European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) ratified in September
1996, and commonly known as the Dresden Agreement, relates to:
− common planning of new work and parallel IEC/CENELEC voting,
• The object of this agreement is to avoid duplication of efforts, speed up
the preparation of standards and to ensure the best use of the resources
available and particularly of experts’ time. If the results of parallel voting
are positive in both the IEC and CENELEC, the IEC will publish the
international standard, while the CENELEC Technical Board will ratify the
European standard.
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CENELEC standards
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 Comité Européen de Normalisation Électrotechnique (CENELEC) (European Committee

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for Electrotechnical standardisation)

 Officially recognized by the European Commission
 Founded in 1973
 Head office in Brussels (Belgium)
 31 CENELEC members +12 Affiliates
 CENELEC: electrical division of CEN
 CENELEC published standards (on the basis of IEC standards)
 Language: French / English / German
 Overall level of equivalence between IEC and CENELEC Standards (at the end of 2009)
Identical to the IEC 4105 72.45 %
Based on the IEC 393 6.94 %
Purely European 1168 20.61 %
Total 5666 100%
Total number of documents including technical reports, guides, etc. = 6200 (about 200 000 pages!)
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CENELEC standards
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 Harmonized Standards are those that fulfill the requirements set

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by New Approach Directives. These Standards are unique in the

sense that they provide presumption of conformity with the
European legal framework. In other words, and this is a specific
feature of the European Standardization System, Harmonized
Standards help manufacturers comply with the applicable law.
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IEC/EN coordination
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 To avoid duplicate works in writting standards an agreement has been placed

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between IEC and CENELEC. (Dresden agreement)

 Standard numbering: a common numbering has been adopted between IEC
and CENELEC: (Cenelec has adopted the one of IEC)
 Today 5 digits – before 3 digits (eg 60079 today against 079 in the past)
 Yet there are still national standards in each E.U. country, as in the past, but
they are often identical to the CENELEC and IEC standards
 For example the numbering of a standard related to equipment for explosive
atmosphere is
• UK: BSI/EN/IEC 60079
• Germany: VDE/EN/IEC 60079
• France: NFC/EN/IEC 60079
 In this case these 3 documents shall be strictly identical, only the cover sheet
is different for each country
 This process is called harmonization of standards
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American standards
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 A.N.S.I (American National Standards Institute)

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 N.F.P.A. (National Fire Protection Association) publishes the National Electrical

Code (NEC)
 I.E.E.E (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers)
 N.E.M.A (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
 C.S.A (Canadian Standards Association) publishes the C.E.C. # N.E.C
 A.P.I. (American Petroleum Institute)
 A.G.A. (American Gas Association)
 A.S.T.M (American Society for Testing and Materials)
 U.L (Underwritters Laboratories) is a NRTL (National Recognized Testing
Laboratories)
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Other standards
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 Russia: Gost standards… many similarities with IEC standards!

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 China: More and more similarities with IEC standards!
 There is a trend in the world to « copy » the IEC standards as the

basis for preparation of national standards because they
represent the largest technical consensus in the world
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Evolution of standards in the future
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 Can we dream to have one day a single global standard?

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 Many efforts have been made during the last 30 years to tend to this aim
 Today many standards are identical between IEC, EN and countries in the E.U,
yet there are still differences in a certain number of cases but which should
become exceptional in the future
 This trend is called HARMONIZATION
 American standards are fully different from IEC and EN standards!!
 Yet recently efforts have been made to have a few common IEEE/IEC
standards…
 Do not forget that standards represent a barrier to trade
 So it’s the interest of everybody that standards become identical
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Content of a regulation, content of a standard
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 A Regulation gives always the aims to reach (avoid electrocution,

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avoid explosion, protect staff at work, etc.) but generally no

details are given on how to reach these aims
 A Standard gives the technical details for construction of an

equipment, tests to be made for acceptance, etc.
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Compliance with regulations and standards in a project
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 In most countries, electrical installations shall comply with more

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than one set of regulations, issued by National Authorities or by

recognized private bodies.
 It is essential to take into account these local constraints before

starting the design.
 In addition the Operator shall decide himself which standards

shall be applied to his project (free choice unless it has been
enforced by law)
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Technical specifications
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 A technical specification is an explicit set of requirements to be

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satisfied by a material, product, or service.

 A technical specification may be developed privately, for
example, by a private company, a corporation, a regulatory body,
or a military organization, or it may be developed by standard
organizations
 Sometimes the term specification is used in connection with a
data sheet (or spec sheet). A data sheet is usually used for
technical communication to describe technical characteristics of
an item or product. It can be published by a manufacturer to help
people choose products or to help use the products.
 A data sheet is not a technical specification . The term data sheet
may also refers to a document to be fulfilled by the client to
determine the data of the purchased (eg motor data sheet)
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Technical specifications
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 In engineering, manufacturing, and business, it is vital for

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suppliers, purchasers, and users of materials, products, or

services to understand and agree upon all requirements.
 A specification is a type of a “standard” which is often referenced

by a contract or procurement document. It provides the
necessary details about the specific requirements.
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Corporate Specifications
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These specifications normally include references to:

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 specific standards to be applied (IEC, NEMA, etc.)
 specific requirements not included in standards (eg special

painting for corrosion resistance)
 selection among various choices offered by the standard (eg

Factory Acceptance Tests – FAT)
 specific requirements issued from feedback (experience /know

how of the company)
 CAUTION!
 Company specific requirements must not be in contradiction with

regulations or standards!
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3. Overall Architecture of Electrical Systems
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Choice of optimal network structure and operation
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 Different network structures are possible, the

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most common of which are described in this

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chapter together with the main areas in

which they are used.
The choice of a network structure, which is
always a decisive factor in terms of energy
availability, is often a difficult one to make.
The most rational method consists of making
a quick comparison of the unavailability of
voltage at a particular point in the network
for different structures and using a very
interesting expert system (see appendix 2).
 Standard network structures
• Open or closed loop, also called “primary loop
system” (see fig. 10)
Recommended for very widespread networks,
with major future extensions. Open loop
operation is advisable.
• Double radial feeder, also called “primary
selective system” (manual or automatic) (see
fig 11)
Recommended for very widespread networks
with limited future extensions and which
require a high level of continuous power
supply
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Choice of optimal network structure and operation
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• Radial feeder, also called “single power

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supply” (see fig. 12)

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Recommended when continuous power

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supply requirements are limited. It is often

used for cement plant networks.
• Dual power supply (see fig. 13)
Recommended when a high level of
continuous power supply is required or when
the operating and maintenance teams are
small. It is very often used in the steel and
petrochemical industries
• Dual busbar (see fig. 14)
Recommended when a very high level of
continuous power supply is required or when
there are very strong load fluctuations The
load may be distributed between the two
busbars without any tweak in the power
supply.
• With energy generating sets (see fig 15)
This is a classic structure when public grid
and own generation are present and is vary
often used
• With replacement source and load shedding
(see fig. 16)
This is the typical case for an industrial
network in which a very high level of
continuous power supply is required using a
single power supply source, i.e. the utility
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Distribution
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GENERAL ARCHITECTURE
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 Dual radial feeder arrangement in most cases (higher availability).

 2 incoming + 1 bus tie CB’s.
 Coupling is NC (normally closed) at the main HV bus bar (turbo
generators).
 Coupling is NO (normally open)at the LV busbar (to reduce the SCC
level and size of equipment).
 Motor feeders on both sides of incomers (symmetry).
 Single radial feeder for small power supply.
 Loop system for distribution to remote satellites in the desert.
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One line diagram
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 Always a compromise for having a higher availability (feeder /

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transformer redundancy and several sources in //) leading to a

SCC increase, with at the end acceptable SCC levels to limit cost
and size of equipment.
 A high SCC level may be sometimes useful to limit voltage drops

during large motor starting.
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Power availability
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 Electrical loads (electrical consumers) are classified as performing a service

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which is:
• Normal
• Essential
• Emergency /vital
 The power system shall be designed in accordance with the required SERVICE
 Normal service
• Loads which have no effect either on the safety or the safeguard of
installation of equipment in case of normal generation failure
• → Loss of production, quality.
 Essential service (economic matter) No regulations
• → Loads involved in the safeguard of equipment or installation and in the
restarting of the installation after a plant SD
• EXAMPLES:
− plant area lighting (% of normal lighting)
− air instrument compressors (duplicated compressors).
− production transport by means of duplicated pumps
− power plant auxiliaries
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Power availability
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 Emergency (safety matter) Regulations

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• Loads affecting personal safety whether directly or indirectly and

inducing risk of major damages on installation or equipment .These
loads are connected to switchgear with an emergency sources of
power (batteries, inverter fed by batteries).
• → Duplication of energy source / lines supply / equipment is
necessary.
• EXAMPLES:
− Emergency lighting and escape lighting, and beaconing (offshore).
− Public address / general alarm system.
− Boiler feedwater supply system by means of 1 electrically driven and 1
steam driven pump, or 2 electrically driven pump supplied from 2
independent sources – U.P.S
− Fire & Gas system, etc.
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Voltages – Frequency
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 Low Voltage (LV) < 1000 V (ac)

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• The IEC recommends a “world” standard of 230/400 V for 3‐phase

4‐wire systems. This is a compromise level and will allow existing
systems which operate at 220/380 V and at 240/415 V, or close to
these values, to comply with the proposed standard simply by
adjusting the off‐circuit tapping switches of standard distribution
transformers.
• Other voltages: 400/660 V 3ph‐3w
• North America: 120/208 – 277/480 – 347/600 V
 High Voltage (HV) > 1000V (ac)

• Standardized values (except North America): as per IEC 60 038
3,3kV – 6,6 kV – 11kV – 22kV – 33kV – 132kV
• Standardized values (North America): as per IEC 60 038
4.16 – 12.47 – 13.2 – 13.8 – 24.94 – 34.5 kV
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Voltages – Frequency
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 DC Voltages
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12 ‐ 24 ‐ 48 ‐110 ‐ 220 V
• Note: the word Medium voltage (MV) is often found in technical
litterature 1kV <Voltages < 50 kV, but is not defined in IEC
 FREQUENCIES
• 60 Hz North America, Saudi Arabia, Brazil, Venezuela,
• 50 Hz Europe (including former Soviet Union), Africa, Asia (except
Korea, Taiwan, The Philippines), Australia, South America
(Argentina, Chili, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guyana)
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M es s ag e
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4. Power Generation
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Gas turbine package
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GENERATING SET = DRIVER + ALTERNATOR + AUXILIARIES:

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 DRIVER:
• Steam turbine: very large power (several hundreds of Mw) not for offshore applications
• Gas turbine: large range of output:1 to 200 Mw (aero‐derivative type)
• Diesel engine: ‐ Emergency diesel generator (e.g. = 630 ‐ 1250 kVA)
‐ Small and average power for continuous production (up to a few Mw’s)
‐ Drilling
• Gas engine: for continuous production (up to 2‐3 Mw) – Avoids diesel oil consumption.
 ALTERNATOR (AC GENERATOR)
 AUXILIARIES:
• Air inlet (filters)
• Exhaust system
• Fuel preheating
• Oil cooling and lubrification
• Starting system (electrical or pneumatic)
• Fuel supply and storage
• Electrical auxiliaries: control panels, protective relays, motors supply, etc.
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Gas turbine package
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SOLAR turbines
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Generator 1/6
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 Alternator principle
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 A rotating magnetic field (electro‐magnet supported by the rotor

driven by the driving machine)
 Induces by flux variation a voltage in the fixed stator windings
 The frequency of the current is given by:

F = p. N
Speed in Rotation
Frequency in per second
Hertz (HZ) Number of pairs
of poles
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Generator 2/6
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 Diesel speed is = 1500 ‐ 1000 ‐ 750 RPM and lower

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• Corresponding to an alternator with N = 2 ‐ 3 ‐ 4 pairs of poles for 50 Hz (or 1800 ‐

1200 ‐ 900 RPM for 60 Hz).
→ Direct coupling diesel and alternator.
 Gas turbine speed is = 10 000 ... 15 000 RPM
• Maximum speed for an alternator at 50 Hz with p = 1 (pair of pole) is 3000 rpm
hence a gear between gas turbine and alternator (effi 98‐99% ‐ Cooling ‐
lubrification).
• Only large power gas turbines running at 3000 RPM can allow for a direct coupling.
 2 types of technologies for alternator:
• Salient poles: N < 1500 RPM for average / small power.
• Solid poles: N = 3000 RPM (2 poles) for large power.
 Voltages
• 400 V: up to 2 ‐ 3 MVA
• 6.6 kV: 2 TO 15 MVA
• 11/13.8 kV: 10 to 40 MVA
• 22 kV: > 30 MVA (to be investigated)
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Generator 3/6
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ABB Cross section HV generators AMS 710
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Generator 4/6
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ABB Cross section AMS 1000‐1250
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Generator 5/6
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 POWER (OUTPUT)
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• Alternator = kVA manufacturer catalogue

• Turbine, diesel = kW read the GTUA book (Gas Turbine User
Association) by standardization – An alternator is
designed for a power factor (P. F.) Cos Ø = 0.8
 EXAMPLE
• An alternator rated 1000 kVA will be driven by a diesel having a minimum
output
− P = S.Cos Ø = 1000 x 0.8 = 800 kW (More for margin and losses)
− If PF of user is above 0.8 (says 0.9) the generating set shall not be able to
deliver the maximum required power
(P = S.Cos Ø → P = 1000 x 0.9 = 900 kW
because the diesel engine has been rated for only 800 kw (standard design)
− If PF of user is below 0.8 (says 0.7) the generating set shall not be able to
deliver the required power (due to excessive excitation current although the
diesel engine has only to supply 1000 x 0.7 = 700 kW)
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Generator 6/6
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 GENERATOR COOLING
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• Primary cooling fluid is always air (up to 150 MVA) for above
values, cooling is by hydrogen
− Self ventilated (fans on shaft)
• Secondary cooling fluid may be:

− Air: air coolers (air to air heat exchanger)
dusty / polluted cooling air does not penetrate into the alternator
− Water: water coolers (air to water heat exchanger)
• Soft water (open or closed circuit)
• Sea water (open circuit including an intermediate soft water circuit)
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Selection sizing rules
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 Power plant:
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• Several generating sets operating in //.

• Number and ratings of gen sets requires.
• A carefully study at pre‐project stage including the following
considerations:
− Operation at (N + 1) or (N + 2) sets (1 or 2 machines in standby).
− Ratings of potential gas turbine (depending on manufacturer
selection).
− AVAILABLE OUTPUT AT AMBIANT TEMPERATURE SITE (derating
factors, efficiencies).
− Expected reliability‐references of machines.
− Pre‐selection of TG package can be done using the “GTUA” book (Gas
Turbine User Association).
• Provisions for expansion in the future (space on PF, substation
provisions, SCC levels calculated with the final number of expected
TG’s, etc.).
− Cost etc.
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Operation maintenance
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 Operation of generators in // requires:

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• Synchronization devices (to allow connection of a new unit).

• Frequency regulation by action on the driver governor (speed).
• Voltage regulation by action on automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
• Load sharing to allow active and reactive power equal sharing.
• Load shedding: in case of loss of one (or several) generator sets,
immediate opening of main circuit breakers supplying switchboards
is required to avoid overloading of remaining units.
• Stability study:
− Operation of several generating sets in // requires during design phase
a complex study to check correct operation of the whole electrical
system upon various disturbances (loss of 1‐2 generators, short circuit
at various levels, starting of a large motor, etc.)
− A dynamic simulation has to be carried out modellising all the network
(using transfer function of voltage / speed regulation, etc.)
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Operation maintenance
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 Number of TG’s in operation depends on the ambient temperature.

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 TG starting = 10 mn on diesel fuel & 30mn on gas fuel.
 TG stop (normal = 10mn; emergency with post lubrification system (DC) during
several hours.
 GAS TURBINE MAINTENANCE

• FREQUENCY / DURATION
− aeroderivative: 1 week every 3 years (gas generator)
− heavy duty (onshore): 1 month every 3 years
− yearly average: 10 days (aero) – 15 days (heavy)
• VERY QUALIFIED PEOPLE (manufacturer)
• HIGH COST
 ALTERNATOR MAINTENANCE
• Every 5 years (Exciter rollers, etc.)
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Power generation (Centralized vs. Local)
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 A) Centralized generation
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• TG’s, or Diesel with distribution through buried cables or overhead

lines to satellites (to avoid multiplication of small and remote
power plants)
• Advantages:
− One single power plant (maintenance, operation easier)
− Higher global efficiency
− Lower opex
− Higher availability
• Drawbacks
− Higher capex
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Power generation (Centralized vs. Local)
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 B) Local generation
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• Advantages:
− Lower Capex
• Drawbacks:
− Poor overall efficiency
− Limited availability
− Higher Opex (maintenance, fuel supply)
− CO2, NOX emission and noise
− Remote control not easy
Selection
The best solution depends of many factors: distances, power, accessibility, nature of
soils, fuel supply, etc.
Calculations must often been made between the 2 possible solutions including NPV
calculations.
Such calculations may show that the optimum solution (minimize Capex + Opex) is not
necessarily the solution with the lower Capex (solution preferred by the investor!!)
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5. Electrical Equipment
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5.1 TRANSFORMERS
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Transformers
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 Transformer is a static apparatus which by electro‐magnetic induction,

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transforms alternating voltage and current between 2 (or more) windings

at the same frequency and usually at different values of voltages and
currents. (Reversible device)
An alternating voltage U1 is applied to a winding (N1 turns):
This generates an alternating flux of the same frequency in the core to the
secondary windings (N2 turns)
This flux induces a voltage U2 at the secondary terminals
The ratio of U2 / U1 =k is called the “transformer ratio”.
It is also approximatively equal to the ratio of the currents ( I1/ I2 )
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 Active elements:
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• Magnetic circuit.
• Magnetic circuit is made of grain oriented magnetic steel sheet
(extra low iron losses) strongly assembled.
• Windings are made of conductors insulated with craft paper tube.
• Primary and secondary windings immersed in oil enclosed in a tank.
• Cooling system
− air: natural or forced
− water: heat exchanger + fans (very large transformers)
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Oil immersed transformers
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Cooling principles
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Transformers
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 Auxiliaries
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Bushings (lv ‐ hv connections) ‐ cable boxes ‐ isolating valves ‐

buchholz relay ‐ multi‐control relay (gas pressure, temperature
monitoring) ‐ lifting lugs ‐ rating plate ‐ earthling bolts ‐ off load
tap changers (to adapt voltages to + 2.5% + 5% for example) upon
request on load tap changers
 Main features
• Very high efficiency (> 99%...)
• Very limited maintenance (oil checking)
• High reliability
• Installation rules (oil draining, fire protection...)
 2 types of transformers
• Oil immersed
• Dry type
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 2 types of technology:
• Issue = oil dilatation due to temperature rise:
− Breathing type: with conservator (large power)
− Hermetically sealed oil expansion is possible thanks to tank expansion
no humidity can penetrate (small ‐ medium power)
• Liquid filling type
− Mineral oil (the less expensive ‐ fire protection)
− Silicone oil (+ 30% in price versus mineral oil ‐ does not ignite upon a
short ‐ circuit)
− Askarel pcb (pyralene, ...): Fire‐proof but emits dioxine!
Manufacture = forbidden
Use = rules to be observed
Destruction = in approved centres
 All these types are for outdoor use (possible for indoor)
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Hermetically sealed with integral filling
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Oil immersed transformers breathing type with
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HV connectors
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Porcelain bushings
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Conservator
Fans
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36 MVA transformer
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Dry type transformer

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 Air:
• Subject to air humidity + air pollution
• Bulky ‐ expensive ‐ for indoor use only
 Cast resin:
• Winding are moulded with special
• Resins ‐ expensive ‐ for indoor use only
 Transformer types:
• Step‐up transformer = 11 kV/33kV
• Step‐down transformer = 20kV/400V
• Autotransformer (one winding) for large motor starting
• Instrument transformers:
− Voltage transformers
Reduce voltages/ currents of HV system to low values
− Current transformers
− FOR PROTECTIVE RELAYS, MEASURENTS DEVICES, METERING etc.
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Dry transformer
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Cast resin type
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Transformers installation
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 Oil immersed transformers located outdoor.

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Dry type transformers located indoor
 Oil immersed distribution transformers separated by walls

(onshore) or fences (offshore) and protected against rain falls or
direct sun rays by a removable roof.
Fencing and roof shall ensure natural transformer ventilation.
 When required, transformers shall be separated from process

area by a fireproof wall. For onshore installation an oil‐receiving
pit shall be built under each transformer and shall be connected
to an oily water drainage system.
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Transformers installation
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 Minimum clearance for transformer connections shall be 1000mm

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(cables not included), and 850mm for the other sides.
 Access to transformer bay shall be obtained via a lockable‐

screened door.
Interlocking device shall be provided between access to
transformer plug‐in terminals and isolating devices.
 Neutral earthing resistances shall be located in safe area and as

close as possible to the transformers.
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5.2 ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR
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Switchgear
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 Switchgear: apparatus (circuit breaker, contactor, switch…).

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 Switchboard: assembly of cubicles.

 Cubicles: metallic enclosure incorporating apparatus and
auxiliaries.
 Switchboard (HV and LV) may be of:
• fixed type
• withdrawable type
 Fixed type: maintenance generally requires switchboard

shutdown.
 Withdrawable type: the faulty apparatus can be extracted from
the switchboard, limiting the shut down to the faulty equipment.
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Switchgear
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 A withdrawable unit is made of several compartments (metal

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clad) including: bus‐bar, extractible circuit breaker, cable

compart, control compart.
 A withdrawable unit can be:

• in service (power + control = ON)
• in test (power = OFF; control = ON)
• out (power + control = OFF)
 Test position can be padlocked:
• padlocking system is associated with the work permit system to
prevent maloperation
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HV Switchgear
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Compartments description
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1 4
4 1 1 Busbar
2 Cables 3
3 3 CB
4 Control
2
2
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High voltage cubicle – Withdrawable type
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Busbar
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LV compartment
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Withdrawable
circuit breaker
Cable
compartment
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Circuit breaker – Withdrawable type
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High voltage cubicle – Withdrawable type
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Low Voltage
Busbar
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compartment
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Digital multifunction relay
Circuit breaker
Cable compartment
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High voltage cubicle – Installation
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High voltage cubicle – Fixed type
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Switch‐disconnector Busbar
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LV Compartment
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Circuit
breaker
Cables
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HV Switchgear
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 HV CIRCUIT BREAKER:
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• SF6 or Vacuum?… A lengthy debate!

• Higher current rating requested.
• Higher SCC requested (interconnection of 2 power plants, 70kA+,
11kV).
• Cubicle with 2 contactors appreciated.
• Compactness is mandatory.
• Very high SCC requires use of "Current limiting pyrotechnic
device" (Pyrobreaker).
• tc less than 5 ms against 60/70ms for CB.
• Scc = 100kA against 50 kA at 6.6/11 kV.
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LV Switchgear
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 Arrangement: 2 incoming + 1 bus tie CB’s (coupling is NO).

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 Dual feeder arrangement (two half bus bar) and motor feeder on
both sides.
 Cable connection preference is from bottom (technical void) and

rear or front.
 Drawer:
• isolator switch + fuse + contactor + thermal relay.
• (less expensive and bulky) to be compared to circuit beaker +
contactor + thermal relay.
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Smart switchboard – Communicating Swb
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 Interest is limited for TOTAL:

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• Rapid obsolescence of "components" with years.

• Interface with the process control system (INST) is best with
remote I/O per column or group of cubicles (supplied by the PCS
Vendor).
• I/O components may evolve with years, but the Swb will remain the
same.
• Easier FAT/ Commissionning.
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Low Voltage Switchboard
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rig
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Low Voltage Switchgear Drawers – 1/2‐1‐2‐3 modules
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rig
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Low Voltage Switchboard
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rig
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Motor Control Center (M.C.C.)
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rig
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400 V Distribution Switchboard
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rig
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400 V Motor Control Center
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rig
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5.3 ELECTRICAL CONTROL SYSTEM (ECS)
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Power Management (ECS)
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 ECS = Electrical Control System

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 Aim: Control of power distribution and power generation

systems.
 The main purpose of the ECS is to be an aid to operators to

facilitate control, supervision and monitoring of the network.
 Failure of the ECS must not stop operation of any part of the
power generation and distribution systems.
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 Main Functions include:

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• Data acquisition and display of power generation and power

distribution parameters such as remote closing of circuit breakers
from a central control point (control room or an electrical technical
room). Safety requirements ensured by direct acting on devices
(e.g. protection relays acting on circuit breakers) which are
themselves not linked to the ECS. Load shedding.
• Re‐acceleration and restarting.
• Source automatic transfer.
• Data storage and reporting.
• Display of alarms.
• Event recording and parameter trending.
• Interface with Integrated Control and Safety System (ICSS).
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 The ECS shall be capable of interfacing with all the equipment of

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the power generation and distribution systems (i.e. control

panels of turbine/emergency generating sets, HV, LV
switchboards and other switchgear, UPS cubicles, etc.).
 Animated display of power generation and distribution system,

data acquired and provide operator/machine (interface VDU
based system at the central control point).
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ICSS General Architecture
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ECS General Architecture
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ECS Interfaces
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Data
ICSS ECS
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Data and control

Load sharing
ICSSPMS
Load sharingSynchro (wired)
ESD
Load sharing
UCP System AC network

DC network Supply CB control and
protectionorder
Other generator
Supply unit
Supply
Data and wired Data and wired
Prime mover Output power

Auxiliaries Generator
Limit of supply
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5.4 DC AND AC SOURCES
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Disturbances on electrical systems:

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 Partial or total power failure (outage) may occur on an electical system due to
unavailibility of power supply (public utility or own generation)
 The solution consists on having an emergency diesel generator which will supply the
essential loads.
 But this emergency diesel generator may have a failure (refuse to start!)
 To supply vital loads special power sources must be provided either DC or AC.
 It also may happen that the normal power supply be subject to voltage disturbances
(voltage drop, voltage dip, short power cut, overvoltage harmonics) which distort the
voltage sinus wave or frequency fluctuations, etc.
 Several type of consumers are sensitive to voltage variations
• Motor  torque T = kU² (Induction)
If there is a 20% voltage drop then motor torque = 0.8² = 0.64 TN = 64% of rated
torque only, this may lead to a motor tripping (depending of resistive torque
applied)
• Contactor = tripping when voltage drop = 30% (supplied at AC)
• Computers = disturbances, and sometimes data losses
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AC Emergency power
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Emergency power supply
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 In normal operation «A» is closed and «B» is open

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 In case of normal power supply failure, detected by a mini voltage relay, diesel
engine starting is initiated; when the emergency diesel generator runs at
nominal speed and gives rated frequency and rated voltage at generator
terminals (after 15 to 30 seconds) then «B» closes and «A» open
Alternate source is generally a diesel generator
A B
 The essential switchboard is re‐energised, and the essential loads are then
restarted one by one or by groups of loads (automatically or sometimes
manually) to avoid a too high voltage drop during the restarting period.
• The largest motor to restart is a sizing factor for the generator
• During motor starting many kVA’s but few kW’s
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DC Sources
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Dc sources
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 Based on batteries of accumulators recharged by battery chargers a high availability is

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generally required for vital loads power supply.

 Redundancy of
• Battery chargers (2 instead of 1)
• Battery of accu (2 sets insead of 1)
 Battery charger includes:
• Input transformer ‐ rectifier (diodes bridge) ‐ regulation device.
 Battery of accumulators:
• Positive and negative plates immerged in an electrolyte (liquid) within an enclosure
(metallic or plastic) association in series and parallel to get required voltages and
currents
 Battery types
Nickel cadmium (Ni Cad) Electrolyte is potash
• Life duration up to 15/20 y
• Allows for a complete discharge
• Open type: separate room with ventilation (H2 emission)
• Sealed type = No maintenance (Saft ‐ Vo) ‐ No separate room ‐ High cost
• High reliability
• Full discharge required 2 ‐ 3 times a year
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Battery description
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DC Sources
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Lead acid (electrolyte is sulphuric acid)
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 Open/ vented type:

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• Life duration 5/10 y

• Discharge must be stopped before full discharge
• High maintenance
• Separate room with ventilation (hydrogen emission)
 Sealed type (recombination type ‐referred as VRLA =valve regulated lead acid)
as there is a valve , there is H2 release !

• Life duration 5 y and sometimes less !
• Sudden death ! (open circuit)
• No maintenance (no water addition …)
• Lower cost than NiCad
• Special battery/ charger (regulation issue)
• No dedicated room but minimum ventilation required
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DC Power supply
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Battery arrangement
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Battery operation
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 At the end of the battery recharging period, H2 gas is emitted

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 When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate (overcharging),

an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be
produced(risk of battery case bursting)
 In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the
casing of the battery and cause injury
 It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the

overcharged battery is later used
 Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion

as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.
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Battery room ventilation & maintenance
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 Batteries must be installed in separate rooms unless they are of

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the recombination type
 Ventilation must be provided in battery room to bring fresh air at

least equals to: 0.05 N I m3/h
• N = number of battery elements
• I = maximum current during charging
 This avoids to use Ex equipment in the battery room, but often

precautions lead to adopt Ex equipment (battery fan motor,
lighting, …)
 Maintenance:use of no sparking tools to avoid any sparks (fall of
tool) use of individual protective clothing to avoid risk of acid
projection, gloves, gogles, also wash eyes must be provided .
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 Check level of electrolyte and specific gravity

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 Remember that voltage cell depends on electrolyte concentration
 A higher specific gravity gives :
*more capacity
*shorter life ( due to corrosion )
*smaller footprint
*higher momentary discharge rates
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AC UPS Sources
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 AC Sources (AC ‐ UPS)

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 UPS = Uninterrupted Power Supply

UPS Package made of bat charger + bat of accumul + inverter
Bat charger = AC to DC
Inverter = DC to AC
 In case of any disturbances on the normal power supply and/ or the essential power
supply (E. D. G.), Vital consumers are supplied by the inverter itself supplied by the
battery which does not « see » the voltage variations or voltage cuts depending on the
battery autonomy. Vital loads (emergency loads) shall remain energised during the
autonomy duration. Autonomy depends on the required service.
 EG:
• Electrical control = 1/2 h
• Instrumentation = 1/2 to 1 h or more
• Fire and gas =2h
• Telecom = 24 h
• Navigational aids = 96 h (International regulation)
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Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
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UPS + Static switch + bypass
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5.5 CABLES
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Electrical cables – General presentation
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GENERAL
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 A cable is made up of a number of conductors, electrically separated, but mechanically

assembled, and generally enclosed in a protective sheath.
 Electrical cables can be classified into two categories:
• Power Cables
Used for power transmission/supply (current I) under a certain voltage U
• Control cables
Used for data transmission
 A cable mainly comprises:
• Conductor
• Insulation
• Mechanical protection
 Regarding the assembly, different types of cables can be considered:
• Single core cable (1 x 300 mm²)
• Three core cable (3 x 70 mm²)
• Multicore cable (19 x 1.5 mm²)
• Multipair, multitriple
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CABLE SPECIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION

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 Conductor
• Material Plain copper
Tinned copper (extra cost = + 7 %)
Aluminium
Aluminium is cheaper than copper if the price of 1 kg of copper is twice as much the price of 0.5 kg
of aluminium.
• Section Circular
Sectoral
• Type Solid
Stranded
 Insulating materials
• Paper Insulation: now rarely used for LV
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride): LV and HV up to 10 kV (toxic gases emission under fire)
• PE (polyethelene): HV and EHV
• EPR/EPDM (ethylene propylene rubber or similar): LV and HV for flexible cable (burn)
• LPE (cross‐linked polyethelene): LV and HV up to 36 kV
• Silicone rubber: LV for high temperatures (fire resisting cables)
Insulation thickness is defined in the standards according to voltage

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 Screening
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• Metallic layer surrounding the cores either individually or collectively.

 Assembly / Inner covering and fillers
• The three isolated cores are assembled helically with inner covering and
fillers made of extruded or lapped material
 Metallic sheath
• Lead sheath (used as a protection against aromatic hydrocarbons)
 Metallic armour
Mechanical protection:
• Tape armour (steel, galvanized steel, aluminium or aluminium alloy)
• Round wire armour (steel, galvanized steel, aluminium or copper)
 Oversheath
Mechanical and chemical protection of the cables:
• Thermoplastic compound (PVC or polyethylene)
• Elastomenc compound (polychloroprene PCP, or similar polymers)
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CABLE INSTALLATION
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 Lengths are contractually defined with the manufacturer with tolerances ‐ 0%;+3 %
 The recommendations applicable to the installation of cables are:
• a minimum bending radius (depending on cable type and diameter)
• a minimum cable spacing between the different types (derating factor )
• the studies of the routing shall include the safety aspects
• cable laying requires a large manpower at the same time.
FIRE RESISTANT CABLE
 The different types are:
• flame‐retardant cables: does not propagate the flame when submitted to a fire
• fire resisting cables: does not burn for a defined duration when submitted to a fire.
HYDROCARBON RESISTANT CABLES
 The two types of hydrocarbons are:
• aliphatic hydrocarbons (crude oil, lubricating oil, paraffin, ...) protection by a
specific PVC sheath.
• aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene and derivated): protection by a lead sheath
BUSDUCT
 In case of transmission of large current the use of busduct recommended, busduct
consists of copper bar assembled into a metallic enclosure
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Fire resisting cables
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FIRE RESISTING CABLE (IEC 60331)

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 Standards define the maximun temperature withstanding (cable integrety

kept) as well as the duration
 Example: IEC 60331 ... 750° C during 3h (corresponding to fire in a building but
not to an industrial fire especially in the O&G field)
 As an example the Operator Total requires a test at 1000°Cc during 30 minutes
(this time is sufficient to manage all the safety procedures such as the
emergency shut down and evacuation)
 Construction:
• Cables can have Silicone rubber insulation or a mica glass tape with EPR or
XLPE insulation. The inner sheath is made of a low smoke fire retardant
compound.
• MICC (Mineral Insulated Copper Cables) are made of a copper tube filled
with magnesia. A copper conductor is placed inside the tube.
• MICC have special connecting devices and are very sensitive to moisture
(strict precautions to be taken during installation, if not major risk of poor
insulation resistance!)
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Flame retardant cables
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FLAME RETARDANT CABLE (IEC 60332)

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 This type of cable does not propagate flame during a fire (it burns
locally) but may be destroyed by a fire
 Two categories exist:

• cable does not propagate flame when only one cable is
installed
• cable does not propagate flame when cables are laid in bunch
 Flame retardant properties are checked with the Oxygen index (a

minimum factor = 30 as per ASTM D 2863 is required)
 The type of support (metallic cable tray, or « plastic » cable tray)
plays an important role in the fire propagation behaviour
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Fumes & gas emission during a fire
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 Current produces heat as a function of current squared resistance

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W = R I²
 Current that exceeds the rating of the conductor cross section
increases temperature of the insulation sheath,which decreases
dramatically cable life duration
 Excessive temperature insulation sheath may lead to a fire
 During a fire all the polymer materials of the various sheathes
emit fumes and noxious gases (mainly chlorine)
 Requirements for a minimum production are defined by the acid
gas generation factor HCL below (17 for example at Total)
 Cables with no (or very low)fumes and gas emission are called
« Zero halogen » cables
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Zero halogen cables
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 Zero halogen cables are made with insulation fillers, inner and
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outer sheath made of suitable elastomers or thermoplastic

materials
 Requirements are as follows: (eg: Total specification)

• Acid gas generation HCL: < 0.5% as per IEC 60754
• Maximum smoke density: Dm < 250 as per ASTM E662
• Smoke in chamber (4 mn) VOF4 < 150 as per ASTM E662
• Oxygen index > 30 asper ASTM D2863
• Transmittance as per IEC 61034
 Zero Halogen cables are mainly used for buildings, tunnels, etc.
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What you have to know about cables
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 Budget :
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Cable is a significant expenditure within electrical budget (>20%)
 Planning
Takes time to be defined (specification + list + calculations + drum split)
Takes time to deliver (all industries need cable)
 Technical
 Sizing is no so simple as it could be expected (power, length, voltage drop, short-circuit ,installation, safety, …)
 Cables are not pipes welded to each other, it is delivered in one length
 Rerouting at a late stage can be catastrophic (all cables too short)
 It is the most exposed electrical equipment (number, length, locations):
−Armoured or not ?
−Chemical & UV exposure
−Fire resistance / retardance
− Fume & gas emissions
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6. Sub‐Station Arrangement
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Electrical Room design
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One basic rule at Total!
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 No switchgear outdoor or when no other solution are feasible

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(corrosion, operation, maintenance!!!)

• All switchgear in air conditioned rooms (pressurized when in
hazardous areas, or dusty / sand wind areas).
• Compactness of cubicles/panels, is a must!… mini footprint.
• Possible expansion at both end is recommended.
• Segregation between NORMAL – ESSENTIAL – EMERGENCY
equipment (wall fire proofing is different).
• Space allocation for future expansion mini = 25 %.
• Cable connections from bottom (technical void/false floor) – floor
openings at design stage.
• Power transformers (oil) located outdoor (safety, heat).
• Small power transformers (dry type only) located indoor.
• Batteries located in dedicated battery rooms (ventilation, H2
detectors).
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Electrical Technical Room Preliminary Arrangement
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Homo Homo
Equip Inc BB BB Inc Equip
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PyroBreaker polar SH Mot Mot Mot Trans Trans BT Trans Trans Mot Mot polar SH
Spare GTG Meas Meas GTG Spare
Bat UPS 24
Trans Trans
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Bat UPS 230V
Bat UPS 24
V
24 VDC
DB
Interface
DG CP SH CP SH CP Package
Inc BT Inc Cabinet
24 VDC
BatPAGA
BC
LDB ELDB HT DB Interface
Package
Cabinet
DG
Bat UPS 230V
Inc BT Inc
Inc
24 VDC
Bat NAVAID
BC
Potential Spare Space CB
Entry
400/230V 400/230V 400/230V
HVAC HVAC HVAC Transfo. Transfo. Transfo. UPS
230V
UPS
230V
DB
UPS
NAVAID
DC SYSTEM BC PAGA
Safety P
230V
Transformer
Transformer
Earthing
Earthing
11/0.415 kV 11/0.415 kV
11/0.415 kV 11/0.415 kV 11/0.415 kV 11/0.415 kV Transformer Transformer
Transformer Transformer Transformer Transformer SuperHeater SuperHeater
Notes:
1‐ Technical Room arrangement is based on the 4 GTG configuration.
2‐GTG Auxiliary DBs located inside the GTG Technical Room
3‐ All DCS, ESD, FGS, Metering and relevant DBs are located in a separate Technical Room
4‐ Soft Starters have not been considered for the biggest HV Motors (to be further evaluated at the basic stage)
5‐ Substation Internal Dimensions:
Scale 1/100
L x W x H (mm) 29500 x 9000 x 4500 mm (including the false floor) 1cm = 1m
False Floor 700 mm
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TCP + Excitation + Protection TCP hyd. Air Comp SAS

Cubicles Start CP
DB SP, light
TCP + Excitation + Protection TCP hyd. Air Comp Air Comp
Cubicles Start CP CP
6.22 x 16 = 100
MCC Starter
HVAC HVAC MCC GTG A MCC GTG B A/ B
TCP hyd. TCP hyd.
Start
TCP + Excitation + Protection
SAS
Start
Cubicles
Cubicles
Cubicles
Air Comp Air Comp
CP
7.65 x 14 = 107
Air Comp
DB SP, light
CP
CP
MCC Starter
HVAC HVAC MCC GTG A MCC GTG B A/ B
Scale 1/100
1cm = 1m
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Pre‐fabricated electrical room
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 CONCEPT
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• To build a complete electrical /control integrated room with all the

associated ancillaries, at a cabin manufacturer premises, onshore,
to test (FAT) all the systems before shipment.
• The cabin manufacturer is selected among Vendors having a

recognized electrical competence.
• Main contractors have generally a limited electrical competence

and installation of electrical & control rooms is often a difficult task
for them with disappointing results for the Operator and many
discussions during design and construction (!).
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Pre‐fabricated electrical room
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• Transport requirements by road impose maximum dimensions and

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weight. Transport by river may also be envisaged.
• Dimensions increase may be obtained by juxtaposition of 2‐3

cabins having one temporary partition. After assembling on site the
temporary partition is removed.
• Mini module can be constructed with such an arrangement (e.g.

onshore arctic area).
• Cabins may be designed for installation in hazardous areas or safe

areas.
• Cabins may be of metallic type or GRP type (with limited
dimensions).
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Application
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 Satellite supplied from either local generation or centralized

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generation: (typically 6.6 kV – 250kVA).
 Main data (hazardous area design).

• A60 SOLAS classification (roof, walls, floor and doors).
• Air conditioned to limit temperature and humidity conditions.
• Indoor equipment protected by internal pressurization.
• Cabin designed to be lifted and transported in one piece, complete
with all equipment, in four points and to be supported as well as at
the four opposite corners. (Padeyes and speeder frame).
• Four skidding padeyes (one at each corner) welded at the base of
the cabin structure for cabin skidding.
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• Condenser of the air conditioning system mounted on the roof of

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the cabin and dismounted for transport.
• Walls made of steel sheets, 5 mm thick minimum.
• Floor and roof will be made of steel sheets, 6 mm thick minimum.
• Thermal insulation
• False floor on adjustable jacks
• All openings for doors, MCT, HVAC, etc., made in walls, floor, roof
framed to keep the structural integrity.
• Doors (staff, materials) air lock.
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• Internal partitioning as required (B15) – switch room, control room,

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batteries room, transformer in a separated bay area (meshed)

adjacent or completely separated. Mini office, accommodation as
required).
• Safety ladder to get access to the roof.
• Removable hand rail installed on the roof, for staff maintenance
protection.
• HVAC system with fire & gas dampers.
• Fire & Gas detection.
• Fire extinguishing system (CO2 bottles).
• Switchboards, control panels, control desk, etc.
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7. Electric Motors
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Electric motor overview
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Dc motors Ac motors
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Asynchronous Synchronous Also generator
Squirrel Cage Permanent Magnet
Slip‐ring Motor Wound rotor
Induction Motor (Special application)
Process & utilities Lifting Applications Large motor > 10 MW

(99%) (High torque) And
Very large motor: 100 MW today!
‐ Low speed or very low speed motors are generally synchronous
‐ Dc motors for variable speed drive (in the past) & drilling
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Components of an induction motor (squirrel cage)
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Induction motor
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1. Stator (fixed part)

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• Frame
− ALUMINIUM ALLOY (small ratings).
− Steel sheet welded (large ratings).
− Cast iron (average ratings).
• Magnetic circuit
− Circular iron sheet (silicium) with grooves to accommodate the
windings.
• Windings
− Copper wire or flat bar wrapped with mica tapes and/or glass (for HV
motors) housed into the grooves.
− Epoxy resin impregnation (global, vacuum) then polymerization in an
oven (for HV motor).
− LV motor insulation is enamelled.
− Insulation system is the key factor for motor life duration. Life
duration depends on temperatures reached versus insulation material
temperature design (efficiency of the cooling).
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Induction motor
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• Terminal box
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− At the top and orientable in the 4 directions (LV). LV motors have 6

terminals to allow star or d coupling.
− Cable connections through a cable gland – use of lugs for cable
conductor connections.
− Large terminal box for HV motors located on side.
• Bearings
− Ball rollers, cylindrical rollers – grease system.
− Sleeve bearings with oil lubrification by ring or forced lubrification
(coming from the driven machine lub. system) for large motors.
• Accessories
− Resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s) to monitor winding
temperature.
− Heating resistance to avoid moisture when motor is standby.
− Sometimes RTD’s or thermocouples for sleeve bearings temperature
monitoring.
− Sometimes: vibration sensors on bearings.
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Induction motor
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2. ROTOR
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• Shaft.
• Magnetic circuit: circular iron sheets with grooves to accommodate copper/or alu
bare bars.
• Windings: bars are inserted in grooves and brazed at both ends with a ring →
«squirrel cage».
Between rotor and stator an air gap (a few millimetres).
Robust motor as per design (no insulating materials on the rotor).
3. COOLING
• Fans on shaft → self ventilated.
• Motor ventilated (fan driven by an auxiliary motor).
• Air cooler (air to air heat exchanger) «tube motor».
• Water cooler (air to water heat exchanger); soft water or sea water.
Limit between air and water cooling < 4 mw = air
> 4mw = water (except in desert).
4. INSTALLATION
• Common structure (slides) with the driven machine.
• Fixation by bolting on civil engineering.
• Coupling by pulley/belt or coupling box.
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Low Voltage Motor
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Fan cover
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Fan
Terminal box
End shield End shield
Outer bearing cover
Inner bearing cover
Bearing
Inner bearing cover
Outer bearing cover
Frame
Bearing
Shaft
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Low Voltage Motor
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Flameproof enclosure EEx de
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Cast iron, sizes 80 – 400, 0.55 – 630 kW
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Low Voltage Motor
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P Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)
IF
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rig
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High Voltage Motor Stator
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Tr
P (during construction)
IF
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rig
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High Voltage Motor Stator completed
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IF
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rig
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 Insulation system:
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• MicalasticR insulation system (VPI)

↑ Highest quality insulation
 Features:
• Also Converter operation • High switching and reversing strength
• Excellent corona shielding • Long lifetime
• High thermal durability
Stator winding
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Motor cooling
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Air outlet
Air
inlet
Ventilation circuit: Air‐ / Air‐Cooling (1RQ4)
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Motor cooling
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Ventilation circuit: Air‐ / Water‐Cooling (1RN4)
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Motor cooling
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Air outlet
Air inlet
on the side
Ventilation circuit: Open Circuit Cooling (1RA4)
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Design: Laminated rotor core with copper bars and short‐circuit‐rings
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shrunk onto a spider shaft
Asynchronous squirrel cage rotor
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 Design: Laminated rotor core with rotor winding shrunk onto the
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shaft.
 Slipring housing:
• Within the bearings, located at NDE.
• Separated from the motor interior.
• Common ventilation motor interior / slip ring housing, air
recirculation into the motor interior via filter.
Asynchronous slipring rotor
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Monitoring devices and equipment
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Resistance or dial thermometer (hot air)

py
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Slot resistance thermometer (stator winding): standard design

Resistance or dial thermometer (cold air)
Shaft rotation pulse transmitter
Resistance or dial thermometer (Bearings)
Shaft vibration measurement
Shock puls measuring method (measuring nipple standard design)

Leakage water detector standard design
Throttle valve
Pressure gauge Oil inlet
Flowmeter with monitor
Thermometer bore Oil outlet

Sight glass
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Efficiency and power factor vs. motor output
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PkW 1.1 3 30 132 250 1000

rig
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% 75 80 90 93 94 95
Cos  0.79 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.87 0.89
  and cos ø vary with the load applied to the motor

 EG = FOR A 22 kW MOTOR:
load factor = 0 % cos ø = 0.17
25 % = 0.55
50 % = 0.73
75 % = 0.80
100 % = 0.85
→ DURING STARTING A MOTOR HAS A VERY LOW P. F (cos j) = 0.1‐ 0.2
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Induction motor main data
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 Output: below 160 kW = LV

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 Between 160 and 250 kW, economical study

 Above 250 kW = HV
 Direct on line starting (DOL) – generally
 Starting devices for large motors at fixed speed
 Voltage: LV = 400 V – 660 V considered
HV = (3.3) – 6.6 – 11 – 13.8 kV (60 hz)
 Synchronous speed: 1500 rpm preferred
 Single phase motor below 0.37 kW
 Direct drive (no gear) or through a gearbox, or a belt / pulley
system
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Markings and Direction
ai
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P IEC 60034‐8 Star (Y) connection
IF
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230VD, 400VY Uph = 400/(√3) ≈ 230V
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Markings and Direction
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P IEC 60034‐8 Delta (∆) connection
IF
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400VD, 690VY Uph = 690/(√3) ≈ 400V
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Direct starting
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Direct starting, DOL (Direct On Line)

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 Is the most simple method of starting
 As the name indicates the motor is started by connecting it

directly to the mains supply (On Line)
• The voltage from the mains is supplied to the winding of the motor
as soon as it is connected
What is the disadvantage?
 High starting current of between 4–8 times of the nominal current
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Star‐delta starting
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 This method can only be use if the motor is to be connected in

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DELTA
• A code D‐wound motor (400VD and 690VY) can Y/D‐started at 400V
• A code S‐wound motor (230VD and 400VY) can Y/D‐started at 230V
 The motor is first connected in: STAR (the wrong connection),

then it is reconnected to DELTA (the correct connection)
 Advantage
• The starting current is reduced to 1/3 of the DOL starting current
(as the voltage over the winding is reduced with √3 (from eg 400 to
230) and the resistance is changed)
 Disadvantage
• The motor torque is also reduced to 1/3 of the nominal torque
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Y/D curves
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Star‐delta starting
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If using Y/D‐start you have to consider the following:

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 All 6 terminals has to be taken form the terminal box to a switch

board
 When reconnecting the motor, the current will increase or the
motor speed will drop
• The reconnection has to be as close to max speed as possible in
order to limit the current increase or the drop in speed
 The motors can only be Y/D started if it use with no load or very
low load
 The motor has to be connected correct when it is being
reconnected, otherwise it will change direction (= break and DOL
start)
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Starting with soft starter
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IF
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 DOL start is a very direct and hard method it can cause current peaks and big
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mechanical wear
 Y/D start can if not selected correctly, give unwanted current peaks or cause
rotor heating
 Soft start gives “a soft start” without the problems known form the other types
of start
 There are different kinds of soft starters
• with transformers
• with serial resistors
• with different kinds of power electronics
 No matter what kind of soft starter is used the disadvantages of DOL or Y/D
start will be removed or reduced;
 This is done by reducing the motor voltage, causing the current to be reduced
• NOTE, the torque of the motor is also reduced
• NOTE, when using soft starter we still have to respect the maximum
moment of inertia which the motor can accelerate
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Derating factors (motor output)
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 Standard ambient temperature: ‐20°C to +40°C
 Standard altitude: 1000 m above sea level
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Variable Speed Drive (VSD)
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 A V.S.D. equipment is made of:

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• an input transformer (optional)

• a rectifier bridge
• an inverter bridge
• an inductance (optional)
• harmonic filters (optional)
• motor (induction or synchronous)
 Oil & Gas plant: drilling platforms use DC drives (mud pumps…).
Production plants use small AC drives for pumping (onshore),
medium size drives for ESP (Electro Submersible Pumps) and
sometimes large drives for gas compressors (40MW!), or water
injection.
 Petrochemical plants use VSD for extruders (10 MW), mixers, etc.
Refineries have very few VSD applications.
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8. Lighting System
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Lighting
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1. Normal system: fed from normal distribution boards

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2. Essential system: fed from essential distribution boards

• 100% of lighting inside technical rooms.
• 30 % minimum of total lighting in other areas.
3. Emergency system: Selected luminaries' of the above essential system, which

illuminate escape routes, emergency exits and ladders shall have an integrated
Ni‐Cd battery and shall be category 2.
 Inside technical rooms, fluorescent luminaries'’ category 2 with integrated Ni‐

Cd battery to provide 90 minutes illumination of panels/switchboards used for
re‐starting operation.
 High Pressure Sodium (HPS) floodlights for wellhead, boat landing and work
over areas lighting.
 No outdoor lighting switch on offshore platform unless otherwise specified.
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Lighting system (industry)
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 Lighting system is generally split into 3 sub‐systems:

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• normal lighting supplied from normal distribution boards

• essential lighting supplied from essential distribution boards,
themselves supplied from another source of power
• emergency lighting includes luminaries' suitably located to
illuminate escape routes, emergency exits and areas where safety
teams (firemen…)may intervene
 Emergency lighting (sometimes called safety lightning) is

submitted to national regulations
 Essential lighting (sometimes called standby lighting) is generally

not submitted to regulations but only to private rules (owner)
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 As an example the rule at Total (Exploration/Production) for essential lighting

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is:
• 100% of lighting inside buildings (control room, electrical substation,
emergency generator room, etc.)
• 30% minimum of total outdoor lighting (suitably defined)
 Essential lighting is fed by the « emergency diesel generator »
 Emergency luminaries' are with fluorescent tubes with integrated Ni‐Cd
battery providing 90 minutes illumination
 They are suitable for explosive atmospheres (category 2 as per the ATEX
directive)
 Inside buildings they are located for re‐stating operation (in front of
panels/switchboards)
Another alternative is to have the emergency luminaries' with no integrated
battery but supplied from a centralized source
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 Solution less expensive for luminaries' but requiring fire resisting

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cables (expensive) for cable protection during a fire!
 Emergency luminaries' is a battery‐backed lighting device that

comes on automatically when a building or an area experiences a
power outage
 They bear the green/white “exit” sign and are also found in
commercial, public and residential buildings
 Portable hand lamps are also provided in technical buildings with
several hours of autonomy
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9. Electrical Maintenance
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 Aim of Maintenance is to keep electrical equipment in good

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operating conditions for following purposes:
• Safety
• Prevention from failure to ensure operation continuity
• Preservation of COMPANY assets
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Safety
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 Visual inspections shall be done periodically to prevent operators

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from electrical hazards
• Earthing and bonding shall be ensured
• No live parts shall be accessible
• Electrical safety equipment condition and related instructions shall

be checked
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Prevention from failure
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 Operating conditions are likely to affect performance and life

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duration of electrical equipment

• Dust accumulation or defect of ventilation prevent from normal
heat dissipation.
• Moisture reduces dielectric strength of many insulating materials
and increase the risk of short‐circuit.
• Corrosion destroys integrity of equipment and enclosures.
• Loose connections involve overheating and destruction of
equipment terminations.
• Wrong settings or defect of “protection relays” can involve
damages on equipment.
 Three types of Maintenance are implemented
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Type of maintenance
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 Curative maintenance
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• Consist in repairing equipment after failure.
 Preventive maintenance
• Routine checks and works have to be carried out, following a specific
periodicity and procedure for each type of equipment according to
the manufacturer ‘s instructions (maintenance manual)
• Preventive Maintenance consists mostly, in visual inspection of
equipment, cleaning, tightness of connections, insulation resistance
measurements and “protection relay” tests.
 Predictive maintenance
• Implemented when stop of equipment is not allowed.
• Maintenance is depending on measurements and particular
inspections to anticipate failures
− Vibration analysis on rotating machines
− Infra‐red thermography on terminations of transformers, switchboards
and overhead lines
− Dielectric oil analysis on transformers
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Preservation of company assets
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 A good Maintenance is a manner for taking care of COMPANY

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investments by extending as much as possible the life duration of

equipment.
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Operation‐work permit
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 Electrical maintenance people are also responsible for the proper

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operation of the electrical system including switching on/off of

various equipment.
 For safety purposes the follow‐up of operating procedures is

mandatory.
 Procedures include a work permit request prior to any operation

of maintenance.
 To protect workers, an “Isolation” of the equipment related to

the work permit shall be carried‐out.
 Main electrical switching devices shall be locked in open position
(disconnection shall be visible).
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 Padlock shall be fitted with a tag indicating the number of the

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work permit and the name of the person responsible for the job.
 This person only, will be allowed to request the de‐isolation of

the equipment after completion of the job.
 According to the type of task to be carried out, various worker

qualification are required.
 A qualified person is a person who has been authorized after an

adequate training, to undertake certain works and has received
(on successful completion) an “authorization certificate”
(delivered by his Employer).
 The authorization certificate indicates the various levels of works
(HV, LV electrical isolation permit, etc.) which can be undertaken
by the person.
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Regulation requirements
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 Every work activity, including operation, use and maintenance of

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an electrical system and work near an electrical system, shall be

carried out in such a manner as not to give rise, so far as is
reasonably practicable, to danger.
 Any equipment provided for the purpose of protecting persons at

work on or near electrical equipment shall be suitable for the use
for which it is provided, be maintained in a condition suitable for
that use, and be properly used.
 Work on or near these equipment are fundamental to electrical
safety
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Electrical Maintenance
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 Regular inspection of electrical equipment is an essential part of

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any preventive maintenance programme.
 Records of maintenance, including test results, preferably kept

throughout the working life of an electrical system will enable the
condition of the equipment and the effectiveness of maintenance
policies to be monitored.
 Without effective monitoring, maintenance teams cannot be

certain that the requirement for maintenance has been complied
with.
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Electrical Maintenance
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 It is preferable that the conductors be made dead before work

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starts. In such cases it is essential that the equipment be isolated

according to “isolation” procedures (locking off, etc.).
 The conductors must be proved dead at the point of work before

the work starts.
 Where a test instrument or voltage indicator is used for this

purpose this device should itself be proved preferably
immediately before and immediately after testing the
conductors.
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Protective equipment
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 Suitable clothing.
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 Insulating helmets.
 Goggles and gloves.
 Insulating materials used as fixed or temporary screening to

prevent electric shock and to prevent short circuit between live
conductors or between live conductors and earth.
 Insulating mats and stands to prevent electric shock current via

the feet and insulated tools and insulated test probes.
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 Some work, such as fault finding and testing, or live jointing by

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the electricity supply industry, may require electrical equipment

to remain energised during the work.
 Particular requirements in terms of protective equipment need to

be applied.
 The operation, maintenance and testing of electrical systems and

equipment should be carried out only by those people who are
competent for the particular class of work.
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Work near electrical systems
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 This includes work of a non‐electrical nature where there is a risk

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of electrical injury.
 A common example is excavation near to live electric power

cables and work near live overhead power lines, where the risks
can be severe.
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 Protective equipment typically includes those special tools,

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protective clothing, insulating screening materials, insulating

gloves and floor mats necessary to undertake work safely on live
electrical equipment.
 There are 3 particular requirements of the protective equipment:

• suitable for use
• maintained in that condition
• properly used.
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Precautions for work on equipment made dead
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 Precautions must be taken to prevent electrical equipment, which

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has been made dead in order to prevent danger while work is

carried out on or near that equipment, from becoming electrically
charged during that work if danger may thereby arise.
 Procedures for making the equipment dead involve cutting off

the supply of electrical energy.
 Isolation of the electrical equipment will be necessary Ideally a

means of locking off an isolator can be used. Where such facilities
are not available, the removal of fuses or links and their being
held in safe keeping can provide a secure arrangement if proper
control procedures are used.
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Precautions for work on equipment made dead
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 Presence of electrical energy (electromagnetic induction, mutual

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capacitance or stored electrical energy) may have to be guarded

against, for example by applying earthing connections for the
duration of the work (temporary earths).
 The precautions may need to include means of preventing further

accumulation of electrical charge, following initial discharge,
because latent energy may be stored in the system, for example
in the dielectric of high voltage cables. In the case of work upon
high voltage power distribution circuits, isolation procedures
should include the back‐up measure of applying circuit main
earths (primary earths) at points of isolation by means of
purpose‐built facilities.
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Written procedures (Permits‐to‐work)
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 It is essential that the safety isolation procedures be formalised

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in written instructions or house rules.
 They are called “Permits‐to‐work”.
 Properly formulated “permit‐to work” procedures focus the

minds both of those issuing and of those receiving the permits
both on the manner in which the work is to be done and on how
the equipment has been made safe.
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Work on or near live conductors
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 There are circumstances in which it is unreasonable for the

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equipment to be dead while work proceeds.

 An example of this might be where it was found necessary to
undertake some maintenance, checking or repair on a busy
section of electric railway track where it would be
disproportionately disruptive and costly in many ways for the live
conductors to be isolated for the period of the work.
 Other examples are to be found in the electrical supply industry,
particularly live cable jointing, and in much of the work done on
telephone network connections.
 Equipment users should bear in mind at the time of ordering,
purchase and installation of plant, the manner of operation,
maintenance and repair of the electrical equipment which will be
necessary during the life of the plant.
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Work on or near live conductors
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 It is recommended that equipment which combines power and

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control circuitry should be arranged so that the power circuits are

physically separate and segregated from logic and control circuits
or so placed, recessed or otherwise arranged that the risk of
accidental contact is eliminated.
 Diagnostic work on the low power/voltage circuits may then

proceed with less risk to personnel.
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Provisions for work on or near live conductors
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 Suitable precautions shall include as appropriate:

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• The use of people who are properly trained and

competente to work on live equipment safely
• The provision of adequate information to the person carrying out
the work about the live conductors involved, the associated
electrical system and the foreseeable risks
• The use of suitable tools, including insulated tools, equipment and
protective clothing
• The use of suitable insulated barriers or screens
• The use of suitable instruments and test probes
• Accompaniment by another person or people if the presence of
such person or people could contribute significantly to ensuring
that injury is prevented
• Effective control of any area where there is danger from live
conductors by provision of lockable enclosures or barriers, and
warning notices indicating the presence of live conductors
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Emergency resuscitation and first aid
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 Notices or placards giving details of emergency resuscitation

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procedures in the event of electric shock shall be placed at those

locations where people may be at greater risk of electric shock
(electrical test areas, substations, laboratories, etc.).
 But for resuscitation techniques to be effective, those required to

exercise them must receive proper training and regular practice.
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Work near underground cables and overhead power lines
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Precautions should include:

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 Mapping, recording and marking on site of cable runs
 Use of cable locating devices
 Safe digging practices
 Overhead power lines may be readily accessible to people

working on elevated platforms, scaffolding or roofs. People
working with tall vehicles such as cranes, lorries or farm
machinery or handling metal ladders, pipes or other long articles
may also be at risk from a flashover or contact with overhead
power lines.
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Personnel competence
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 No person shall be engaged in any work activity where technical

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knowledge or experience is necessary to prevent danger.
 Employees should be trained and instructed to ensure that they

understand the safety procedures which are relevant to their
work and should work in accordance with any instructions or
rules directed at ensuring safety which have been laid down by
their employer.
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Supervision
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 The regulation recognises that in many circumstances people will

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require to be supervised to some degree where their technical

knowledge or experience is not of itself sufficient to ensure that
they can otherwise undertake the work safely.
The responsibilities of those undertaking the supervision should
be clearly stated to them by those dutyholders who allocate the
responsibilities for supervision and consideration should be given
to stating these responsibilities in writing.
Where the risks involved are low, verbal instructions are likely to
be adequate but as the risk or complexity increase there comes a
point where the need for written procedures becomes important
in order that instructions may be understood and supervised
more rigorously.
In this context, supervision does not necessarily require continual
attendance at the work site, but the degree of supervision and
the manner in which it is exercised is for the dutyholders to
arrange to ensure that danger, or as the case may be, injury, is
prevented.
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Technical knowledge or experience
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The scope of “technical knowledge or experience” includes:

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 Adequate knowledge of electricity
 Adequate experience of electrical work
 Adequate understanding of the system to be worked on and

practical experience of that class of system
 Understanding of the hazards which may arise during the work

and the precautions which need to be taken
 Ability to recognise at all times whether it is safe for work to

continue.
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10.Offshore aspects
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Electrical works
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 Offshore construction works costs being high, their efficiency being low (time
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to be multiplied by a factor = 2 to 2.5 against onshore), the trend is to reduce

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offshore works at their minimum.

 Technical buildings are prefabricated onshore in a yard (shipbuilding yard) they
are called modules
 Recent trend to build electrical/instrumentation rooms from a different
contractor (competence)
 Lifting considerations determine the maximum module dimensions and weight
(determined at pre‐project stage)
 Buildings include electrical rooms, control rooms, auxiliary rooms (offices,
warehouse, workshops, etc.)
 All the electrical equipment are installed and cabling/wiring between internal
equipment is carried out
 External cables (for connection to another module) are prepared:
• Connection on one side of the module
• Cable left coiled inside the module
• Cables are uncoiled offshore and the other end is connected in the other
module
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• Uncoiling of cables (small sizes)

• Connection of the 2nd cable end
• Installation of large cables (which cannot be left coiled) and connections:
− HV cables large cross sections
− LV cables to avoid junction boxes
• Re‐installation of equipment dismantled for transport purposes (turbine
exhaust, air inlet filter...)
 Cable penetrations into buildings are by MCT (Multi‐Cable‐Transit) which are

gastight sealings; this requires issue of detailed MCT drawings
 Segregation of rooms (like in a ship)

• Normal switchroom
• Essential switchroom (a60 fireproof)
• Battery room (a60 fire proof)
 Compactness of rooms requires a careful design (space is limited!)

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 Metallic floors + false floor (technical void for cables)

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 Process/Utilities functional units constructed by package – Skids (turbo generators, air

instrument compressors, chlorination unit, glycol, etc.)
 During modules transportation from the yard to offshore (up to 2 months):
• Sea fastening of equipment
• Sea protection
• Temporary air conditioning
 Hook‐up drawings:
• To allow equipment/materials dismantled to be re‐erected offshore
• Cable schedules indicating: cable cut, cable left coiled...
 Hook‐up works :
Difficulties due to:
• Lack of space (many people working together at the same place)
• Low productivity (weather, lack of space)
• Communication between people sometimes difficult due to team internationalism
(English...)
• Influence of weather conditions
• Logistics problems: mobilization / demobilization of people, accommodation, ships,
helicopters...
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Platform beaconing
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 The code MODU (international maritime organization) imposes requirements

regarding the navigational aids:
• Lanterns located at a corner platform to delimitate the «field»
• Flashing lantern : letter U morse code
• Lantern range = 10 nautic miles (19≈ km)
• Falshing of all the lanterns must be synchronized
• Battery autonomy = 96 h
• Automatic device to replace one burnt lamp immediately (6 lamps in
spare)
• Suitable for zone 1 or safe area
• Fog horn (2 nautic miles range) may be installed
• Bulky, heavy equipment
 Helideck beaconing
Not mandatory except if night traffic is anticipated (often provided +
floodlight)
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Special offshore requirements
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Red lamps all along the tower including the top (highest point)
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 Crane beaconing
Often fitted with 2 red lamps
 Flare
Difficult to achieve, due to limited behavior of lighting fittings to high temperature
 Emergency/vital lighting
• Escape ways to boat landings: luminaries with 11/2 ‐ 2 h battery autonomy
• Muster areas (close to life boats): floodlights supplied by batteries
 Living quarters
• 3 kW/people (without sea water desalination)
• Desalination unit 150 people = 300 kW!
• Rooms for 1 to 4 people, restaurant room, cold room, food storage, sports/leisure
rooms, etc.
 Emergency shut down (electrical isolation)
• In case of gas penetration into the rooms, all the electrical sources are tripped,
including batteries (batteries C.B. enclosed in an Ex «d» box)
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Wellhead platforms require small power sources (300 W to 3‐4 kW)

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• Windgenerator (complex) – One application at TOTAL: a 2.2 kW

machine for a continuous permanent consumption of 300 W over a
year!
• Solar array: 100 Wc gives 8 Wh over a year! 120 Wc requires 1m2
• TEG (thermo electric generator): power limited to 100‐200W (flame
system) expensive, one manufacturer in the world (gas fuel)
• CCVT: mini set (turbine + generator +boiler with special fluid) enclosed
into one hermetic cylinder with no maintenance for life except
cleaning of the burner – very reliable – limited to 4 kW (2 t). Only one
manufacturer in the world.
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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION ON FPSO’S

BASIC RULES
J. Tastet – TECHNIP
P. Angays – TECHNIP
S. Marchais - TECHNIP
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Summary
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Foreword
1. Introduction
2. Safety
3. Main equipment design
4. Space and weight
5. Modularization and Hook-up activities
6. Autonomous Power Plant
7. Marine environment
8. Conclusion
Slide 2 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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FOREWORD
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FPSO : Construction Process of a FPSO
Slide 3 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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FPSO YARD
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Slide 4 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL BLOCK STAGE

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Slide 5 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL PAINTING
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Slide 6 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL KEEL LAYING

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Slide 7 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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BOTTOM BLOCKS IN DRY DOCK

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Slide 8 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MAIN DECK READY FOR OUTFITTING

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Slide 9 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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TRANSVERSE WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD

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Slide 10 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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INSIDE TANK
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Slide 11 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL GENERAL VIEW WEEK 19

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Slide 12 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 13 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 14 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 15 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 16 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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LIVING QUARTER - LIFTING WEEK 29

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Slide 17 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 18 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 19 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 20 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 21 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL LAUNCHING - WEEK 31

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Slide 22 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HULL LAUNCHING - WEEK 31

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Slide 23 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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HP COMPRESSOR MODULE
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Slide 24 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE CONSTRUCTION – WEEK 45

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Slide 25 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE CONSTRUCTION – WEEK 46

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Slide 26 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE INCOMING
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Slide 27 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE INSTALLATION
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Slide 28 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE INSTALLATION
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Slide 29 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE INSTALLATION
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Slide 30 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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MODULE INSTALLATION
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Slide 31 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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FPSO SAIL AWAY

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Slide 32 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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1. Introduction
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FPSO : Floating Production Storage and Off-loading facilities
Power Plant
Living Quarters
Utilities
ce ss Units
Pro
Main substation
Slide 33 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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2. Safety
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Slide 34 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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2. Safety
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SAFETY FIRST !!
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9 At least two separate substations preferably at opposite sides

9 Install the topsides (main) substation between process units and
utilities
9 Substations are generally installed in hazardous areas and shall
respect the IEC 90079-13 requirements
9 Gas detection within any substation should lead to de-energize
all electrical equipment which could produce any sparking
9 Safety systems should remain operational 100% of the time and
require specific autonomies for the battery back-up
9 Attention to be paid on environmental conditions for the
operating staff
Slide 35 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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3. Main equipment design

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9 Mechanical equipment are more and more electrically driven leading

to high electrical demand
9 Main distribution voltage level to be limited to 12 or 15 kV insulation
class because of space / weight limitations
9 Main distribution switchboard (s) to match high current ratings
(nominal and short-circuit), which may exceed the available
technologies
Possibilities
9 Select the highest possible voltage (e.g. 13.2 kV instead of 11 kV)
9 Increase the generator impedances (but requires further checks)
9 Install VSDS for the main drivers (but additional panels / transformers)
9 Insert tie-breakers with current-limiting devices
Slide 36 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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4. Space and weight

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9 Weight control and centre of gravity: main design criteria for a FPSO
9 The design shall include the towing constraints
9 Number of transformers to be reduced as far as possible
9 Access and maintenance conditions to be ensured for all equipment
9 Any possible transformer oil spillage to be recovered
9 Cable weight has a significant ratio in the overall “electrical” weight
9 Space for the main cable route should be booked from an early start of
the Project
Slide 37 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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5. Modularisation and
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Hook-up activities
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9 Installation of the modules and

Hook-up: Important phases of
the FPSO construction
9 Two options could be
considered for the topsides:
central substation or additional
de-localized substations
incorporated in the modules
Slide 38 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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6. Autonomous Power Plant (s)

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Basic criteria for the generation concept:

9 Safety services to be available 100% of the time
9 Normal production of the FPSO with a n+1 or n+2 sparing design
9 Preservation of the wells in case the main power generation is down
9 Black start of the main power plant
9 Cool-down and re-start of the main power plant after a shut-down
Slide 39 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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¾Emergency diesel generator in the living quarter

¾All safety services to be powered from this EDG
and backed up by batteries
¾Governed by class regulations and stamped by a
notified body
Slide 40 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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¾Generally through gas turbines

¾Steam turbines if justified by global Process criteria
Slide 41 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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¾Essential power Plant

¾Generally consisting of diesel driven generators
¾Such diesel generators may require high ratings
Slide 42 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Essential power plant to be designed considering:

9 The magnetizing current of the transformers requiring to be energized
for black start / cool down / well preservation
9 The start-up of big motor (s) for the required services
9 Temporary paralleling with the main power plant
9 The short-circuit withstand of the main equipment
Slide 43 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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The power plant (s) are generally piloted by a centralized control system
(ENMCS) with the following basic features:
9Active and reactive power sharing between all main turbine

driven generators operating in droop mode
9Restore nominal frequency and voltage conditions after a load
change
9ENCMS to cover all possible network configurations (which may
require 2 independent control systems if bus ties are open)
9Load shedding in case one main generator is lost
9Specific operating conditions to be considered when main
generators and essential generators are paralleled.
Slide 44 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Slide 45 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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9The electrical equipment shall be designed to withstand the

strong acceleration forces due to the impact of the waves
9Equipment in the hull and in the living quarters shall have a
marine certification. Recommendation is given to select the same
type of equipment between the topsides and the hull.
9Special attention to be paid on the heavy corrosion environment.
9Certification by a notified body for the installation covered by the
Marine standards (hull and living quarters covered by the Solas).
Slide 46 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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7. Conclusion
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Slide 47 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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7. Conclusion
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9The design of electrical installation in FPSO’s

requires the precise application of specific
requirements linked to the marine environment and
mainly to the associated safety constraints. Special
attention to be paid on the heavy corrosion
environment.
9New challenges appear due to the size increase of
the FPSO’s
9Alternate to the conventional gas turbine main
power plant could be the application of HVDC links
allowing to power the FPSO from an on-shore power
plant (if the FPSO is not too far from the shore)
Slide 48 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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Thank you for your attention. Any Question ?

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Slide 49 / J. Tastet / 27.05.2009

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12. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WORKS
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 INSTALLATION WORKS are carried out by a CONTRACTOR which

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can be:
• A company specialised in electrical works only (often the case for
onshore: refineries, petro‐chemical plants)
• A general contractor able to ensure all the discipline works (often
the case for offshore platforms). Part of the job may be
subcontracted to specialised contractors (sub‐contractors).
 If 2 different contractors are selected for electrical and

instrumentation works, the interfaces must be perfectly defined
in details. Coordination of works on site must be ensured by the
CLIENT (or his representative).
 If only one contractor is selected, interfaces and coordination are
easier for the client (it is the contractor’s job).
 The solution depends on contractor competence.
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 Several types of contracts between the client (oil company) and

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the contractor can be placed (lump sum, schedule of rates...) but

in all the cases the following questions must be raised:
• What is the contractor scope?

• How works must be carried out?
• With which means?
• From when and how long?
• Within which budget?
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a) Detailed engineering drawings (limits to be clearly defined)

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b) Supply of electrical materials and accessories (limit of supply?)

Main electrical equipment (switchboards, transfo, etc.) may be
supplied by the main contractor or by the electrical contractor in
case of a key turn contract.
 Note = Equipment with very long delivery (turbo generators,

large compressor motors often with VSD’s, etc.) or of a complex
type (ECS) are purchased by the Operator (LLI = Long Lead Items).
 A LLI handover to the selected contractor is made when placing

the contract with him. The contractor has to make an
endorsement (generally 3 months after the PO).
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Scope of work includes
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c) Installation works (erection of all the electrical equipment –

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cable laying – connections – lighting – earthing – heat tracing)
d) Pre‐commissioning tests
Tests with de‐energised facilities (static tests)
e) Commissioning tests (optional – depends on contract)

Tests with all the facilities energised (dynamic tests)
f) As built drawings (updating after installation)
g) Contractor final dossier
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Detailed engineering
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The list of drawings to be issued by the contractor must be defined in the

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contract: which documents the contractor will receive from the client? (Level
of details)
 Typical list of documents to be issued by the contractor:

• Earthling drawings.
• Lighting drawings.
• Heat tracing drawings.
• Cable routing drawing (trenches and cable trays).
• Cable schedules.
• Connection & interconnection drawings.
• TYPICAL INSTALLATION DRAWINGS for POWER‐LIGHTING‐EARTHING (if
not defined / imposed by the client).
• Specification of bulk materials (lighting fittings, plugs & sockets, junction
boxes, remote control unit, connecting accessories, cable glands, labels,
etc.).
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 TYPICAL LIST of documents to be given to the CONTRACTOR:

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• General plant lay out.

• Hazardous area classification drawings.
• Buildings lay out.
• Electrical consumers location.
• Piping racks drawings.
• Main cable routings drawings (issued at basic engineering).
• Main equipment specifications.
• Approved vendor list.
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Supply of electrical equipment and materials
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A list of client supplied items (free issue) and contractor supplied

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items must be issued before the contract is awarded.

 Typical list
• Client supplied items
Generally long lead items (LLI) such as turbo generators, HV
switchboards, power distribution control system (PDCS) – large
motors with compressors – emergency diesel generator.
• Contractor supplied items
− What is the contractor scope?
− List of equipment and bulk materials to be supplied – Which
specifications?
− Limits of supply with other disciplines:
e.g. = Concrete supports for lighting columns by who?
Civil engineering or electrical contractor?
Lifting / cranage of transformers by who?
− Sometimes a sketch is clearer than a long speech!
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 Installation of transfo, HV, LV switchboards, DC‐AC/UPS, lighting/distribution

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panels (cranage by who?).

 Cabling
• Cable trays installation.
• Cable laying on cable trays or in trenches.
(trenches by the civil. Eng. Contractor in general).
(Cable laying requires at the same time a large mobilization of electricians
(non skilled or helpers).
• Connection of cables on equipment:
− HV connections by high skilled electricians.
− LV connections by “normally” qualified electricians.
 Lighting
• Fixing / installation of luminaries and plugs & sockets.
• Installation of secondary lighting panels – junction boxes.
• Cabling and connections.
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Electrical installation works
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 Earthling
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• Earth loops buried into the ground.

• Connections of all metallic parts of electrical and non electrical equipment
to the earth via earthling cables.
 Telecom equipment
Installation, cabling and connections.
 Optional works
 Temporary lighting/heating or air conditioning of buildings during
construction.
 Temporary power supply of the site for all the other contractors facilities and
temporary offices.
 End of all works: mechanical completion.
 Verification against drawings / specifications.
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 Insulation resistance of cables (including motors).

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 Cable continuity checks.
 Insulation resistance of transfo, switchboards, etc.
 Earthling of all electrical equipment (visual) – earth loops

resistance measurements.
Ready to be energized!
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Commissioning tests
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 Generally excluded of contractor scope and carried out by the

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future operator/client.
• Direction of motor rotation.

• Operational/functional sequences (alarms‐trips‐automatisms...).
• Manufacturer (vendor) assistance for starting / energizing large
motors, turbo generator, diesel generator, HV switchboards...).
• Energization of all the ELEC equipment: transformers, motors, dc ‐
ac/ups, lighting...
• Test sheets to be fulfilled and signed by client.
Ready for start‐up!
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As built drawings
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 Generally a subject of discussion to get them!

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 Supply of as built is indispensable when the operator begins to

operate the plant (trouble shooting).
 Nb: drawings are now issued by a cad system, as built may be

issued under a CD ROM.
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Contractor final dossier
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Includes
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 All the as built drawings
 Operation / maintenance manuals obtained from equipment

manufacturers
 Spare parts list (generally for 2 years operation)
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Works progress
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 Site installation
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• The contractor must define his needs (storage area, temporary

offices, power supply, water supply etc.)
 Contractor installation
• Personnel: corporate staff, temporary staff, local staff.
• Tools – consumables...
 Daily / weekly / monthly progress

• The «s» curve
• Ponderation method to be defined at the very beginning of works
(in 1/10 000 for example)
x
• A motor connection = 10.000 y
• A lighting column installation = 10.000
z
• 1 meter of cable type installed = etc.
10.000
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Works progress
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 Coordination meetings on site

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Between contractor and client:

• Weekly basis
• Coordination with other disciplines
• Technical issues
• Manufacturer assistance = when?
• Delays due to contractor, due to client
• Limits of supply with others (normally already defined but...)
• Technical modifications:
• To be submitted for client approval if a change order is to be issued by the
contractor
 Appraisal of the quality of works
• By the client supervisors.
• By a third party inspection at the end of construction/beginning of
commissioning) – mandatory in France by the law (bureau VERITAS – DNV
– APAVE, etc.).
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Schedule of works
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 When to start electrical works?

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• Neither too early, nor too late.

• Starting when piping is at 60% progress.
• Kick of meeting to be planned.
 Duration of works
• Detailed schedule of works to be submitted to client (bar chart) for
review – split by areas – key dates indicated (buildings available, ...)
• Liaison with general progress.
• Schedule to be updated frequently.
• Histograms (NB: of men per week) to be issued.
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Schedule of works
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 Delays
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• Due to client (supply of LLI items).

• Due to contractor (staff...).
• Due to another contractor (civil engineering, piping not ready...).
• Make a distinction between critical and non critical works.
• Solution: increase of staffing, mechanical means, extra hours, night
shift...).
 Act of god or extreme weather conditions

• Difficulties to dig trenches when the ground is frozen.
• No cable laying (uncoil) must be carried out below (‐5/‐10°C) risk of
cable sheath cracks.
• Public utility strike → no electricity!
• Extreme conditions: wind – snow – earthquake – flood…
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Claims between contractor and client
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A claim is often the result of a «failure» in the contract (technical or

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commercial) that one party will try to use for his benefit.
→ Generally the contractor tries to ask for a change‐order.
 Example
• The contractor has received DWG/SPEC with a revision number which is
different from the one in the bid documents.
• The contractor has received DWG which were not yet A.F.C. (approved for
construction).
• A contradiction has been found between 2 documents given by the client.
• Discussion for the actual progress (if terms of payment are linked to
progress) – the contractor has a trend to overestimate the progress!
• Additional works for which no prices have been included in the contract.
• Quality of materials not in accordance with the specification.
Be careful to the word «equivalent»!!!
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Claims between contractor and client
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 Damages due to other contractors:

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• Earthling loops damaged by a civil engineering scrapper.

• Lighting columns damaged by trucks.
• Luminaries broken by piping people.
• Cables cut, damaged.
• Cable trays used as walking.
• Cable stolen!
• Fire due to welding.
• Etc.
Temporary warehousing (protection)

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Revamping works
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 Modifications – Adjunctions – Removal of equipment.

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• Increased difficulties when plant is still in production.

• Requires a very detailed schedule (sometimes by elementary tasks).
• Survey by the contractor before a tender is submitted.
• Works sometimes in hazardous area (work permit: cold / hot).
• Works sometimes with equipment still energized (at LV):
precautions – procedures – special tools – high skilled electricians
(regulations in France).
• Frequent personnel standby for many reasons.
• Numerous hazards.
 The type of contract must incorporate all these aspects.
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Prefabrication
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 Technical buildings may be prefabricated onshore at a

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contractor/manufacturer workshop (road gauge to be met) instead of

traditional civil engineering works.
 They may include:
• Electrical room
• Control room
• Battery room
• Auxiliary rooms (office, limited accommodation, HVAC room, air lock)
• Transformer bay (outdoor)
 This type of construction is more and more used, so as to limit works on site.
Better quality is obtained (fabrication in a workshop).
 Hostile environment requires this type of construction.
 Process / utilities functional units constructed by package – skids.
E.g.: TURBO GENERATORS, AIR INSTRUMENT COMPRESSORS, CHLORINATION
UNIT, GLYCOL UNIT, etc.). As for offshore construction.
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Small power sources
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 Solar array: 100Wc gives 8Wh over a year! 120Wc requires 1m².
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 TEG (thermo electric generator): power limited to 100‐200W

(flame system) expensive, one manufacturer in the world (gas
fuel).
 CCVT: mini set (turbine + generator + boiler with special fluid)

enclosed into one hermetic cylinder with no maintenance for life
except cleaning of the burner – very reliable – limited to 4 kW
(2t). Only one manufacturer in the world.
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13. ELECTRICAL SAFETY
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DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY
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Type of Dangers
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 In regulations danger is defined as risk of injury.

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 The risks inherent with electric power can generally be divided

into two categories: direct and indirect.
 The direct danger is the damage that the power itself can do to
the human body, such as stoppage of breathing or disturbances
to regular heartbeats, or burns.
 The indirect dangers of electricity include the damages that can

result to the human body as a result of something caused by
electric shock, such as a fall, an explosion, or a fire.
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Direct dangers
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 Dangers of Electricity for human body include a variety of

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hazards:
• Electric shock
• Neurological damage
• Electric burn
• Electric arc flash
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Electric shock? Electrocution?
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 Electricity at any voltage can be dangerous and should always be

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approached with caution.
 An electric shock can occur upon contact of a human or animal

body with any source of voltage high enough to cause sufficient
current flow through the muscles or nerves.
 The current may cause tissue damage or heart fibrillation if it is

sufficiently high.
 A fatal electric shock is referred to as electrocution.
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Origin of danger
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CURRENT or VOLTAGE?
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WHICH ONE IS THE MOST DANGEROUS?
Assistance for making a decision!
Think about birds sitting on high voltage
overhead lines (e.g. 220 000V)
Why they are not electrocuted???
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Shocked or not?
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 Electricity requires a complete path (circuit) to continuously flow.

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This is why the shock received from static electricity (when

getting out of a car or walking across a man‐made carpet) is only
a momentary jolt: the flow of electrons is very brief when static
charges are equalized between two objects even if initial voltage
can reach 10 000 V, there is no dangerous effect on a person.
 Without two contact points on the body for current to enter and
exit, respectively, there is no hazard of shock.
 This is why birds can safely
rest on high‐voltage power
lines without getting shocked:
they make contact with the
circuit at only one point.
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Shocked or not?
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 The presence of an
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intentional “grounding” point

in an electric circuit is
intended to ensure that at
least one side of it is safe to
come in contact with.
 Note that if the victim were

to touch the bottom side of
the resistor, nothing would
happen even though their
feet would still be contacting
ground.
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Shocked or not?
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 Circuit with no ground!!

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 Despite the fact that the person's

feet are still contacting ground, any
single point in the circuit should be
safe to touch. Since there is no
complete path (circuit) formed
through the person's body from the
bottom side of the voltage source
to the top, there is no way for a
current to be established through
the person. However, this could all
change with an accidental ground,
such as a tree branch touching a
power line and providing
connection to earth ground.
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Shocked or not?
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 Such an accidental connection

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between a power system conductor

and the earth (ground) is called a
ground fault. Ground faults may be
caused by many things, including
dirt build‐up on power line
insulators (creating a dirty‐water
path for current from the conductor
to the pole, and to the ground,
when it rains), ground water
infiltration in buried power line
conductors, and birds landing on
power lines, bridging the line to the
pole with their wings. Given the
many causes of ground faults, they
tend to be unpredictable.
 In the case of trees, no one can
guarantee which wire their
branches might touch.
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Shocked or not?
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 If a tree were to brush up

against the top wire in the
circuit, it would make the top
wire safe to touch and the
bottom one dangerous – just
the opposite of the previous
scenario where the tree
contacts the bottom wire.
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Shocked or not?
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 With each person standing on the

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ground, contacting different points

in the circuit, a path for shock
current is made through one
person, through the earth, and
through the other person. Even
though each person thinks they're
safe in only touching a single point
in the circuit, their combined
actions create a deadly scenario. In
effect, one person acts as the
ground fault which makes it unsafe
for the other person. This is exactly
why ungrounded power systems
are dangerous: the voltage between
any point in the circuit and ground
(earth) is unpredictable.
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Electrocuted Flying‐fox!
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Role of shoes!
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 Why shoes are not protecting persons by preventing a circuit

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from forming?
Rubber‐soled shoes do indeed provide some electrical insulation
to help protect someone from conducting shock current through
their feet. However, most common shoe designs are not intended
to be electrically “safe”, their soles being too thin and not of the
right substance. Also, any moisture, dirt, or conductive salts from
body sweat on the surface of or permeated through the soles of
shoes will compromise what little insulating value the shoe had to
begin with.
 There are shoes specifically made for dangerous electrical work,
as well as thick rubber mats made to stand on while working on
live circuits, but these special pieces of gear must be in absolutely
clean, dry condition in order to be effective.
 Normal footwear is not enough to guarantee protection against
electric shock from a power system.
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Role of shoes!
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 Hand or foot contact, insulated with rubber: 20 MΩ typical.

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 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (dry): 100 kΩ to 500 kΩ.
 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (wet): 5 kΩ to 20 Kω.
 Presence of water in a porous substance such as leather greatly

reduces electrical resistance.
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Conductivity of earth
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 Earth is not a very good conductor (at least not when it’s dry!). It
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is too poor of a conductor to support continuous current for

powering a load. However, as we will see in the next section, it
takes very little current to injure or kill a human being, so even
the poor conductivity of dirt is enough to provide a path for
deadly current when there is sufficient voltage available, as there
usually is in power systems.
 Some ground surfaces are better insulators than others. Asphalt,

for instance, being oil‐based, has a much greater resistance than
most forms of earth or rock. Concrete, on the other hand, tends
to have fairly low resistance due to its intrinsic water and
electrolyte (conductive chemical) content.
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Summary
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 Electric shock can only occur when contact is made between two points of a
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circuit; when voltage is applied across a victim's body.
 Power circuits usually have a designated point that is “grounded/earthed”

firmly connected to metal rods or plates buried in the soil to ensure that one
side of the circuit is always at ground potential (zero voltage between that
point and earth ground).
 A ground fault is an accidental connection between a circuit conductor and the

earth (ground).
 Special, insulated shoes and mats are made to protect persons from shock via
ground conduction, but even these pieces of gear must be in clean, dry
condition to be effective. Normal footwear is not good enough to provide
protection from shock by insulating its wearer from the earth.
 Though soil is a poor conductor, it can conduct enough current to injure or kill
a human being.
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Risk equation!
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 It is current which is dangerous and not directly voltage

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as people think (eg: birds on overhead lines!)
 Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body with any

source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the
body
 Current which passes through body is as per (Ohm’s law)

Uc Touch voltage
Ic 
R Body resistance
 Typically, the expression “electric shock” is used to denote an
unwanted exposure to electricity, hence the effects are
considered undesirable.
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Direct danger
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Electric shock
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 When a shock is received, the electric current may take multiple

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paths through the body and its intensity is difficult or impossible

to predict.
 The passage of electric current may cause:

• muscular contractions
• respiratory failure
• fibrillation of the heart
• cardiac arrest
• injury from internal burns
Any of these can be fatal!
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Severity and effects of an electrical shock
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 Severity and effects of an electrical shock depends on:

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• Current magnitude (through the body)

• Human body impedance
• Length of time of the exposure
 Human body impedance is the sum (vectors) of the skin impedance at the
contact points (Zp1 & Zp2) + the internal body impedance Zi
• Zi is approximatively constant for an individual
• Skin impedance depends on:
− Skin temperature
− Skin thickness
− Skin area and pressure of the contact
− Type of clothes (dry, wet), shoes
− Touch voltage (high voltages trend to perforate thickness of skin)
− Skin humidity (perspiration)
− Current pathway in the body
− Morphology, etc.
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Human body impedance
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Human body resistance
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Human body resistance
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 Human body resistance may vary from 100 000 ohm to 1000
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ohm!
 HV energy quickly breaks down skin reducing the human body’s
resistance to 500 ohm or less (internal body resistance Zi).
 The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) gives the
following values for the total body impedance of a hand to hand
circuit for dry skin, large contact areas, 50 Hz AC currents (the
columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the
population percentile; for example at 100 V 50% of the
population had an impedance of 1875Ω or less).
Voltage 5% 50% 95%
25 V 1,750 Ω 3,250 Ω 6,100 Ω
100 V 1,200 Ω 1,875 Ω 3,200 Ω
220 V 1,000 Ω 1,350 Ω 2,125 Ω
1000 V 700 Ω 1,050 Ω 1,500 Ω
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Maximum touch voltage
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 Minimum considered values are as follows:

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• 2000 ohm in a dry location

• 1000 ohm in a wet/conductive location
• 500 ohm immersed
Statistics show that current below 25 mA has never led to death
 Pratically protection measures do not refer to current (which cannot be
measured) but to voltage applied to both parties of body which is called the
touch voltage
 So maximum touch voltages which can be applied to human body are:
• 2000 ohm x 0.025 A = 50V (Dry location)
• 1000 ohm x 0.025 A = 25V (Wet location)
• 500 ohm x 0.025 A = 12V (Immersed)
A voltage as low as 50 volts applied between two parts of the human body
can cause a current to flow that can block the electrical signals between
the brain and the muscles!!
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Safety curves (duration vs voltage)
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Safety curve lor AC
Protective device maximum tripping time (t) versus touch voltage Uc
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Zones time/current of effects of AC current on human body
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 AC‐1 zone: Imperceptible

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A curve: Threshold of perception of current

 AC‐2 zone: Perceptible
B curve: Threshold of muscular reactions
 AC‐3 zone: Reversible effects: muscular
contraction
C1 curve: Threshold of 0% probability of
ventricular fibrillation
 AC‐4 zone: Possibility of irreversible effects
AC‐4‐1 zone: Up to 5% probability of heart
fibrillation
AC‐4‐2 zone: Up to 50% probability of heart
fibrillation
AC‐4‐3 zone: More than 50% probability of
heart fibrillation
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Current effects on human body
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AC‐50/60Hz DC AC 10kHZ EFFECTS COMMENTS

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0.04 mA Detection minimum level Detection with tongue
1 mA (man) 5 mA 12 mA Threshold of perception Mild sensation

0.7 mA (woman) 3.5 mA 8 mA
1 to 9 mA Painful shock; individual can let go at “let go range’’

will since muscular control is
maintained
10 mA ‐ 5 mn 65 mA 55 mA Victim cannot let go at will (control of Releasing grip may be

adjacent muscles lost)
100 mA ‐ 0.1 s difficult/impossible
25 mA ‐ 1 s 90 mA 95 mA Severe pain, difficulty breathing; Tetanus phenomena

muscular contraction
100 mA ‐ 0.2 s (respiratory paralysis)
75 mA ‐ 1 s Ventricular fibrillation Heart can no longer

500 mA ‐ 0; 1 s pump blood correctly
2000 mA Severe burns, cardiac arrest Tissue and organ burn
destruction of nervous centers
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Effects of High frequency currents
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Applications of HF currents
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 Aeronautics  400Hz
 Electric welding  100 to 450Hz
 Electrotherapy  a few kHz
 Power supply (telecommunications)  20kHz to 1GHz
Skin impedance is inversely proportional to frequency
At 500 Hz skin impedance is about 1/10 the one at 50 Hz
 For frequencies from 10 kHz to 100 kHz the threshold of
perception rises from 10 mA to 100 mA.
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Effect of Direct Currents
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 Threshold perception is about 2mA (instead of 0.5 mA with AC).

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 Ventricular fibrillation = 130 mA.
 The period the most dangerous is when contact is made or

removed.
 DC is most likely to cause a single convulsive contraction, which

often forces the victim away from the current's source.
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Body organs affected by electric current
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 Current through body is determined by body impedance and touch voltage

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 As far human body is concerned for electrical shock the following organs are
concerned
• Motor muscles controlled by the brain (muscles of members)
• Auto‐reflex muscles which operate automatically (rib cage, and heart)
 Motor muscles
• They ensure body movements.
• Brain does not any longer control muscles crossed by an electrical current,
which induces violent reactions (eg: the hand grasps the live conductor
without possible “let go”).
 Rib cage muscles
• Rib cage operates automatically under the control of brain (cerebellum)
which control numerous muscles involved in the breathing function.
• Asphyxia can be due to electrical current action at the level of:
− Rib cage muscles inducing tetanus
− Cerebellum inducing breath arrest
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Body organs affected by current
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Cardiac muscle
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 Heart has its own automatic control system.

 During the cardiac cycle which lasts about 0.75 s, there is a critical phase
(called T) covering about 30% of the cycle. During this phase heart is
vulnerable.
 Heart muscle is basically excitable by an electrical current. If a current goes
through the heart at the end of the systole stage during sufficient time then
there are uncoordinated contractions of the cardiac muscle of the ventricles in
the heart.
 A fibrillating heart flutters rather than beats, and is ineffective at pumping
blood to vital organs in the body. The condition results in cardiogenic shock,
cessation of effective blood circulation, and cardiac death will occur very
quickly.
 It is necessary to perform artificial respiration to try to get the person
breathing again; or if the heart is not beating, cardio pulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) is necessary
 Ironically, medical personnel use a strong jolt of electric current applied across
the chest of a victim to “jump start” a fibrillating heart into a normal beating
pattern.
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Cardiac cycle
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First Aid
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 Sometimes victims of electrical shock suffer cardiac arrest or heart stoppage as

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well as loss of breathing. Artificial ventilation alone is not enough in cases

where the heart has stopped. A technique known as CPR has been developed
to provide aid to a person who has stopped breathing and suffered a cardiac
arrest.
 For people working with electricity, the risk of electrical shock is higher than in
other occupations.
 You should, at the earliest opportunity, take a course to learn the latest
techniques used in CPR. The techniques are relatively easy to learn and are
taught in courses available through the Red Cross, Civil protection, firemen,
etc.
 Note: A heart that is in fibrillation cannot be restricted by closedchest cardiac
massage. A special device called a defibrillator is available in some medical
facilities and ambulance services.
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Defibrillator
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 AC's alternating nature has a greater tendency to throw the

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heart's pacemaker neurons into a condition of fibrillation,

whereas DC tends to just make the heart stand still. Once the
shock current is halted, a “frozen” heart has a better chance of
regaining a normal beat pattern than a fibrillating heart.
 This is why “defibrillating” equipment used by emergency medics

works: the jolt of current supplied by the defibrillator unit is DC,
which halts fibrillation and gives the heart a chance to recover.
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Summary of electric current effects
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 Electric current passing through body parts:

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• Skin………………………….Burns
• Motor muscles…………Releasing grip impossible
• Breathing muscles …..Respiratory paralysis
• Heart………………………Heart fibrillation
• Brain………………Destruction of nervous centers
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Indirect dangers
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Electric fires are due to:

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 Overheating of cables and electrical equipment due to

overloading of conductors.
 Leakage currents due to poor or inadequate insulation.
 Overheating of flammable materials placed too close to electrical
equipment which is otherwise operating normally.
 Ignition of flammable materials by arcing or sparking of electrical
equipment, including the scattering of hot particles from
electrical equipment. Welding activities are also prone to ignition.
 INJURIES associated with fire are usually burns but may include
smoke inhalation.
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Indirect dangers
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Electrical explosions include

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 The violent and catastrophic rupture of any electrical equipment mainly

switchgear, more rarely motors, transformers,power cables,when they are
subjected to excessive currents. This release s violent electromagnetic forces
and dissipation of heat energy or if they suffer prolonged internal arcing
faults.
Note: This explains for example the reason why power cables are always firmly
secured with cable straps on cable tray routing (to avoid the whip effect which
can be very dangerous for people).
 Explosions whose source of ignition is electrical include ignition of flammable
vapours, gases, liquids, and dusts by electric sparks or the high surface
temperature of electrical equipment.
 A single low voltage torch battery can generate a spark powerful enough to
cause a fire or explosion in an explosive atmosphere!
Note: Static electricity can cause a fire or explosion where there is an explosive
atmosphere (such as in a paint spray booth).
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Indirect dangers
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 People who receive an electric shock often get painful muscle

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spasms that can be strong enough to break bones or dislocate

joints. This loss of muscle control often means the person cannot
“let go” or escape the electric shock.
 The person may fall if they are working at height or be thrown

into nearby machinery and structures.
 Numerous falls due to electric shock are recorded.
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Indirect dangers
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Loss of electrical power can result in extremely hazardous situations:

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 Flammable or toxic vapours may be released as a chemical

warms.
 Ventilation systems can no longer ensure its function jeopardizing

safety of personnel.
 Sudden absence of lighting.
 Many electric consumers require a permanent power supply (fire

and gas system, telecommunication system, etc.)
 An economic risk due to production loss (some process are
lengthy and costly to restart).
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ELECTRICAL Faults
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ELECTRICAL FAULTS
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• Risk of overcurrent
• Risk of fault current (insulation failure)
• Risk of overvoltage
• Risk of voltage drops and loss of power
• Risk of E.M. disturbances (EMC)
• Risk of degradation and ageing
• Risk of corrosion
• Risk of fire
• Risk of explosion
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Overcurrent
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 Overcurrent:
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• Current exceeding the rated current carrying capacity of the conductor

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(cable but also machine winding, switchboard busbar, terminals, etc.)

• Consequences: excess heat can damage insulation with possible injury,
equipment damage / destruction, and fire.
Overcurrents are divided into 2 categories:
1. Overload: overcurrent confined to the normal path due to:
• excessive connected loads
• stalled motor
• overloaded motor (e.g. pump absorbing more power)
• Yet most conductors can carry a moderate overload for a short duration
without damage
• Transient moderate overloads are part of normal operation (motor
starting, transformer energization, etc.)
• Overcurrent protection must be selected that will carry these currents. Yet
if the overload persists for too long the circuit must be tripped (circuit
breaker…)
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Short circuit
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2. Short circuit: any current not confined to the normal path (such a
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current bypass the normal load i.e. finds a “short” path around the
load)
• Short circuits are caused by:
− accidental contact
− worn insulation
ex: – 2 or more conductors accidently touching
− someone touching or dropping tools across energized conductors
− accidental connection between energized conductors and earth
 Overcurrent protective devices

• Fuses
• Circuit breakers
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Short circuit at terminals
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Fuse
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 Fuse:
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• Intentional weak link in a circuit, thermally responsive device: the

fuse element will melt and open (fuse blown)
• Classified into:
− fast acting or time delay
− current limiting or not
• Fast acting = designed to respond quickly
• Time delay = designed to carry an overload during a pre‐determined
amount of time
• A fuse is designed to safely open the circuit only once
• Fuses are fail safe, Unlike mechanical devices nothing can happen
to a fuse that will prevent from opening or increase opening time
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Circuit breaker
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 Circuit breaker:
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• Apparatus designed to sense abnormal overloads and short circuit currents and
open the circuit before catastrophic events occur
• Must be able to discern the difference between normal current variations (no
danger) and dangerous overloads and short circuits
• Not all the devices are designed to protect against both overloads and short
circuits; e.g. basic motor starter provides only only overload protection, some
circuit breakers provide only short circuit protection
 Technology:
• Utilizes a mechanical latching spring assisted switching and a thermal, thermal‐
magnetic, or electronic trip sensors that causes the switching mechanism to
unlatch and open the circuit.
• Common MCCB usually have thermal‐magnetic trip unit (including 2 sensing circuit
in series with a spring assisted latching switch)
• The first sensing circuit uses a thermal sensing element that reacts to overload
• The second sensing element is a magnetic coil that reacts to short circuit
• Either the thermal or the magnetic sensing circuit can cause the mechanically
latched switching circuit to open the circuit
• This provides time‐current characteristics as required
• Unlike fuses Circuit breakers require annual maintenance
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 Overcurrent protective devices must be selected carefully (interrupting rating/

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capacity = IR, and opening times)

 IR = hight rms (root mean square) AC at which the protective device has been
designed and tested
 Current limiting fuses have IR = 300 kA
 LV Moulded circuit breaker (MCCB) = 10kA
 RULE: The IR of the protective device must be always higher than the
maximum fault current of the electrical system (this value is calculated at the
design engineering stage, using the one line diagram and electrical equipment
data)
 If this condition is not met, then the protective device may be subject to an
explosion!
 It must be also remembered that if the electrical facilities grow (plant
expansion) short circuit currents increase leading to review the interrupting
capacity of all the overcurrent protective devices.
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Reasons for electrical accidents?
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 The most common cause of arc flash and other electrical accidents is
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carelessness!!
 Distractions, weariness, pressure to restore power or overconfidence can

cause an electrical worker to bypass safety procedures, work unprotected,
drop a tool or make contact between energized conductors
 Exposure to electric shock and arc flash can also be caused by:
• worn or broken conductor insulation
• exposed live parts
• loose wire connections
• improperly maintained disconnecting devices
• water or liquid near electrical equipment
• damaged tools and equipment
• static electricity
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PROTECTION AGAINST ELECTRIC SHOCKS
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Protection against electric shock
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 The fundamental rule of protection against electric shock is provided by the

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document IEC 61140 which covers both electrical installations and electrical
equipment.
 Hazardous‐live‐parts shall not be accessible and accessible conductive parts
shall not be hazardous.
 This requirement needs to apply under:
• normal conditions, and
• under a single fault condition
 Various measures are adopted to protect against this hazard, and include:
• Automatic disconnection of the power supply to the connected electrical
equipment
• Special arrangements such as:
− The use of class II insulation materials, or an equivalent level of insulation
− Non‐conducting location, out of arm’s reach or interposition of barriers
− Equipotential bonding
− Electrical separation by means of isolating transformers
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Direct contact
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 A direct contact refers to a person coming into contact with a

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conductor which is live in normal circumstances.
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Direct contact with live conductors
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Indirect contact
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 An indirect contact refers to a person coming into contact with an

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exposed‐conductive‐part which is not normally alive, but has

become alive accidentally (due to insulation failure or some other
cause).
 The fault current raises the exposed‐conductive‐part to a voltage

liable to be hazardous.
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Indirect contacts with exposed conductive parts made alive
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Protection against direct contact ‐ 1
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1) Protection by the insulation of live parts

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 Inherent protection against direct contact by insulation of a 3‐

phase cable with outer sheat.
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2) Protection by means of barriers or enclosures

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 This measure is in widespread use, since many components and

materials are installed in cabinets, assemblies, control panels and
distribution boards.
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3) Protection by means of obstacles (screen, mesh) to prevent access

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to live conductors (e.g.: transformer bay).

4) By placing out of arm’s reach (reserved only to locations to which
skilled or instructed persons only have access) – minimum
distance must be 2,5 m more if metallic objects are handled
(ladders…). In principle, safety by placing simultaneously‐
accessible conductive parts out‐of‐reach, or by interposing
obstacles, requires also a non‐conducting floor, and so is not an
easily applied principle (dry location).
*Protection against overhead lines contact is ensured by a sufficient distance depending
on voltage line.
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5) Use of Safety Extra‐Low Voltage SELV (50V‐25V‐12V)

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6) Limitation of the energy of discharge; used only in low‐power

circuits, and in particular circumstances.
e.g.: Electrotherapy tools, electric fences, etc.
7) Use of residual current operating device, (associated with a circuit

breaker or a switch) which operate at 30 mA or less, and is
referred to as RCDs of high sensitivity (for details see TT system)
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Limits of protection against direct contact
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 All the preceding protective measures are preventive, but

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experience has shown that for various reasons they cannot be

regarded as being infallible. Among these reasons may be cited:
• Lack of proper maintenance
• Imprudence, carelessness
• Normal (or abnormal) wear and tear of insulation; for instance
flexure and abrasion of connecting leads
• Accidental contact
• Immersion in water, etc. A situation in which insulation is no longer
effective
• Many other aggressions may occur: excessive temperature due to
climate, poor ventilation of equipment, conductive dust, too many
cables in a duct, lightning overvoltages, etc.
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Protection against indirect contact
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 Touching a normally dead part of an electrical equipment (eg:

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motor frame, transformer enclosure, etc.) which has become live

due to the failure of its insulation, is referred to as an indirect
contact.
 Exposed‐conductive‐parts of an electrical equipment are

separated from the live parts of the equipment by the “basic
insulation”. Failure of the basic insulation will result in the
exposed‐conductive‐parts being alive.
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Measures of protection again indirect contact
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 1st level: Earthing of all exposed‐conductive‐parts of electrical

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equipment in the installation and the constitution of an

equipotential bonding network.
 2nd level: Automatic disconnection of the supply of the section of

the installation concerned, in such a way that the touch‐voltage /
time safety requirements are respected for any level of touch
voltage Uc. This automatic disconnection is related to the
earthing system of the installation.
 Touch voltage Uc is the voltage existing (as the result of insulation

failure) between an exposed‐conductive‐part and any conductive
element within reach which is at a different potential (generally
earth).
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Touch voltage
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 The greater the value of Uc, the greater the rapidity of supply
disconnection required to provide protection. The highest value
of Uc that can be tolerated indefinitely without danger to human
beings is 50 V AC. (dry location) or 25 V (wet location).
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Earthing of exposed conductive parts
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 Remember:
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• Touching an exposed conductive part made alive (motor

frame, …) is equivalent to a direct contact!!
• Current seeks the path of least resistance whether it’s a
conductor, the earth or a human body.
• This is why when an exposed conductive is earthed and
became alive, the fault current is split into 2 parts:
− one part through the human body (hundreds or thousands ohms)
− one part through the earthing conductor (a few ohms)
The current in each part being inversely proportional to the

resistance, to limit the current through the human body the
earthing resistance must be as low as possible.
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Equipotential network
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P Equipotential network for an onshore installation
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Diagram
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The equipotential earth bonding system shall comprise internal loops and a general earth grid, connected at least in two
opposite points. These two links shall have the same cross‐sectional area as that of the cable to which they are
connected. The minimum equivalent cross‐sectional area of these links shall be 70 mm² Cu.
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Protection by automatic disconnection
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 There are several ways of ensuring protection of persons by

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automatic disconnection.
 They are referred as (Power) System Earthing
 The International standard IEC 60364 has recognized 3 System

Earthings depending the way the neutral of the electrical system
is earthed:
• Neutral SOLIDLY EARTHED = TT
• Exposed conductive parts connected to neural = TN
• Isolated or impedance – earthed neutral = IT
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Designation principle
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 Identification by 2 letters
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• First letter for transfo neutral connection

− T for connected to earth
− I for isolated from earth
• Second letter for frame connection
− T for directly connected to earth
− N for connected to the neutral at the origin of the installation itself
connected to earth
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System Earthing aim fundamental
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 Inshort depending on the way the neutral point of the secondary

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of the HV/LV transformer (or generator) is connected to earth

(directly, by impedance, etc.) in case of an earth fault occurs (due
to an insulation failure), the disconnection of the faulty part is
carried in different manners requiring either an immediate
tripping or not. The associated equipment being different in each
case as well as the continuity of service offered.
 The aim is to limit, in all the cases, the voltage of the exposed
conductive parts to a value below dangerous the safety voltage.
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System Earthings
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 The 3 System Earthings (TT‐TN‐IT) are identical as regards of

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protection of persons and property (indirect contact).
 But they are not identical as regards of dependability with respect

to maintenance & power availability.
 Each system earthing has its own advantages and drawbacks and
User must select the “best” System Earthing for his plant unless a
regulation imposes it.
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TT system
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In this system all exposed
conductive‐parts and
extraneous‐conductive‐parts
of the installation must be
connected to a common
earth electrode
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 The resistance of the earth electrode of substation neutral Rn is

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10 Ω.
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 The resistance of the earth electrode of the installation RA is 20

Ω.
 The impedance of the earth‐fault loop is 10 + 20 = 30 ohms
 The earth‐fault loop current Id = 400/√3/10 + 20 = 7.7A.
 The fault voltage (touch voltage) Uf = Id x RA = 154 V and
therefore dangerous!
 The part of the installation affected by the fault must therefore
be automatically disconnected.
 As the fault current (7,7 A) is far lower than the settings of the
overcurrent protection device, the use of a residual current
operated device (RCD) is essential.
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Residual current device (RCD) principle and operation
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 A magnetic core encompasses all the current‐carrying

conductors of an electric circuit and the magnetic flux
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generated in the core will depend at every instant on the

arithmetical sum of the currents; the currents passing in
one direction being considered as positive (Ι1), while those
passing in the opposite direction will be negative (Ι2).
 In a normally healthy circuit Ι1 + Ι2 = 0 and there will be no
flux in the magnetic core, and zero e.m.f. in its coil.
 An earth‐fault current Ιd will pass through the core to the
fault, but will return to the source via the earth, or via
protective conductors in a TN‐earthed system.
 The current balance in the conductors passing through the
magnetic core therefore no longer exists, and the
difference gives rise to a magnetic flux in the core.
 The difference current is known as the “residual” current
and the principle is referred to as the “residual current”
principle.
 The resultant alternating flux in the core induces an e.m.f.
in its coil, so that a current I3 flows in the tripping‐device
operating coil. If the residual current exceeds the value
required to operate the tripping device either directly or via
an electronic relay, then the associated circuit‐breaker will
trip.
 Residual current devices (RCD) are commonly incorporated
in or associated with moulded‐case circuit‐breakers (MCCB)
and air circuit‐breakers (ACB) and miniature circuit‐
breakers (MCB)
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GFCI
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RCD sensitivity
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 Protection is ensured by automatic disconnection of the supply

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using a RCD of sensitivity:

50
I Δn 
RA
where RA is the resistance of the earth electrode for the
installation
IΔn is the rated residual operating current of the RCD.
 The choice of sensitivity of the residual current device is a

function of the resistance RA of the earth electrode for the
installation, and is given in the following table.
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Maximum resistance of the earth electrode
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IΔn UL (50 V) (25 V)

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3A 16 Ω 8Ω
1A 50 Ω 25 Ω
500 mA 100 Ω 50 Ω
300 mA 166 Ω 83 Ω
30 mA 1666 Ω 833 Ω
 Upper limit of resistance for an installation earthing electrode

not to be exceeded, for given sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL
voltage limits of 50 V (dry location) and 25 V (wet location).
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RCD maximum disconnecting time
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Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32A:

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Uo (1) (V) T (s)
50 < Uo ≤ 120 0.3
120 < Uo ≤ 230 0.2
230 < Uo ≤ 400 0.07
Uo > 400 0.04
(1) Uo is the nominal phase to earth voltage
For all other circuits, the maximum disconnecting time is fixed to 1s.
This limit enables discrimination between RCDs when installed on
distribution circuits.
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Special cases
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 High sensitivity RCDs (≤ 30 mA) must be used for protection of

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socket outlets with rated current ≤ 20 A in all locations. The use of

such RCDs is also recommended in the following cases:
• Socket‐outlet circuits in wet locations at all current ratings
• Socket‐outlet circuits in temporary installations
• Circuits supplying laundry rooms and swimming pools
• Supply circuits to work‐sites, caravans, pleasure boats, and
travelling fairs
• In high fire risk locations RCD protection at the circuit‐breaker

controlling all supplies to the area at risk is necessary in some
locations, and mandatory in many countries.
• The sensitivity of the RCD must be ≤ 500 mA, but a 300 mA
sensitivity is recommended.
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TT summary
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 All exposed‐conductive‐parts and extraneous‐conductive‐parts of

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the installation must be connected to a common earth electrode.
 Neutral point of the transformer is directly earthed.
 Automatic disconnection of the faulty part is by RCD (at least 1 at

the main incomer, better 1 per feeder for continuity of service).
 No overvoltage during fault.
 Simple system to operate.
 Switchgear: 4 poles (3ph+N).
 Cables (tri +N).
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TN system
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 All the exposed and extraneous‐conductive‐parts of the installation are

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connected directly to the earthed point of the power supply by protective

conductors.
 Calculations show that for 230/400 V networks the touch voltage is around
half the rated voltage of the network and therefore is dangerous.
 The fault current is high and automatic disconnection of the faulty circuit is
achieved by overcurrent protective devices (circuit breaker or fuses).
 If the protection is to be provided by a circuit‐breaker, it is sufficient to verify
that the fault current will always exceed the current‐setting level of the
instantaneous or short‐time delay tripping unit (Im).
 The instantaneous trip unit of a circuit‐breaker will eliminate a short‐circuit to
earth in less than 0.1 second.
 At the design stage, the maximum permitted lengths of cable downstream of a
protective circuit‐breaker (or set of fuses) must be calculated, while during the
installation work certain rules must be fully respected.
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TNC
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1. PE conductor must be regularly connected to

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earth as much as possible.

2. The PE conductor must not pass through ferro‐
magnetic conduit, ducts, etc. or be mounted on
steel work, since inductive and/or proximity
effects can increase the effective impedance of
the conductor.
3. In the case of a PEN conductor (a neutral
conductor which is also used as a protective
conductor), connection must be made directly to
the earth terminal of an appliance before being
looped to the neutral terminal of the same
appliance.
4. Where the conductor ≤ 6 mm² for copper or 10
mm² for aluminium, or where a cable is movable,
the neutral and protective conductors should be
separated (i.e. a TN‐S system should be adopted
within the installation).
5. Earth faults may be cleared by overcurrent‐
protection devices, i.e. by fuses and circuit‐
breakers
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 A PEN conductor must never be interrupted under any

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circumstances. Control and protective switchgear for the several

TN arrangements will be:
• 3‐pole when the circuit includes a PEN conductor,
• Preferably 4‐pole (3 phases + neutral) when the circuit includes a

neutral with a separate PE conductor.
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TN summary
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 Fault currents, being limited only by the impedance of fault loop

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cables, are high (several thousands of amps)!
 Not suitable for locations with a fire risk.
 The insulation fault looks like a phase/neutral short circuit, hence

the disconnection of the faulty feeder is achieved by the classic
overcurrent protection devices (fuses or Circuit breakers) less
expensive than RCD’s associated with a circuit breaker.
 Most of CB’s shall be 3 poles (TNC).
 TNS require use of RCD!
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IT system
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 In the event of a short‐circuit to earth fault, the system can continue to operate without
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interruption because the fault current is low. Such a fault is referred to as a “first fault”.
 In this system, all exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected via PE
conductors to an earth electrode at the installation, while the neutral point of the
supply transformer is:
• Either isolated from earth
• Or connected to earth through a high resistance (commonly 1,000 ohms or more)
 The current through an earth fault being low will not cause serious damage at the fault
position, or give rise to dangerous touch voltages, or present a fire hazard. The system
may therefore be allowed to operate normally until it is convenient to isolate the faulty
section for repair work.
 This enhances continuity of service.
 The second fault results in a short‐circuit through the earth and/or through PE bonding
conductors.
 In practice, the system earthing requires certain specific measures for its satisfactory
exploitation.
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IT system
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1 = Voltage limiter
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2 = neutral earthing resistance R

3 = permanent insulation monitor + audible / visual alarm
4 = 3 (or 4) poles circuit breakers
5 = fault location device (fixed/portable)
Magnitude of fault current = 400 / V3 / 1000 = 0.23A
Touch voltage (worst case) = 0.23 x 50 ohm = 11V! (this voltage is not dangerous
even in wet areas)
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Manual fault location (at first fault)
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Fixed automatic fault location
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Automatic monitoring logging and fault location
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IT Automatic trip at second fault
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 A second earth fault on an IT system (unless occurring on the

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same conductor as the first fault) constitutes a phase‐phase or

phase‐to‐neutral fault, and whether occurring on the same circuit
as the first fault, or on a different circuit, overcurrent protective
devices (fuses or circuit‐breakers) would normally operate an
automatic fault clearance.
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Risk of fire
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 Protection by a RCD of sensitivity ≤ 500 mA at the origin of the

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circuit supplying the fire‐risk locations is mandatory in some

countries.
 A preferred sensitivity of 300 mA may be adopted.
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Protection against indirect contacts without disconnection
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1) Use of class II equipment:

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 These appliances are also referred to as having “double

insulation” since in class II appliances a supplementary insulation
is added to the basic insulation.
 This arrangement avoids the need for any external metalwork of

the equipment to be connected to a protective conductor or to
earth.
 Suitable for portable hand‐tools, domestic appliances, etc.
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2) Separated or isolated circuits

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 The two conductors from the unearthed single‐phase secondary winding of a separation
transformer are insulated from earth.
 If a direct contact is made with one conductor, a very small current only will flow into
the person making contact, through the earth and back to the other conductor, via the
inherent capacitance of that conductor with respect to earth. Since the conductor
capacitance to earth is very small, the current is generally below the level of perception.
 Transformers are specially designed for this duty, with a high degree of insulation
between primary and secondary windings, or with equivalent protection, such as an
earthed metal screen between the windings. Construction of the transformer is to class
II insulation standards.
Note = “isolated” in this context means separate from all the other systems and does not imply
“isolation”
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3) Use of Protection extra low voltage (PELV)

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 The conception is similar to that of the SELV system, but the

secondary circuit is earthed at one point.
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14. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FOR
EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 10 A
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TYPES OF PROTECTION
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Ex
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 10 A 2
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Explosion protection methods
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1. General Principles
2. Regulations – Standards
3. Certification – Marking
4. Types of protection
5. Inspection, maintenance
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General Principles
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General principles
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 Fire triangle
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 Explosion hexagon
 Sources of ignition
 Auto‐ignition temperature
 Temperature classification
 Gas/apparatus grouping
 Degree of protection
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Fire triangle
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FUEL
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SOURCE OF IGNITION
OXYGEN (21% in air)
 The Fire Triangle represents the 3 elements which must be present before
combustion can take place.
 The removal of one element is sufficient to prevent combustion.

 Techniques used in explosion‐protected equipment are based on the
suppression of 1 element of the fire triangle, or allow the 3 elements to co‐
exist but with specific requirements.
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Explosion hexagon
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 Explosion is a very fast combustion which propagates.

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A pressure wave is generated due to hot gas expansion.

Ignition source
Confining Explosivity limits
Fuel Oxygen
Surroundings likely to propagate the
explosion
 To avoid an explosion, one element of the hexagon must be
removed.
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Sources of ignition
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 Electrical arcs / Sparks (switchgear opening, DC motor, short

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circuit…).
 Electrostatic discharges (pulley‐belt coupling…).
 Hot surfaces (motor frame, exhaust of combustion engines / gas

turbines).
 Naked flame (cigarettes, overhead line conductor…).
 Frictional sparks (grinding).
 Welding activities.
 Lightning strike.
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Auto ignition temperature
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 The auto ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at

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which a flammable material will spontaneously ignite.
 Careful selection of electrical equipment will ensure that the

surface temperature produced by the equipment, indicated by
the T‐rating, will not exceed the auto ignition temperature of the
flammable atmosphere which may be present around the
equipment. AUTO IGNITION
MATERIAL
TEMPERATURE (° C)
Methane 535
Propane 470
Butane 287
Ethylene 425
Hydrogen 560
Acetylene 305
Hydrogen sulphide 260
Diesel oil 330
Petrol 460
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Temperature classification (1/2)
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 The temperature class (T‐rating) is the maximum surface

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temperature that the electrical equipment may reach in the most

unfavourable conditions.
 Electrical equipment must be selected with due regard to the

auto ignition temperature of the flammable gas or vapour which
may be present in the hazardous location.
 The T‐rating of the electrical equipment shall be selected so as to

be lower than the auto ignition temperature of the flammable gas
or vapour surrounding the electrical equipment.
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Temperature classification (2/2)
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T-RATING TEMPERATURE (° C)
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T1 450
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T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85
 T‐ratings are based on a maximum ambient temperature of 40° C.
 For example, apparatus classified T5, based on 40° C will have a

maximum permitted temperature rise of 60° C
(T5 = 100° C; ΔT = 100‐40 = 60 ° C).
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Gas/apparatus group (1/3)
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 Gases have been divided into 3 groups (IIA, IIB, IIC) as per the IEC/CENELEC
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standards.
 This classification is used to define the Maximum Experimental Saf Gap (MESG)
for the protection method referred as "d", and the Minimal Ignition Current
(MIC) for the protection method referred as "i".
 GROUP IIA: methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane… decane propene

(propylene), styrene, benzene, toluene, turpentine, petroleum, dry cleaning
solvents, fuel oil, kerosene, gas oil, petrol for cars, methanol, phenol, acetone,
ammonia, chlorobenzen, H2S.
 GROUP IIB: ethylene, butadiene, cyclopropane, methyl ether…
 GROUP IIC: hydrogen, acetylene, carbon disulphide.
 GROUP I: corresponds to firedamp (coal mines).
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Apparatus for the determination of M.E.S.G.
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GAS/APPARATUS
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MESG (mm) MIC (mA) MIE (mJ)

GROUP
GROUP IIA 0,30 100 180 Note : 10 mJ = discharge from a wall to wall carpet.
GROUP IIB 0,20 65 60 1 J = spark plug.
GROUP IIC 0,15 30 20 10 J = fatal electrical shock.
GROUP I 1,14 300
MESG : minimum experimental safe gap

MIC : minimum ignition current
MIE : minimum ignition energy
 Note:
• An apparatus marked IIA cannot be installed in IIB or IIC hazards.
• Apparatus marked IIB or IIC can be installed in IIA hazards.
• Apparatus other than flameproof "d" or intrinsic safety "i " has no sub‐
division letter (A, B, C) after the Group II mark; it can be used in all
hazards.
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 Enclosures of electrical equipment are classified according to their

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ability to resist the ingress of solid objects and water by means of

a system of numbers known as the international "Index
Protection" IP code IEC 60529. Also the IEC 62262 standard gives
the IK code (protection against mechanical impact).
Solid Objects Water

First Numeral Level of Protection Second Numeral Level of Protection
0 No protection 0 No protection
Protection against objects greater than Protection against drops of water falling
1 1
50 mm vertically
Protection against objects greater than Protection against drops of water when
2 2
12 mm tilted up to 15°
Protection against objects greater than Protection against sprayed water up to
3 3
2,5 mm 60°
Protection against objects greater than Protection against splashed water from
4 4
1,0 mm any direction
Protection against jets of water from any
5 Dust-protected 5
direction
Protection against heavy seas - deck
6 Dust-tight 6
watertight
Protection against immersion in water
7
1m in depth and for a specified time
Protection against indefinite immersion in
8
water at a specified depth
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Regulations / Standards
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 Safety problems related to the design and use of electrical apparatus in

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hazardous areas have led the Authorities, at a very early stage to impose very
strict rules.
 These rules are divided into 2 categories:
• Regulations  Published by the national legal Authorities.
 Application is mandatory.
 They vary from country to country.
• Standards  Published by a standardisation committee (international

or national or regional).
 Application is not mandatory but only if it has been
enforced by law.
 The standardisation committee generally includes
representatives from manufacturers, end users, safety
agencies, utilities, etc.
 They publish a document (the "STANDARD") which
represents a consensus between all the parties and reflects
the state of the art.
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 USA:
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• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 497).

• National Electrical Code (NEC articles 500 and 505) issued by NFPA.
• API: RP 500 A / RP 500 B / RP 500 C / RP 14 J.
• AGA: American Gas Association.
• US Coast Guard.
 CANADA:
• 10 provincial inspection authorities + 3 city inspection departments
+ 2 territorial inspection authorities + 1 federal government
jurisdiction + jurisdictions for fixed offshore installations + Canadian
Coast Guard.
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 EUROPE (European Union):

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• Two European directives called "ATEX" directives. They have

replaced the former national regulations of each European country
belonging to the European Union (25 countries in 2005).
 INTERNATIONAL MARINE ORGANISATION (IMO): has published

the MODU code (Mobile Offshore Drilling Units).
 REGULATIONS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS:

• Bureau Veritas, Det Norske Veritas, Lloyd’s Register of Shipping,
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS).
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 There are 3 main categories of electrical standards through the

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world:
• International standards.
• European Union standards.
• American standards.
STANDARDIZATION BODIES
LEVEL NON ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL
International I.S.O. I.E.C
European CEN CENELEC
American ASTM ANSI API NFPA / NEC
ASME AGA IEEE
National :
 France AFNOR UTE
 Germany DIN VDE
 U.K. BS BS
 Russia GOST
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CENELEC standards (modes of protection)
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standards Standards
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Flameproof enclosures “d” EN 50018 EN 60079-1 X X

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Increased safety “e” EN 50019 EN 60079-7 X X

Intrinsic safety “I” EN 50020 EN 60079-11 (pr)
Safety mode “ia” X X X
Safety mode “ib” X X
Encapsulation “m” EN 50028 EN 60079-18 X X
Oil immersion “o” EN 50015 X X
Pressurised apparatus “p” EN 50016 EN 60079-2 X X
Powder filling “q” EN 50017 X X
Type of protection “n” EN 50021 EN 60079-15 X
General EN 50014 EN 60079-0 Common rules
 Note:
• The new CENELEC standard series (EN 60079) has the same numbering as
the corresponding IEC 60079 standard series.
• IEC and CENELEC standards EN 60079 are either identical or with a few
differences.
• The CENELEC standard series EN 50014 is going to be progressively
repealed.
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 IEC/EN 60079‐10: Electrical apparatus for explosive gas

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atmospheres (Classification of hazardous areas)

atmospheres (Electrical installations design, selection and
erection)

atmospheres (Electrical installations inspection and maintenance)
atmospheres (Equipment repair, overhaul and reclamation)
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Certification – Marking
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 CERTIFICATION:
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• The term "CERTIFICATION" means that an apparatus has been examined

by a testing authority (a third party, who is not the manufacturer or the
user) and, where necessary tested and found to comply with the
requirements of a standard specification for the appropriate protection
concept.
• Most industrialized countries have their own certification system but,
when they do not, they normally recognize the certification of country of
origin of the equipment.
 EUROPEAN CERTIFICATION:
• All the recognized certifying laboratories in the Union are now recognized
in all member countries. Equipment for hazardous locations must be
certified to the CENELEC Standards.
• Acceptance of the certification of these laboratories is required by law in
all member countries and manufacturers can choose a laboratory in any of
the member countries if they are not satisfied with the laboratories in
their own country.
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 EUROPEAN CERTIFICATES OF COMPLIANCE:

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After tests have been successfully carried out, the Certifying Authority can
deliver two types of certificates of compliance:
• Certificate of Conformity:
This certificate is issued when the apparatus is strictly in accordance with
the CENELEC standards EN 50014 to EN 50021, EN 50028 and EN 50039
(which recognize only seven types of protection).
The certificate of conformity is valid for all the CENELEC countries.
• Inspection Certificate (sometimes called certificate of control):
This certificate is issued for apparatus not strictly in accordance with the
CENELEC standards but which provide at least the same degree of safety.
The inspection certificate can be national or European.
− National Certificate: only valid in the country where the inspection / tests by
the Certifying Authority have been carried out.
− European Certificate: delivered after the approval of all the European
Certifying Authorities.
Note: due to the complexity and lengthy procedures to get an European
inspection certificate, to day only 3 or 4 certificates have been delivered!
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 AMERICAN CERTIFICATION:
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• USA:
− UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES INC.
− FACTORY MUTUAL RESEARCH CORPORATION
− CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION
− ETL TESTING LABORATORIES INCORPORATED
− MET LABORATORIES
− UNITED STATES TESTING CO. INC.
• CANADA:
− CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION
− ETL TESTING LABORATORIES INC. (USA)
− UNDERWRITERS' LABORATORIES OF CANADA
− UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES INC. (USA)
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 MANUFACTURER’S RESPONSIBILITY:
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• By marking the electrical apparatus in accordance with the standards the

manufacturer attests on his own responsibility that the routine
verifications and tests have been successfully completed and that the
product complies with the specification submitted to the national or other
appropriate certifying authority.
 IEC/CENELEC marking:
• the name of the manufacturer or his registered trade mark,
• manufacturer's type identification,
• the symbol:
− Ex: which indicates that the electrical apparatus has been constructed and
tested for use in an explosive gas atmosphere in accordance with IEC
standards.
− EEx: which indicates that the electrical apparatus has been constructed and
tested for use in an explosive gas atmosphere in accordance with CENELEC
standards.
NOTE: Recently the single symbol Ex has been adopted by the CELECEC
standards, leading to use only the symbol Ex for both IEC and CENELEC.
N.B.: The symbol ATEX is used only in FRANCE for electrical apparatus not manufactured in
accordance with CENELEC standards but which offers an equivalent level of safety.
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The sign for each type of protection used: (IEC/CENELEC)

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o oil‐immersed apparatus
p pressurized enclosures
q powder‐filled apparatus
d flameproof enclosures
e increased safety
ia intrinsic safety category a
ib intrinsic safety category b
m encapsulation
n type of protection "n"
S special protection (IEC only)
 The symbol of the group of the electrical apparatus:
• I for electrical apparatus for mines susceptible to fire‐damp.
• II or IIA or IIB or IIC for electrical apparatus for use in explosive gas
atmospheres in surface industries (for "d" and "e" type).
 The temperature class (T1 to T6).
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Equipment marking
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European union "explosion‐protected" mark
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P (for European Union (EU) members only)
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Certificate number
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 Note:
• The sign X after the certificate
reference indicates that special
conditions for safe use must be
followed.
• The sign U after the certificate

reference indicates that it is a
component which cannot be
used alone.
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 American marking:
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• Class I: gases and vapours

• Class II: dusts
• Class III: flying (textile fibbers and sawdust)
• Division 1: location where the hazard is expected to be present in the
normal operation of the plant.
• Division 2: location where the hazard exists only in the event of failure in
the processing equipment of plant.
• Group of ignition:
− Group A: reference gas: acetylene
− Group B: reference gas: hydrogen
− Group C: reference gas: ethylene
− Group D: reference gas: propane
− Group E: reference gas: metallic dusts such as aluminium
− Group F: reference gas: carbonaceous dusts
− Group G: reference gas: flour, grain, plastic dusts
• Group of temperature: T1 to T6 (similar to CENELEC).
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Types of protection
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Types of protection
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 There are 7 different methods of explosion protection:

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BASIC TECHNIQUE METHOD CODE

Isolation between explosive Oil immersion "o"
atmosphere and electrical device Pressurisation "p"
(removal of fuel source).
Encapsulation "m"
Sparks suppression energy limitation Increased safety "e"
(removal of ignition source). Intrinsic safety "i"
Powder filling "q"
Confining the explosion.
Flameproof enclosure "d"
 There is also a method of explosion protection, applicable only

for Zone 2 using various principles and techniques: type "n".
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DEFINITION:
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 A type of protection in which the parts which can ignite an

explosive atmosphere are placed in an enclosure which can
withstand the pressure developed during an internal explosion of
an explosive mixture and which prevents the transmission of the
explosion to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure
(EN 60079).
• Zone of use: 1 & 2.
• Ambient conditions: ‐20°C to +40°C.
• Code letter "d" (from the German "druckfeste" ≈ pressure tight).
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
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 Flameproof enclosure is not gas tight and a gas or vapour will

enter the enclosure (including components which are an ignition
source) where for example joints or cable entries exist.
 An explosion may occur, but the enclosure is strong enough to

contain the explosion pressure and the gaps at the joints and
thread of cable entries must be long and narrow to cool the
flames / hot gases so as to prevent ignition of a flammable
atmosphere which may exist outwith the enclosure.
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MAIN FEATURES:
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 Materials: cast iron, aluminium alloys, phosphor

bronze, stainless steel (plastic materials limited to
free internal volume ≤ 10 cm3).
 Waterproof ensured by gaskets or rubber "o" rings

(must be an integral part of the original design).
Joints must be greased, but not painted.
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 Gland thread: ensure at least 5 threads are engaged.

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 Make sure that all covers, fittings are secured and all bolts in
place.
 Holes (unused cable/conduit entries) must be blanked, using

appropriate certified metal stoppers with 5 full threads engaged
(plastic stoppers are unacceptable).
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 Spare parts used must be strictly identical to

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original ones.
(a)
 When cable conduits are used, ensure that an

adequate seal is provided (suitable stopper
box) to prevent transmission of flammable (b)
material.
 Flamepath joints:
• Flanged joint, e.g.: covers of junction boxes (a) (c)
• Spigot joint, e.g.: motor endshields (b)

• Threaded joint, e.g.: cable glands, conduit
entries (c)
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 Direct / indirect entry:

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Direct entry Indirect entry
 Direct entry: 1 single flameproof chamber incorporating arcing components.

 Indirect entry: 2 separate chambers:
• 1 chamber containing only terminals
• 1 chamber incorporating arcing components; connection is made via
bushings
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 Obstruction of flamepath: a solid obstruction such as a wall,

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steelwork, conduit, etc. in close proximity to the opening at the

joint can, in the event of an internal explosion, reduce the
efficiency of the flamepath to the extent that ignition of the
external gas would occur.
GROUP DISTANCE
IIA 10 mm
IIB 30 mm
IIC 40 mm
Minimum distances d (IEC60079-14).
 Flameproof enclosure are tested for 1.5 time the explosive

pressure (they are not able to withstand the energy which may be
released as a result of an internal short‐circuit).
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 Modification of flameproof enclosures:

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• Flameproof enclosures are normally supplied complete with all

internal components and certified by a recognised Testing Authority
which has taken into consideration:
− Free internal volume (after all components have been fitted).
− Temperature rise (determined by the maximum power dissipation).
− Creepage and clearance distances.
− Rise in pressure (as a result of an internal explosion using a gas/air
mixture).
• This certification "seals" the design of the apparatus so that any
unauthorised modifications will invalidate the certification.
• Replacement components should always be exactly the same as the
original specified components.
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• Removal of components to be avoided: free internal volume

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increases!
• Adding components is also forbidden: increased explosion pressure
due to pressure piling.
• Drilling and taping of cable gland/conduit entries: to be carried out
only by the manufacturer of the enclosure or his approved agent.
• Correct alignment of the threaded entry is important.
• Number and size of cable entries must not exceed the number
permitted in the original design which has been certified, so as not
to impair the strength of the flameproof enclosure.
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 DEFINITION:
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• The definition for Electrical apparatus with type of protection "n" as

given in the IEC Standard 60079‐15 states:
"A type of protection applied to electrical apparatus such that, in
normal operation, and in certain specified abnormal, it is not
capable of igniting a surrounding explosive atmosphere and a fault
capable of causing ignition is not likely to occur".
 ZONE OF USE: Zone 2
 ORIGIN is from UK, with the symbol "N" (use in the UK only).
Then the European Standards Organisation (CENELEC) recognised
this type of protection using the symbol "n".
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 PRINCIPLE:
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• Similar to increased safety type "e" apparatus except that there is a

relaxation in the constructional requirements, since the presence of
a flammable gas or vapour is less likely in Zone 2.
 MAIN FEATURES:
• Enclosures and motor fan guards, where exposed to high risk of
mechanical damage, to have resistance to impact of 3.5J.
• Minimum ingress protection IP54 where an enclosure has exposed
live parts internally.
• Use of certified terminals.
• Terminals manufactured form high quality insulation material.
• Specified creepage and clearance distances incorporated into the
design of the terminals.
• Terminal locking devices to ensure conductors remain secure in
service.
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 SUB‐DIVISION OF TYPE "n" APPARATUS:

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CENELEC/IEC
Type ‘n’ apparatus variations
marking
Restricted breathing enclosures R
Energy limited apparatus L
Simplified pressurised enclosure P
Contacts of sparking apparatus protected by

C
methods other than R, L or P
Non-sparking apparatus A
 The above table shows the marking on Type "n" apparatus to

indicate the method applied to either eliminate or control spark
energy and/or hot surfaces.
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 Non sparking device "nA": device constructed to minimize the risk

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of occurrence of arcs or sparks capable of creating an ignition

hazard during conditions of normal operation.
 Main features for non‐sparking electrical machines:
• IP54 minimum
• Minimum radial air gap
 Device and components "nC": this type of protection includes:

• Encapsulated devices: Device, which may or may not contain voids,
which is so constructed that it is totally immersed in an
encapsulating compound so that it is sealed to prevent entry of an
external atmosphere.
• The device in this instance will be totally sealed by an encapsulating
material, typically "epoxy resin", to prevent entry of a flammable
gas or vapour.
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• Enclosed break devices: Device incorporating electrical contacts that

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are made and broken and that will withstand an internal explosion
of the flammable gas or vapour which may enter it without
suffering damage and without communicating the internal
explosion to the external flammable gas or vapour.
This technique is used in, for example, the lamp holders of type "n"
apparatus. The example below shows a typical lamp holder in
which there are two sets of contacts. One set of contacts is
enclosed in what is effectively a flameproof enclosure in which the
free internal volume must not exceed 20 cm3. This enclosure is
designed to withstand an internal explosion and the voltage and
current limitations are 600 V and 15 A respectively.
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• Hermetically‐sealed devices: device which is so constructed that the

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external atmosphere cannot gain access to the interior and in which

the seal is made by fusion, for example by soldering, brazing,
welding or the fusion of glass to metal.
A device which prevents an external gas or vapour gaining access to
the interior by sealing of joints by fusion, e.g. welding, soldering,
brazing, or the fusion of glass to metal. The example of hermetic
sealing shown below is a reed switch which comprises a set of
contacts hermetically sealed within a glass envelope.
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• Non‐incendive components: components having contacts for

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making or breaking a specified ignition capable circuit but in which

the contacting mechanism is constructed so that the component is
not capable of causing ignition of the specified explosive gas
atmosphere.
• Sealed devices: device which is so constructed that it cannot be

opened during normal service and is sealed effectively to prevent
entry of an external atmosphere.
A device containing normally sparking components or hot surfaces
constructed in such a way that opening is prevented in normal
operation and in which the sealing effectively prevents access by a
flammable gas or vapour. The free internal volume must be less
than 100 m3. A device containing normally sparking components or
hot surfaces constructed in such a way that opening is prevented in
normal operation and in which the sealing effectively prevents
access by a flammable gas or vapour. The free internal volume must
be less than 100 m3.
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 Restricted breathing "nR":

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• Used mainly for lighting fittings

• Very good sealing at all joints and cable entries.
 Energy limited "nL":

• Voltages and currents are maintained at safe levels using Zener
Diodes and series resistors.
• Similar to IS protection.
• Circuits contain normally sparking contacts.
• Installation conditions (manufacturer documentation) to be met
(maximum values of voltage, current, inductance, capacitance
including external cable values).
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 MOTOR WITH TYPE "n" PROTECTION

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 ASSESSMENT FOR POSSIBLE AIR GAP SPARKING (motor > 100

kW):
(not applicable to motors with a duty S1 or S2, continuously
running with an average starting frequency in normal operation
not exceeding 1 start per week).
• Assessment to be made in accordance with the IEC 60079‐15
standard.
Table 6 indicates the "rotor cage ignition risk" for air gap sparking.
If risk factor > 5, the rotor cage shall be subject to an ageing process
(at least 5 locked rotor tests), then to 10 D.O.L. starts (unaccoupled)
with the motor immersed in an explosive gas mixture. No explosion
must occur.
Or special measures (pre‐start ventilation or fixed gas detection
inside the motor enclosure or special agreement between
manufacturer and end‐user) may be applied.
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 OPERATION WITH A FREQUENCY CONVERTER

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(or a non‐sinusoidal supply):
Two methods can be used to prove that the thermal limits are not
exceeded and functional performance is demonstrated:
• Method n° 1 (type test): combined test of frequency converter +

motor (using the detection / measurement used for protection in
normal operation).
• Method n° 2 (by calculation).
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 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MACHINES > 1 kV

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• "n" type protection assumes that occurrence of a flammable gas

atmosphere and a motor start sequence do not occur
simultaneously.
• Some degree of surface discharge activity can occur on HV windings

without affecting the performance of the machine. Ignition is most
probable from short term discharges, especially those associated
with motor starting.
The table 7 of the IEC 60079‐15 standard gives the ignition risk
factor for potential stator winding discharge.
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• If risk factor > 6, use of anti‐condensation space leaters and

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• Either tests of "no explosion"

− Motor (stator) filled with gas explosive atmosphere.
− Application of 1.5 Un during 3 mn (steady state ignition test).
− Impulse test 10 times of 3 peak phase voltage (impulse ignition test)
with a time to half value between 20 to 30 µs.
− Rotor cage ageing process: 5 locked rotor tests.
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 DEFINITION:
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• A protection method in which increased measures are taken to

prevent the possibility of excessive HEAT, ARCS, SPARKS occurring
on internal or external parts of the apparatus in normal operation.
 ZONE OF USE:
• Zone 1 – Zone 2
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 MAIN FEATURES:
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• For equipment with U < 11 kV.

• Mechanically strong enclosure resistant to impact – tested to 4 or 7 joules
impact energy depending on application.
• Degree of protection against solid objects and water – at least IP 54.
• Terminals manufactured from high quality insulation material.
• Specified creepage and clearances incorporated in design of terminals.
• Terminal locking devices to ensure conductors remain secure in service.
• Certified de‐rating of terminals (nearly half of that for standard
application).
• Limitation of the number of terminals installed in a given size of enclosure.
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 Motor similar in appearance to standard industrial motor.

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 Inspection of the certification / rating plate is usually necessary to identify it.

 Motor not designed to withstand to an internal explosion!
 Includes special design features to prevent arcs, sparks and excessive surface
temperature.
 MAIN FEATURES:
• Special attention to airgap concentricity and clearance of all rotating parts.
• Impact testing of motor frame.
• Temperature rise 10 °C lower than normal.
• T2 or T3 surface temperature limitation.
• Compliance with tE characteristic.
• Special terminal block with specific creepage/clearance distances and locking
devices on terminals.
• Minimum ingress protection to IP54.
 Under stall (locked rotor) conditions, the rotor surface temperature will normally
increase faster than that of the stator windings, and hence, the T rating applies to both
internal and external surface temperatures.
Under fault conditions, the motor must trip within the tE time specified on the motor
data plate.
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 TE TIME:
• The time taken to reach the limiting temperature from the temperature
reached in normal service when carrying the starting current IA at
maximum ambient temperature.
• During fault conditions, the thermal overload device in the motor starter
must trip out the motor within the tE time.
• The tE time and the ratio IS / IN (I starting / I rated current) are marked on
the motor and are influential in the selection in the thermal overload.
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Pressurisation "p"
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 DEFINITION:
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• Protection against gas ingress (external atmosphere) into an

enclosure is ensured by maintaining a protective gas inside the
enclosure at a pressure above that of the external atmosphere.
 ZONE OF USE:
• Zone 1, Zone 2.
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 MAIN FEATURES:
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• Minimum safe gas overpressure: 0,5 mBar (50 Pa).

• Protective gas: clean air, sometimes nitrogen.
• Protective gas must be free of moisture, oil, dust, chemicals (air
instrument quality).
• IP4X minimum.
• Enclosure and associated ducts must be designed to withstand 1,5
time the working over pressure declared by the manufacturer, and
also the overpressure obtained when all outlets are closed
(minimum overpressure: 2 mBar).
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 PURGING:
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• Before electrical apparatus inside the enclosure is energised, a

purge cycle must be carried out, so as to clean the atmosphere
inside the enclosure.
• A specified quantity of safe gas must pass through the enclosure
during a specified time (to remove any flammable gas).
• Standards require a minimum quantity of safe gas equivalent to 5
times the internal volume of the enclosure (often a greater number
of air changes is applied).
• Purge duration is controlled by a timer in association with a flow‐
rate sensor.
• Purging must occur automatically and must prevent equipment
energisation before the complete purging has been carried out.
• Protective gas is provided by either a motor driven fan, a
compressor, or from storage cylinders.
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 CONTROL CIRCUIT / SAFETY DEVICES:

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• (1) Overpressure sensor or switch (located at a point the most

difficult to maintain the overpressure).
• (2) Protective gas flow‐rate monitoring device.
• (3) Pressure gauge recommended.
• (4) Pressure relief valve (set at 75 % of maximum declared safe
overpressure).
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 DUCTS:
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• The entry of the duct must be located in a non hazardous area.

• Exhaust duct outlet must be located in a non hazardous area, but
may be located in hazardous area if a spark / particle arrestor is
fitted.
 PRESSURISATION:
There are 4 types of pressurisation systems:
• Static: rely on very good seals (no leakage).
• Pressurisation with continuous flow: a continuous flow of safe gas
ensures maintaining of overpressure and also cooling of hot parts
within the enclosure.
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• Pressurisation with leakage compensation: used when enclosures

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are poorly sealed at their joints.

The system is purged with damper at the exhaust duct open, on
completion, the damper is closed and the flow of protective gas
reduced to a level sufficient to compensate for leakages at seals /
joints.
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• Continuous dilution
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 ACTION ON LOSS OF PRESSURE:

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• No internal source of release: loss of overpressure of flow rate will

activate either an alarm or shutdown depending on zone and type
of apparatus within the enclosure.
Enclosure contains Enclosure contains apparatu
Area classification ignition-capable apparatus which does not produce a
source of ignition in normal
operation
Zone 1 Alarm and switch off Alarm
Internal pressurisation not
Zone 2 Alarm
required
(according to EN 60079‐14)
• With internal source of release: out of electrical scope.
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 EXTERNALLY MOUNTED ELECTRICAL APPARATUS:

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• All the devices installed on the exterior of a pressurised enclosure must be

explosion protected (pressure/flow rate sensors, switches, JB’s, etc).
 APPARATUS ENERGISED DURING ABSENCE OF OVERPRESSURE:
• The heater which shall be energised when the machine is without
overpressure, shall be explosion protected (Ex "d" or Ex "e").
• Emergency lighting installed inside a pressurised control room must be
explosion protected (Ex "e" for example), solenoid for fire dampers must
be Ex "d", as well as switches, flow rate sensors may be Ex "i", etc, Ex "d"
enclosures shall be used for control panels.
 APPLICATIONS:
• Transformer / rectifier cabinets.
• Control consoles.
• VDU’s.
• Gas analysis equipment.
• Control rooms – switchrooms – workshops.
• Machines (large units being lighter than a flameproof machine).
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Intrinsic safety "i"
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 DEFINITION:
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• A circuit in which any spark or any thermal effect produced in the

conditions specified in the standard IEC 60079‐11 which includes
normal operation and specified fault conditions is not capable of
causing ignition of a given explosive atmosphere.
• Intrinsic Safety is a widely used method of explosion protection. It
is used for very low power applications only, and typical examples
are control and instrumentation circuits.
 ZONES OF USE:
• 0, 1 & 2 (Exi "a")
• 1 & 2 (Exi "b")
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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INTRINSIC SAFETY:

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• Intrinsically Safe circuits achieve safety by maintaining very low

energy levels such that hot surfaces will not be produced, and
electrical sparks, if they occur, will have insufficient energy to ignite
the most easily ignitable concentration of a flammable mixture.
• This is achieved by limiting the voltage and current supplied to the
apparatus in the hazardous area.
• To maintain safety, it is of paramount importance that these levels
of voltage and current are not exceeded under normal, or even
fault conditions.
• The circuit parameters, i.e. voltage, current, resistance, inductance
and capacitance are factors which have to be considered in the
design of an IS circuit.
• Consultation with the characteristic ignition curves given in the
construction standard, and the application of appropriate safety
factors, will ensure that safe values are established for these
parameters during the design stage.
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 An IS system, which usually comprises a safe to hazardous area

interface, cables, junction boxes and field (hazardous) area
apparatus, must also be designed in such a way as to guard
against the possibility of particular faults occurring.
 In contrast to other methods of explosion protection, intrinsic

safety is a system concept which applies to the whole system and
not to any one item only.
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 Apparatus in the safe area connected directly to apparatus in the

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hazardous area is known as "associated apparatus", and each

item making up the system will have a Certificate of Conformity.
Associated apparatus may be used in the hazardous area if
installation is within another method of explosion protection, e.g.
flameproof. In addition, the system may be covered by an overall
system certificate. The maximum operating voltage for safe area
apparatus is 250 Vrms.
 Advantages of IS are:
• live maintenance is possible
• cost effective – certified enclosures not required and ordinary
wiring may be used
• safe – low voltage not harmful to personnel
• can be used in Zone 0
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 THE ZENER BARRIER:

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• The faults which can jeopardise the security of IS systems are either
overvoltage or overcurrent, and protection against these conditions
is afforded by the use of an interface, typically a Zener barrier.
• The interface, which is connected between the safe area and
hazardous area apparatus, is normally located in the safe area and
situated as close as possible to the boundary with the hazardous
area, but may be located in the hazardous area if installed in a
flameproof enclosure.
• A simple zener barrier has three principal components:

− (1) a resistor,
− (2) a zener diode,
− (3) a fuse,
all of which must have infallible properties.
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• Resistor: purpose is to limit the current to the IS apparatus.

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Infallibility, with regard to the current limiting resistor, means that

in the event of it failing, failure will be to a higher resistance value
or open‐circuit. Infallibility will be satisfied by the use of a quality
wire‐wound or metal film resistor, and its operating power, as
required in the standards, should not exceed 2/3 of its maximum
quoted rating for a specified ambient rating.
• Zener diode: purpose is to limit the voltage available to the

apparatus in the hazardous area. The Zener diode, as a single item,
is not considered to be an infallible component, must also be
operated at only 2/3 of its maximum stated rating. For infallibility
to be satisfied, the Zener diode is required to fail to a short‐circuit.
Tests by manufacturers have shown that diodes virtually always fail
to a short‐circuit state, but there can be no guarantee of this.
Diodes can only be considered infallible when two or more are
connected in parallel as discussed later.
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• Fuse: purpose is to protect the Zener diodes, and not to protect

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against, for example, a short‐circuit in the field apparatus.

Infallibility of the fuse is assured by the use of a sand‐filled ceramic
type capable of operating properly even when exposed to a
prospective fault‐current of up to 4000 A. A fuse of this type avoids,
namely vaporisation which can allow the fuse to continue to
conduct.
The fuse is encapsulated along with the other components of the
barrier to deter replacement. The repair of Zener barriers is not
permissible, even by the manufacturer.
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 ZENER BARRIER OPERATION:

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• In the event of a short‐circuit developing in the apparatus in the

hazardous area, or across the IS wiring, the series resistor in the
zener barrier will limit the short‐circuit current to a safe level so
that the integrity of the system is maintained.
• If a voltage greater than the normal maximum voltage of the IS

system invades the circuit at the input terminals of the zener
barrier, this will trigger the Zener diode, and the resulting fault
current will be shunted to earth. The excessive voltage is, therefore,
prevented from reaching the apparatus in the hazardous area.
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 CATEGORIES OF IS:
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• Two categories of intrinsic safety are available, "ia" and "ib", the level, of
safety provided by each being dependent on the number of component
faults which are considered.
• Category "ib" will maintain safety in the event of one fault occurring.
• Category "ia" is required to maintain safety should two simultaneous
faults occur.
• Clearly, for the Zener barrier (interface) to maintain safety with one or two
faults, additional zener diodes are necessary since they are the
components most likely to fail.
• Therefore, the addition of a second Zener diode, connected in parallel with
the first, will satisfy the requirements of category "ib" intrinsic safety in
which safety is assured with one fault. A third zener diode connected in
parallel with the other two will satisfy the conditions for category "ia"
intrinsic safety in which safety is assured with two faults.
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• Category "ib" intrinsic safety may be used in Zones 1 and 2, but not
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Zone 0, and category "ia" intrinsic safety is permitted in Zones 0, 1

and 2.
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 MINIMUM IGNITION CURRENT CURVES:

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• Voltage and current limitation in an IS

circuit shall ensure operational safety.
• The design of the circuit will be based on
the minimum ignition current curves
given in the construction standard.
• The following curves give the
determining maximum circuit resistance,
inductance and capacitance respectively.
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 EARTHING:
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• A dedicated high‐integrity earth is a vital factor in maintaining the

security of IS circuits, particularly when Zener barriers are used.
• Galvanic barriers, however, operate on a different principle which
does not require a high‐integrity earth, but earthing may be used
for interference suppression.
• The earth bars on which Zener barriers are mounted are insulated
from the surrounding metalwork and connected directly to the
main earth point via separate earthing conductors.
• Two cables, each secured at separate points at either end, are
normally used to connect the barrier earth bar to the main earth
point to facilitate earth resistance tests which must be periodically
carried out.
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• The resistance between the barrier earth bar and the main earth
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point should not be greater than 1 . A value of 0.1  is not

unrealistic.
• The earth cable must be insulated, and the insulation undamaged,
along it’s entire length so that contact with the plant metalwork is
avoided: where the risk of damage is high, mechanical protection
for the cables should be provided.
• The earth conductors must have a rating capable of carrying the
maximum fault current and have an appropriate cross‐sectional
area (csa) by means of:
− at least two separate 1.5 mm² (minimum) copper conductors, or
− at least one 4 mm² (minimum) copper conductor.
 Note: the IS circuit in the hazardous area must be able to withstand a 500 V insulation
resistance test to earth.
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 GALVANIC ISOLATED BARRIERS:

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• Barriers have been, and continue to be, widely used in industry,

they have particular limitations which are:
− a dedicated high‐integrity earth is necessary to divert fault currents
away from the hazardous area.
− a direct connection exists between the hazardous and safe area
circuits and earth, which tends to apply constraints on the rest of the
system.
− hazardous area apparatus must withstand a 500 V insulation
resistance test to earth.
• Devices which overcome these difficulties are isolation interfaces
typically relays, opto isolators and transformers. The purpose is to
isolate IS circuits from NIS circuits, from supply and from ground.
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 INSTALLATION OF IS APPARATUS:
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• The apparatus which make up an IS installation, i.e. field apparatus,

associated apparatus and interface units, are required to be certified. Such
apparatus, including interconnecting cables, must be installed in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions and with regard to the
recommendations in EN60079‐14.
 INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS FOR CABLES:
• Conductors of IS cables to be insulated with a minimum thickness of 0.3
mm. Colour for IS cables (and terminals) is recommended to be blue.
 Armouring or screening of cables for mechanical protection is not required
except for IS circuits with multi‐core cables in Zone 0.
 Where IS cables and the cables of other circuits share the same duct, bundle or
tray, both types of circuit must be segregated by means of an insulated or
earthed metal partition.
 Separation is not necessary if either the IS cables or the cables of the other
circuit are armoured, screened or metal sheathed.
 The armouring of cables must be securely bonded to the plant earth.
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 Where the interconnecting cables of IS circuits have overall screens, or groups

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of conductors with individual screens, the screens are required to be earthed

at one point only, usually the barrier earth bar.
 The individual screens must be insulated from one another and, prior to
connection of the screens to the barrier earth bar, an insulation resistance (IR.)
test should be carried out between each pair of screens.
 The test readings should not be less than 1 M/km when measured at 500 V at
20 °C for 1 minute.
 Overall screens are required to be insulated from the external metalwork, i.e.
cable tray etc.
 Unused cable cores must be connected to the IS earth at the interface, and
insulated elsewhere by means of connection to terminals which are identified
in the documentation.
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 DEFINITION:
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• A type of protection in which the electrical apparatus or parts of

the electrical apparatus are immersed in oil in such a way that an
explosive atmosphere, which may be above the oil or outside the
enclosure, cannot be ignited.
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 ZONES OF USE: 1 & 2.

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 PRINCIPLE:
• The oil level is used to completely cover the components within the
apparatus which arc/spark or produce hot surfaces during normal
operation, establishing a barrier between the components below
the oil and any flammable gases which may be present above the
oil or outside the enclosure.
• One function of the oil is to quench arcs occurring at the contacts

and, where mineral oil is used.
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 CONSTRUCTION:
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• The construction standard requires a breather to be fitted to the

apparatus to allow release of the flammable gases produced during arc
quenching. The enclosure ingress protection must be IP66.
• A gauge must display the highest and lowest levels of oil.
• In the event of breakage of the gauge, even at it’s lowest point, the
minimum depth of oil remaining above the arc/heat producing
components, after leakage of oil at this point, should not be less than 25
mm.
• The free surface temperature of the protective liquid is required to be 25 K
less than the specified minimum flashpoint for the protective liquid.
• Sealed enclosures are required to be fitted with a pressure‐relief device.
• Non‐sealed enclosures must be with an expansion device incorporateing a
mechanism for automatic tripping of the electrical supply on detection of
gas evolution from the protective liquid as a result of a fault within the
enclosure. The trip mechanism may only be manually reset.
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 DEFINITION:
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• A type of protection in which the enclosure of electrical apparatus

is filled with a material in a finely granulated state so that, in the
intended conditions of service, any arc occurring within the
enclosure of an electrical apparatus will not ignite the surrounding
atmosphere. No ignition shall be caused either by flame or by
excessive temperature of the surfaces of the enclosure.
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 ZONES OF USE: 1& 2.

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 PRINCIPLE:
• The filling, usually quartz, achieves safety by what is known as "suppression of
flame propagation".
• Flammable gas or vapour may permeate the granules and reach the parts
producing arcs/sparks or hot surfaces.
• The quantity of gas or vapour, however, will be too small to support an explosion
within the inert powder.
 CONSTRUCTION:
• The enclosure, which holds the filling material, is required to withstand, for one
minute, an overpressure of 0.5 mBar (0.05 kPa) without permanent deflection of
the walls in any direction by more than 0.5 mm, and maintain a minimum level of
ingress protection to IP54.
• The size of granules for the filling material, usually quartz, must be within the
range 250 m – 1.6 mm.
• The relative weight of water which can permeate the filling material must not be in
excess of 0.1%.
• This method of protection is unsuitable where moving parts are involved since the
filling material must be free of voids.
• Application is found with capacitors integrated in increased safety luminaires.
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Encapsulation "m"
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 DEFINITION:
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• A type of protection in which the parts which could ignite an

explosive atmosphere by either sparking or heating are enclosed in
a compound in such a way that this explosive atmosphere cannot
be ignited.
 ZONES OF USE: 1 & 2

 PRINCIPLE:
• An encapsulant, typically a thermo‐setting compound, establishes a
complete barrier between any surrounding flammable gas or
vapour and the source of ignition within the compound.
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 CONSTRUCTION:
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• The construction standards state that the encapsulant must be free

of voids and, therefore, this method of protection is unsuitable
where components have exposed moving parts.
• Very small components which have enclosed moving parts, e.g. a

reed relay, may be protected by encapsulation.
• The minimum depth of encapsulant above the components of, say,

a printed circuit board is 3 mm, and must be able to withstand a 7 J
impact test.
• The encapsulant depth may be reduced to 1 mm for very small
apparatus where the free surface area is not in excess of 2 cm².
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Special protection "s" (only IEC)
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 DEFINITION:
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• Apparatus which has not quite met the requirements of a particular

construction standard may be additionally certified under Standard
"Special Protection Ex s".
 ZONES OF USE: 0, 1 & 2.
 PRINCIPLE:
• The constructional requirements of this standard, in terms of test and
acceptance criteria, is intended to be unspecific in order to allow a broad
range of designs to be considered for certification. The experience of test‐
house staff plays an important part in writing appropriate tests and
acceptance criteria.
• A hand torch is a typical example of apparatus certified under Special
Protection.
• Thorough testing will have established that the construction is robust
enough to withstand a specified impact without causing, for example, a
short‐circuit of the battery, and breakage of the bulb, its holder and the
glass cover are unlikely.
• A further requirement is that opening of the torch, i.e. to replace the
battery, is only possible with the aid of a special tool, which is required to
be kept in a non‐hazardous area.
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Combined (hybrid) methods of protection
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Electrical equipment may be manufactured with more than one

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method of explosion protection.

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 Equipment of this type has combined methods of protection.

 Such an approach combines the best features of each type of
protection into one piece of equipment for both economic and
practical purposes.
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 A traditional push‐button station for use in an hazardous location

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comprises a flameproof Ex d enclosure, in which a standard

industrial switch is fitted.
 An alternative to this arrangement is an Increased Safety Ex e

enclosure with a small flameproof Ex d component certified
switch fitted inside.
 The switch producing sparks in normal operation, must be

flameproof to comply with the Increased Safety concept of
protection.
 Such equipment will be marked Ex de.
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 The advantages of the hybrid arrangement discussed over the

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traditional flameproof method are:

• lower cost and weight
• glanding arrangements are simplified
• minimum ingress protection IP54 but may be as high as IP66.
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 MOTORS ‐ Ex de
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 The main body of the motor is

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flameproof Ex d and the

terminal box increased safety
Ex e.
 An alternative terminal plate

is fitted to a motor of this type
to accommodate special
terminals which are screwed
into the terminal plate. These
are hybrid terminals, i.e. they
employ both flameproof Ex d
and increased safety Ex e
concepts in their construction.
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 TERMINAL BOX
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• Ingress protection is ensured by gaskets fitted between the

terminal box and it’s cover, between the terminal plate and box,
and between the gland plate and terminal box.
• On no account, however, should a gasket be fitted between the

terminal plate and the frame of the motor as this joint is a
flamepath.
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 LUMINAIRES Ex edq:
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• The lighting fitting illustrated below employs three protection concepts,

i.e. increased safety type "e", flameproof type "d" and powder filling type
"q". This type of fitting is widely used in the petro‐chemical industry.
 The constructional features are:

1. flameproof lampholders;
2. increased safety choke designed not to overheat if lamp fails;
3. temperature rating based on internal and external surface temperatures;
4. enclosure sealing providing high ingress protection;
5. increased safety enclosure including glands designed to withstand
specified impact.
 In this luminary, the circuits include capacitors which are protected by a
method of protection, powder filling type "q". Switches will be of flameproof
type "d" construction and terminals will be increased safety type "e".
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 Ex e m ib:
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• A typical example is a telephone for use in a hazardous location.

• The casing of the telephone would use increased safety type "e"
protection, most of the internal circuits would be intrinsically safe,
type "i", but part of the circuitry would operate at a higher voltage
and therefore encapsulation type "m" would be used to protect
that part of the circuit.
• Terminals would be increased safety type "e".
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 Ex pde:
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• Enclosures which employ the protection concept, pressurisation

type "p", may have internal apparatus which have to remain
energised in the absence of overpressure.
• Such apparatus must be protected in accordance with the Zone in
which the enclosure is located.
• A typical example is an anti‐condensation heater within a
pressurised machine which will be energised when the machine is
idle.
• Apparatus outwith the machine, e.g. junction boxes, pressure
sensors etc., will also have to be protected in accordance with the
Zone.
Note: since anti‐condensation heaters are
normally "live" when a machine is idle, notices
warning of this danger should be displayed.

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Inspection, maintenance
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 RISK of mechanical damage to apparatus but also risk due to other factors
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(environmental conditions, etc) may affect the integrity of the apparatus and
allow ignition.
 Apparatus will only remain approved/certified if it is maintained in accordance
with the recommendations provided by manufacturers and relevant standards.
 QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL:
• Personnel involved in the selection, installation, inspection and
maintenance of explosion protected apparatus in hazardous areas must
have a clear understanding of the various protection concepts, installation
practices and regulations, and the general principles of area classification.
• Manufacturers have gone to great lengths to design and build apparatus in
accordance with relevant standards and have it tested and certified by a
third party test house to ensure the apparatus is safe for use in hazardous
areas.
• All this effort will have been in vain if the technician in the field does not
have the necessary knowledge to install and/or maintain apparatus in
accordance with the manufacturers requirements, relevant standards and
Codes of Practice.

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• Personnel operating in this field must, therefore, have appropriate

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training, and thereafter, regular refresher training.

• Apparatus may be explosion protected at the time of leaving the
manufacturers premises but, the way the apparatus is subsequently
handled, selected, installed and maintained, will have an influence
on whether the apparatus will be safe for use in an hazardous area
and/or remain certified.
• Personnel need to be aware of, for example, the consequences of a
broken foot on a flameproof motor. Increased Safety apparatus
may have "special conditions of use" and failure to observe these
will reduce margins of safety and invalidate the certification.
• Incorrect selection of cable glands with regard to, for example,
flameproof apparatus will affect the integrity of such apparatus.
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 PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF APPARATUS DETERIORATION:

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• Table 4 of IEC 60079‐17 lists major factors which have a significant

effect on the deterioration of equipment in hazardous locations.
These factors are listed below:
− Susceptibility to corrosion
− Exposure to chemicals or solvents
− Likelihood of accumulation of dust or dirt
− Likelihood of water ingress
− Exposure to excessive ambient temperatures
− Risk of mechanical damage
− Exposure to undue vibration
− Training and experience of personnel
− Likelihood of unauthorised modifications or adjustments
− Likelihood of inappropriate maintenance, for example not in
accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.

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 STANDARDS:
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EN60079‐17: electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres:

Part 17. Inspection and maintenance of electrical installations in
hazardous areas (other than mines).
• This Standard comprises a series of Tables for the inspection of the

various methods of explosion protection.
• Table 1 is an inspection schedule which lists the areas to be

inspected for the types of apparatus Ex d, Ex e and Ex n.
• Table 2 and Table 3 are schedules for the inspection of IS apparatus
and Pressurised Ex p apparatus respectively.

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• For each type of explosion protection, three grades of inspection

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are specified which are "visual", "close" and "detailed" and defined
as follows:
− Visual: an inspection which identifies, without the use of access
equipment or tools, those defects, e.g. missing bolts, which will be
apparent to the eye.
− Close: an inspection which encompasses those aspects covered by a
Visual Inspection and, in addition, identifies those defects, e.g. loose
bolts, which will be apparent only by the use of access equipment, e.g.
step ladders (where necessary), and tools. Close inspections do not
normally require the enclosure to be opened, or the equipment to be
de‐energised.
− Detailed: an inspection which encompasses those aspects covered by a
Close Inspection and, in addition, identifies those defects, e.g. loose
termination’s, which will only be apparent by opening the enclosure,
and/or using, where necessary, tools and test equipment.

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 DOCUMENTATION:
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• Prior to the implementation of an inspection / maintenance

programme it is essential that all necessary documentation is
available (hazardous area drawings, complete inventory of all
hazardous area equipment installed in the plant including their
location, date Records of all previous Inspections and Maintenance
tasks carried out).
• Also Certification Documents for each item of explosion protected

apparatus must be available The maintenance of comprehensive
records is thus an essential requirement for the safe operation of
electrical equipment in hazardous areas.
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 INSPECTION TYPES:
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• Three types of inspection are specified in IEC or EN60079‐17.

These are:
− initial inspection
− periodic inspection
− sample inspection.
• The electrical installations should be subjected to an "initial

inspection" before being brought into service to establish that the
types of protection selected, and their method of installation are
suitable.
• The grade of inspection shall be "detailed" in accordance with
Tables 1, 2 and 3 of EN60079‐17.

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• Thereafter, "periodic inspections" should be implemented to verify

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that the installation is being maintained in an appropriate condition

for continued use in the hazardous area.
• The grade of inspection for "periodic inspections" may be "visual"
or "close" and should be carried out at regular intervals, the
frequency of which will be influenced by the environmental
conditions.
• Depending on the outcome of a "visual/close inspection", it may be
necessary to carry out a further "detailed inspection".
• Factors having an influence on the frequency and grade of "periodic
inspections" are:
− type of apparatus
− manufacturers recommendations
− environmental conditions
− zone of use
− results of previous inspections

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 It is recommended that, however, the interval between "periodic inspections"

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does not exceed three years. Interim "sample inspections" may be

implemented to either support or modify the frequency of "periodic
inspections" and may be of a grade "Visual" or "Close".
 The flowchart overleaf illustrates how a typical maintenance programme may

be established and how the various grades of inspection, i.e. "visual", "close"
or "detailed", may be applied during the various types of inspection, i.e.
"initial", "periodic" or "sample".
 Consideration is also given to frequency of periodic inspections.
 Note: * I.C.
I.C. appearing in the flowchart below infers that electrical equipment contains
components which are ignition capable in normal operation. Typical
components are switches, contactors, relays etc. which produce ignition
capable arcs or sparks at their contacts, and, for example, resistors which may
produce excessive surface temperatures.

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Typical inspection
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procedure for periodic
inspections
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 INSPECTION SCHEDULES:
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• The inspection schedules illustrated in Tables 1, 2 and 3 of IEC

60079‐17 relate to the methods of protection types "d", "e", "n";
"i" and "p" respectively.
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IEC 60079‐17:
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Table 1: Inspection Schedule for Ex "d",
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Ex "e", and Ex "n" Installations
(D = Detailed, C = Close, V = Visual)
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IEC 60079‐17:
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Table 3: Inspection Schedule for Ex "p"
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Installations (pressurised or continuous
dilution)
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IEC 60079‐17:
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Table 2: Inspection Schedule for
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Ex "i" Installations
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BASIC DATA –Explosive Atmospheres
P. Leroux
January 2007
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IF
P FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS (1/2)
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• Combustion will only occur if the flammable mixture comprising

fuel, in the form of a gas or vapour and air, is within certain limits.
These limits are :
 The LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (LEL)
 The UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (UEL)
• Between these limits is known as the FLAMMABLE RANGE.
FLAMMABLE RANGE
0 LEL UEL
100%
concentration
No combustion EXPLOSION No combustion of fuel in air
(lack of fuel) (lack of oxygen)
P. Leroux
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P FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS (2/2)
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• These limits depend on :

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 Pressure : if pressure increases (more gas in a same volume), LEL

decreases (increasing the flammable range).
 Temperature : if temperature increases, flammability increases
too.
 Oxygen : if O2 content increases, LEL does not change a lot but
UEL increases considerably.
AIR INCREASED OXYGEN

Concentration % LEL UEL LEL UEL
Methane 5 15 5,2 79
Hydrogen 4 75 4,7 94
Propane 2,2 9,5 2,3 55
Petrol (car) 1,4 7,4
• For a mixture, the smaller LEL has to be taken into account.

P. Leroux
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• FLASH POINT is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off a
liquid, to form a flammable mixture with air that can be ignited by an arc, spark,
naked flame, etc.
Amount of vapour released dependant on temperature.
• FLASH POINT of a material gives an indication of how readily that material will
ignite in normal ambient temperature.
• Explosion of gas or vapour is possible when the ambient temperature becomes
greater than the flash point of the flammable material.
• High flash point liquids are less hazardous than low flash point liquids.
• Practically liquids with flash point above 55° C are not liable to generate a
hazardous area, unless they are likely to be submitted to a temperature above
this flash point.
P. Leroux
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P FLASH POINT (1/3)
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• FLASH POINT is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off a
liquid, to form a flammable mixture with air that can be ignited by an arc, spark,
naked flame, etc.
Amount of vapour released dependant on temperature.
• FLASH POINT of a material gives an indication of how readily that material will
ignite in normal ambient temperature.
• Explosion of gas or vapour is possible when the ambient temperature becomes
greater than the flash point of the flammable material.
• High flash point liquids are less hazardous than low flash point liquids.
• Practically liquids with flash point above 55° C are not liable to generate a
hazardous area, unless they are likely to be submitted to a temperature above
this flash point.
P. Leroux
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MATERIAL FLASH POINT °C

Methane gas
Propane -104 (gas)
Ethylene -120 (gas)
Octane 13
Petrol -37
Diesel oil 55
Kerosene 38
P. Leroux
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P FLASH POINT (3/3)
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Kerosene : flashpoint 38°C
at 35°C,
P. Leroux
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• An hazardous area is an area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

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present, or may be expected to be present in quantitites such as to

require special precautions for the construction, installation and use of
apparatus.
• A non hazardous area (safe area) is an area in which an explosive
atmosphere is not expected to be present.
ZONES
• Zoning is a means of representing the frequency of the occurrence
and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere based on the identification
and consideration of each and every source of release in the given areas
of an installation.
• Hazardous areas are therefore divided into 3 zones which represent this
risk in terms of the probability, frequency and duration of a release.
P. Leroux
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• DEFINITIONS as per CENELEC 60079-10 / IEC 60079-10 :

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 Zone 0 : in this Zone, an explosive gas atmosphere is continuously

present, or present for long periods.
 Zone 1 : in this Zone, an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur
in normal operation.
 Zone 2 : in this Zone, an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to
occur in normal operation and, if it does occur, is likely to do so only
infrequently and will exist for a short period only.
Although not specified in the standards, it is accepted in the industry

that the duration of a gas release, or a number of gas releases on an
annual basis (1 year = 8 760 hours) is :
 Zone 0 > 1 000 h

 Zone 1 10 - 1 000 h
 Zone 2 0 - 10 h
P. Leroux
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• Example of zone 0 : space above liquid in a closed tank.

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• Example of zone 1 : confined space (with gas lighter than air).
• Example of zone 2 : flanged joint.
P. Leroux
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14. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FOR
EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES (contin…)
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 10 B
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THE ATEX DIRECTIVES
94/9/EC & 1999/92/EC
« New regulations and rules for explosive
atmospheres in Europe »
Electrical Systems in O&G Industry ‐ Part 10 B 2
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 DEFINITION
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• ATEX: French acronym for « ATmosphères EXplosibles », used worldwide.

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• DIRECTIVE: LAW in all the European Union countries (U.E.).

European directives are transposed into national LAW in all the European
Union (E.U.) countries to become applicable. Also EFTA countries have
decided to apply the E.U. regulations without being E.U. member states.
A DIRECTIVE IS A EUROPEAN REGULATION
 APPLICATION
• Since the 1st of July 2003, TWO main ATEX directives for equipment in
explosive atmospheres have been in force:
ATEX directive 94/9/EC ATEX directive 1999/92/EC
 Also known as ATEX 100a and ATEX 95  Also known as ATEX 118 and ATEX 137
 Work equipment, "Product" directive  Work place, "User" directive
 Duties on manufacturers  Duties on workers & employers
 MAJOR MODIFICATIONS FOR THE SELECTION AND USE OF EQUIPMENT
INSTALLED IN EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES.
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European union
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IF
E.U.: European Union (25 countries)
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E.F.T.A.: European Free Trade Association (Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein)
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E.E.A.: European Economic Area = E.U. + E.F.T.A.
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ATEX
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The access to the European

market
27 COUNTRIES IN 2012
450 MILLION INHABITANTS
Applicants to the EU
• Croatia: ?
• Turkey: ?
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 OBJECTIVES
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• Free movement for products (by removing barriers to trade).

• Increase safety of products (ATEX 94/9/EC) and workers (ATEX
1999/92/EC).
 "NEW APPROACH DIRECTIVE"

• No longer based on application of mandatory European standards
(CENELEC).
• Based on Essential Health and Safety Requirements (EHSR).
• Any standard may be used, provided it meets the EHSR’s.
• Application of the harmonised European CENELEC standards gives
only a presumption of conformity to the directive.
• Global concept for safety (other risks than electrical now included).
• Affixation of the CE marking is the manufacturer responsibility
(directive requirements met).
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 "Old approach" directives were 76/117/EEC for surface industries

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and 82/130/EEC for mines.

 Electrical equipment had to be certified by a state approved body
(laboratory) in conformity with the European standards (CENELEC
50014 and upwards) covering each type of protection (d, e, p, i,
m, o, q, n).
 Conformity assessment
• European "Certificate of conformity": strict compliance.
• National "Certificate of control": not strictly in compliance, but
offering at least the same degree of safety.
 Application of directive ATEX 94/9/EC before 1st of July 2003 had

been possible since the beginning of 1997 but on a voluntary
basis (no obligation).
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Situation after the 1st of July 2003 –
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 TITLE: Directive 94/9/EC of 23 March 1994 on the approximation

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of the laws of the Member States concerning equipment and

protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres:
• Defines essential health and safety requirements (EHSRs).
• No direct references to standards.
• Applies to electrical and non‐electrical equipment.
• Applies to environments which are potentially explosive due to gas
and dust hazards.
• Takes into consideration all potential hazards equipment may
cause, in particular at design and production level.
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• The one directive applies to both mines susceptible to fire damp,

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and surface industries.

• Recognizes the European Standards Committee CEN and the
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization CENELEC
as competent bodies to define the required harmonized standards.
• Defines procedures for assessment of conformity (certification) to
essential requirements, on the basis of annexes which qualify
equipment to bear the CE marking, which is the "passport" for sale
into the E.U. / E.F.T.A. countries.
• Notified Bodies (N.B.’s) provide the professional and independent
judgements which enable manufacturers to fulfil the procedures in
order to presume conformity to the directive.
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ATEX directive 94/9/EC – "Product" directive
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 NEW APPROACH
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Obligation of results (EHSR) and not of means (standards)
 ADVANTAGE
• Laws remain fundamentally the same and applicable to minimum
EHSR.
• No longer necessary to make an adaptation (amendments to
standards, standards harmonisation, new directive, transposition in
national law…) in order to keep up with technical developments.
 DRAWBACKS
• End user to specify to which standards or codes the equipment
must be manufactured.
• End user to verify to which procedures the equipment has been
certified.
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 Equipment (machines including internal combustion engines, apparatus, fixed

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or mobile devices, control and instrumentation components, etc.).
 Protective systems (explosion relief systems, flame arresters, etc.).
 Components (item essential to the safe functioning of equipment and

protective systems but with no autonomous function: terminals, push button,
relays, empty flame proof enclosures, ballast for fluorescent lamps, etc.).
 Safety, controlling and regulating devices intended for use outside potentially
explosive atmospheres but required for the safe functioning of equipment or
protective systems with respect to the risk of explosions.
These safety devices were not covered by the old approach directive, e.g.:
• Fire and gas controller (control panel).
• Protective relay for Ex«e» motor.
• IS interface.
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 Medical devices.
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 Equipment and protective systems where the explosion hazards result

exclusively from the presence of explosive substances or unstable chemical
substances.
 Equipment intended for use in domestic and non‐commercial environments.
 Personal protective equipment covered by directive 89/686/EEC.
 Seagoing vessels and mobile offshore units (such as semi‐submersible
platforms, drilling jack up platforms)*, already covered by the IMO convention.
 Means of transport, except for vehicles intended for use in a potentially
explosive atmosphere.
* Fixed platforms, FPSO’s, FPP’s units are included in the scope (also vessels below 500t for navigation on river/lakes only).
 NOTE: Equipment with no specific ignition source does not fall within the scope of the
directive:
• civil engineering, structural elements.
• pressure vessels.
• piping, metallic hoses, manually operated valves.
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ATEX categories and zones
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 Equipment classification: CATEGORY

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Equipment Group I Mines (category M1‐M2)

Equipment Group II Surface (category 1‐2‐3)
• CATEGORY 1:
− 2 types of protection.
− In case of failure of one protection type, a second one (independent) must
ensure the required protection level.
− Even in case of rare faults:
• surface temperature
• temperature rise in the most unfavourable cases must always be mastered.
• residual energy
• CATEGORY 2:
− 1 type of protection
− Operational faults must be taken into account.
• CATEGORY 3:
− Required protection level for normal operation (no faults are taken into
account).
− Ignition sources to be avoided in normal operation.
− Surface temperature to be mastered.
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 Area classification: ZONES

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• Definitions of zones are the same as the ones given in the IEC /
CENELEC standards IEC / CENELEC 60 079‐10 (classification of
hazardous areas).
− Zone 0‐1‐2 for gas, vapors, mist.
− Zone 20‐21‐22 for dust.
 Equipment and Area classification link?

− The link between Area classification, i.e. explosive atmospheres (zone)
and equipment category is defined in the ATEX directive 1999/92/EC
("USER"), annex II B.
− Determination is in relationship with:
• The level of safety requirement (including possible operating faults and
"reasonable" possible misoperation).
• Nature of inflammable substances.
• Degree of presence or duration of the explosive atmospheres.
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Safety level Very high High Normal
Workplace
Zone 0 Category 1 G
Zone 1 Category 2 G
Zone 2 Category 3 G
Note: the above table gives the link between zone and equipment category, unless the Explosion
Protection Document based on a risk assessment (as required by the User Directive) states otherwise.
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 For GAS atmospheres: CAUTION!

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• Zone 0 requires category 1 equipment

 For DUST atmospheres :

• Zone 20 requires category 1 equipment.
• Zone 21 requires category 2 equipment.
• In Zone 22 area, conductive dust requires category 2 equipment and
IP6X protection.
• In Zone 22 area, non conductive dust requires category 3
equipment and IP5X protection.
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Potential ignition sources and other hazards to be
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• Various sources of ignition, such as sparks, flames, electric arcs,

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high surface temperatures, acoustic energy, optical radiation or

electromagnetic waves
• Static electricity
• Stray electric and leakage current
• Overheating (friction, etc)
• Pressure compensation operations
• Disturbance from external sources, such as overloading, faults,
changing environmental conditions, extraneous voltage, humidity,
vibrations or contamination.
• Software (fault in the programme)
• Power failure
• Connections (conduits and cable entries)
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Serie equipment examination
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Equipment Prototype examination Quality assurance

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Production Q.A.
Annex IV
CATEGORY EC type examination
by NB OR
1 Annex III Product verification
Annex V
Product Q.A.
Electrical equipment EC type examination Annex VII EC declaration
& internal combustion by NB OR of conformity
engine Annex III Conformity to type by Manufacturer
CATEGORY Annex VI
2 Internal control
Communicate the
Non electrical of production
Technical Dossier
equipment by Manufacturer
to N.B.
Annex VIII
Internal control
CATEGORY of production
by Manufacturer
3 Annex VIII
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 In addition to the former mentioned procedures for category 1‐2‐3 equipment,

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the manufacturer may also follow the procedure relating to "unit verification"
(Annex IX) related to sub‐assemblies or assemblies.
 Certified product + certified product = certified assembly?
 New potential added risks must be assessed.
 For category 3 and non electrical equipment of category 2:
• Prototype is not subject to EC type examination.
• Series equipment are only subject to "internal control of production"
under the manufacturer’s responsibility (self‐certification); no N.B.
intervention.
− For category 2 non electrical equipment, the manufacturer must send to the
N.B. the relevant technical documentation (to allow equipment conformity
assessment). 10 years storage.
− For category 3 non electrical equipment, no obligation to send the technical
documentation to the N.B. (only to put it at the Authorities’ disposal).
 The manufacturer or his representative installed within the E.U. or E.F.T.A. is
the only person who can attest the conformity to the directive and to the other
relevant Directives and authorizes the CE marking.
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Equipment
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P CE marking Supplementary marking marking
Additional marking
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εx
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CЄ 0081 II 2 G EEx d IIC T4

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CE marking
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Identification of the Notified Body Complementary marking
responsible for the surveillance. specifying the type of
0081 = LCIE (example) protection
The European Commission mark EEX: manufactured in accordance with CENELEC

for Ex products standards.
EX: manufactured in accordance with IEC standards.
d: mode of protection:
Equipment group: II for surface industry flame proof.
(I = mines)
IIC: gas sub‐division.
Equipment category: T4: temperature class.

1 for Zone 0 or 20,
2 for Zone 1 or 21
3 for Zone 2 or 22
Atmosphere surrounding the equipment
G for explosive gas, (D for dust)
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 NON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

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• CE0102 II 2 G C T3
 ASSEMBLY PUMP + MOTOR

• Pump: II2G IIB T4
• Motor: II2G IIB T3
• Assembly: II2G IIB T4
(as the motor is the part that meets the lower requirements)
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Ec type examination certificate number
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SIRA 04 ATEX 123

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Serial number
Reference to ATEX 94/9/EC directive
Year of certification
Name of Notified Body performing EC type examination
Suffixes:
U – component certification
X – special conditions for safe use apply
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Other directives applicable for Atex equipment
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 Equipment / materials must be also in conformity with the other

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applicable directives:
• Directive "Electromagnetic Compatibility" (EMC) 89/336 EEC
• Directive "Machinery" 98/37/EC
• Directive "Low voltage" (LVD) 73/23/EEC
only for safety, controlling and regulating devices
• Any other relevant directives
 The CE marking indicates that the product complies with all the
relevant EU directives.
IT IS NOT A QUALITY LABEL!
 The εx marking indicates that the product complies with the ATEX
directive.
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 The "Product" directive requires the following documents:

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• Issued by the Manufacturer on product delivery:

− EC Declaration of Conformity: declares conformity to ATEX Product
directive.
− Written Attestation of Conformity for Components: states
characteristics and how to be incorporated into equipment to conform
with EHSR.
• Issued by the N.B. to the Manufacturer (need not to accompany the

product to the user).
− EC Type Examination Certificate (cat. 1‐2: mandatory, cat. 3: optional).
− Quality Assessment Notification (as per directive ANNEXES).
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Conformity documents under atex directive 94/9/EC
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Attestation
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of Conformity
(components)
CUSTOMER
EC Type
Examination
Certificate
Instructions
for use
MANUFACTURER
NOTIFIED BODY
EC Quality
Declaration Assessment
of Conformity
Notification
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EC Declaration of conformity
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EC Type examination certificate
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Production quality assessment notification
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Selection of explosion protected equipment
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 CATEGORY  TYPE OF PROTECTION (d, e, p, i…)

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• The link is given in the corresponding CENELEC standard.
• The foreword states that this CENELEC standard covers the EHSR’s
of the ATEX "Product" directive and provides protection in
accordance with category 1 or 2 or 3 or M1 or M2.
• For a given category, several types of protection are proposed by

CENELEC standards, e.g.:
− Category 2 allows for "d", "p", "e", "i", "m", "o", "q" protection type.
− Category 3 allows for "n" protection type which includes itself 5
protection sub‐types: nA, nC, nR, nL, nP.
• End user to select the most appropriate type of protection.
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Selection of explosion protected equipment
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 INTEREST OF CATEGORY INTRODUCTION?

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• If a new type of protection is offered by technology in the future,

no need to revise the directive, but only to indicate in the
corresponding standard (covering this new type of protection)
which category it applies to.
• In the past with the old approach directive, referring to specific

standards, a revision would have been necessary.
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Non electrical equipment
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 New types of protection have been defined in a new series of CEN

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standards EN 13463‐1 to 8.
• Basic methods and requirements EN 13463‐1
Protection concept: list of ignition sources, risk analysis
methodology with examples.
• “fr” Flow restricting enclosure pr EN 13463‐2
Protection concept: tight seals of the enclosure. The seals restrict
the breathing of the enclosure as internal air heats and cools
through operation of the equipment.
• “d” Flame proof enclosure pr EN 13463‐3
Protection concept: as for electrical equipment.
• “g” Inherent safety pr EN 13463‐4
Protection concept: low potential energy.
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• “c” Constructional safety EN 13463‐5

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Protection concept: ignition hazards are eliminated by the

specification of the equipment.
• “b” Control of ignition source pr EN 13463‐6
Protection concept: sources of ignition are only present in the event
of malfunction. The equipment is fitted with control equipment to
detect malfunction.
• “p” Pressurisation EN 13463‐7
Protection concept: as for electrical equipment.
• “k” Liquid immersion EN 13463‐8
Protection concept: similar to "o".
 Type of protection "c" shall be probably the type of protection

the most widely used.
 But EHSR’s can be met by application of other standards.
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 G.T. not normally placed on the market as a single functional unit but generally
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incorporated into other equipment by a packager.

 G.T. is not CE marked as a product.
 Risk analysis by the packager, preparation of an Explosion Protection
Document demonstrating that the G.T. package can operate safely under the
"User" Directive.
 Dilution / ventilation is the preferred option for G.T. to ensure non explosive
atmosphere.
 Dilution / ventilation must be designed so that a negligible risk of an explosive
atmosphere may occur (100 % standly fan / UPS to ventilation fans, interlocks
to prevent G.T. starting without sufficient ventilation, use of equipment –
group II as appropriate, etc).
 Instructions on safety are provided by the G.T. manufacturer to the packager /
Operator.
 Area of concern: hot surfaces!
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 Many mechanical equipment are inherently safe but in some cases a few
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modifications / adjunctions have to be brought (adjunction of RTD’s…) to meet

the ATEX requirements.
 Valves (except manual valves) must be verified against possible source of
sparks (friction).
 High surface temperature on pipes/piping/vessels must be verified and must
remain below the Auto Ignition Temperature (A.I.T.) (ignored by the old
approach directive).
 Today mechanical equipment, in accordance with the ATEX directive
requirements, are available.
 Why ATEX directive has included "non electrical equipment"?
 It seems that the "Lawyer" has decided to use the "safety principle":
NO RISK AT ALL!
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Dust explosion protection
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 Dust is also considered as an explosive atmosphere by the ATEX

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directive.
 Protection is assumed to be met with the following:

• Tight enclosures: IP degree is a key factor.
• Limitation of surface temperature (depends on dust layer thickness,
or dust cloud).
 IEC 61 241 series and CENELEC EN 50 281 series cover the dust
ignition protection.
 Symbols:
• Formerly: IEC symbol: DIP (Dust Ignition Protection).
• Today: tD, pD, iD, mD (D stands for DUST and is the European
symbol).
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Short comparison between "new & old approach"
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OLD APPROACH NEW APPROACH (ATEX)

Equipment type Electrical (only) Electrical + non electrical
Atmosphere Gas (only) Gas + dust
Risks covered Electrical (only) All potential hazards (global concept for Safety)
- Level of Safety requirement category (1-2-3)
Equipment category -
- Link category / zone defined in the User directive
Applicable standards CENELEC standards imposed Any standard (provided it meets the EHSR)
- European : Certificate of Conformity (strict Certification by a Notified Body (EC type
compliance with CENELEC) examination certificate) or self certification by the
Certification
- National : Certificate of Control (not strictly in Manufacturer (depends on category of type of
compliance with CENELEC but OK with Safety) equipment)
Imposed in general terms but left to the discretion of
Manufacturer surveillance Addressed in more details through a series of
the EU member states for practical application
during production phase ANNEXES (no interpretation) (regular audit by NB)
(unequal application, various interpretation)
EC declaration of conformity (engages the
Putting on the market -
manufacturer responsibility)
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ATEX directive 1999/92/EC "User" directive
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 TITLE: Minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection
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of workers at risk from explosive atmospheres.

• Nothing similar did exist with the old approach.
• These are the minimum requirements but a E.U. country may decide to
add additional requirements.
 EXCLUDED: this directive does not apply to:
• Areas used for medical treatments of patients.
• Use of applicances burning gaseous fuels in accordance with Directive
90/396/EEC.
• Manufacture, handling, use, storage and transport of explosive or
chemical unstable substances.
• Mineral‐extracting industries* covered by Directive 92/91/EEC (drilling) or
Directive 92/104/EEC (mining).
• Means of transport by land, water and air to which the pertinent
provisions of the international agreements apply (e.g. ADNR, ADR, etc).
* many oil and gas production facilities in the E.U. are covered by these directives(The Netherlands, France, etc).
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 OBLIGATIONS OF THE EMPLOYER:

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• Prevention of the formation of explosive atmospheres.

• Avoidance of the ignition of explosive atmospheres.
• Mitigation of the detrimental effects of an explosion.
• Explosion risks assessment taking into account:
− The likelihood of explosive atmospheres and their persistence.
− The likelihood of ignition sources, including electrostatic discharges.
− The installations, the substances used, processes and their possible
interactions.
− The scale of the anticipated effects.
• Where explosive atmospheres may arise, the working environment
is such that work can be performed safely, appropriate supervision
during the presence of workers is ensured, using appropriate
technical means.
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• Duty of coordination: where workers from several undertakings are

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present at the same workplace, each employer shall be responsible for all
matters coming under his control.
• The employer responsible for the work place, in accordance with national
law and practice, shall coordinate the implementation of all the measures
concerning workers.
• The employer shall classify places where explosive atmospheres may occur
into zones (according to ANNEX 1, defining the zones 0‐1‐2 for gas
atmospheres and 20‐21‐22 for dust atmospheres).
• The employer shall ensure that the minimum requirements laid down in
the ANNEX IIA are applied:
− Training of workers.
− Written instruction and permits to work.
− Explosion protection measures:
• Flammable gases release suitably diverted or removed to a safe area.
• Workers provided with appropriate working clothes when electrostatic discharges
may arise.
• Work places and work equipment designed, constructed, assembled, maintained
and operated to minimise the risks of an explosion.
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• If an explosion occurs, minimise its propagation and protect workers from
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physical effects
• Workers must be given optical and/or acoustic warning signs before the
explosion conditions are reached.
• Escape facilities must be provided when required.
• Before a work place containing places where explosive atmospheres may
occur is used for the first time, its overall explosion safety must be verified
by a competent person.
• When the risk assessment shows it is necessary:
• Provisions against power failure must be taken
• Manual override by competent workers
• Dissipate energy quickly and safely on operation of an ESD.
• Warning signs for location where explosive atmospheres may occur
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• Preparation of the Explosion Protection Document (EPD)

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This document shall be drawn up and kept to date by the employer;

it will demonstrate that:
− The explosion risks have been determined and assessed.
− Adequate measures have been taken to attain the Directive’s aim.
− Work places have been classified into zones as per ANNEX I.
− Work places and work equipment, including warning devices, are
designed, operated and maintained with due regard to safety.
− Arrangements have been made for safe use of work equipment (as per
the Directive 89/655/EEC).
• The EPD shall be drawn up prior to the commencement of work and
revised when work place / work equipment or organisation are
subject to significant changes, extensions or conversions.
 The EPD shall be made available
for possible review by the AUTHORITIES.
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• Date of application for work equipment and work places:

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− New facilities: work places: 30/06/2003 (annex IIA and IIB)

work equipment: 30/06/2003
− Existing facilities: work places*: 30/06/2006 (only annex IIA)

work equipment**: 30/06/2003
− Modifications, extensions, restructuring made after the 30/06/2003:

30/06/2003.
• ANNEX IIA: minimum requirements for improving the safety and

health of workers.
• ANNEX IIB: criteria for the selection of equipment (category vs
zone).
* The "USER" Directive is RETROACTIVE and applicable for existing facilities!
** The "PRODUCT" Directive is NOT RETROACTIVE (no recertification) BUT the employer must carry
out an assessment to demonstrate that the existing work equipment are still safe!
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Atex directive 94/9/EC – TOTAL / E&P Viewpoint
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 ATEX directive 94/9/EC opens the door to INNOVATION, since any

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standard may be used, removing technical barriers to trade (aim

of the directive).
 Conformity assessment to the directive by a N.B. is only required

for category 1‐2 equipment (i.e for zone 0/20 and zone 1/21).
 Category 3 equipment (for zone 2‐22): no obligation for

certification by a N.B. (self‐certification authorized), due to the
low probability of an explosive atmosphere occurrence.
 Manufacturers installed outside Europe, through their authorized

representative (installed in the Community) are authorized to
affix the CE marking, which is the passport to Europe.
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ATEX directive 94/9/EC – TOTAL / E&P Viewpoint
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 Frauds become possible from unscrupulous foreign

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manufacturers or their authorized representative (who may be

the importer) and who may not hesitate to affix the CE marking
to a product for which the EHSR’s are questionable!
 RISK FOR THE END USER WHO CAN BE DECEIVED!

Although provisions have been made in the directive for
sanctions against guilty manufacturers in case of deviations.
To avoid possible deviations TOTAL / E&P has decided the

following: Refer to
• GS ELE 079
• GS INS 101
• GS MEC 290
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TOTAL/E&P Requirements – ATEX directive 94/9/EC
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1. EC Type Examination Certificate

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• Requested by TOTAL / E&P for category 1‐2 of equipment (required by the

directive) and category 3 (not required by the directive).
2. EC Declaration of Conformity + Written Attestation of Conformity for
components
• Requested by TOTAL / E&P for any category of equipment (required by
the directive).
3. Category 3 electrical equipment
• To be "certified" by a N.B.  "type examination certificate" (Statement of
Compliances).
• No self certification by manufacturer shall be accepted.
4. STANDARDS
• Only CENELEC standards (harmonised or not) shall be recognised by
TOTAL / E&P
• IEC standards accepted too, provided they are identical to CENELEC
standards (it is not the case today). In the future IEC and CENELEC
standards should become identical (Dresden agreement).
• Other standards subject to formal TOTAL / E&P approval.
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5. QUALITY ASSURANCE
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• TOTAL / E&P requires on all new or "suspect" manufacturers, or in

case of doubt about the quality / safety of the proposed product,
− a "Production quality assessment" notification (for category 1)
− a "Product quality assurance" notification (for category 2 and 3)
• These notifications are delivered by the N.B. to the manufacturer
after successful audit at manufacturer’s workshops.
• These various "quality assurance" of the products / production are
new and appreciated by TOTAL / E&P (better confidence in
products quality).
• Yet TOTAL / E&P regrets that nothing has been provided in the
directive to assess the Q.A. of category 3 equipment which include
many bulk materials (junction boxes, welding sockets, luminaires,
etc.).
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6. NON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

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• For mechanical equipment of category 2 and 3, self‐certification by

the manufacturer shall not be accepted (internal control of
production).
• For category 2 mechanical equipment, the ATEX directive imposes
the manufacturer to communicate to the N.B. the technical
documentation to be kept as archive only and to be opened only
in case of ...!
It is surprising that the N.B. has not been requested to verify the
content and validity of the documents submitted by the
manufacturer!!
7. APPLICATION OF ATEX DIRECTIVE 94/9/EC

• Application in the E.U. and E.F.T.A. countries is obviously
mandatory.
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 Application outside the E.U. countries is also mandatory by TOTAL

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/ E&P decision for the following reasons:

• Manufacturers standard:
− Most internationally recognised manufacturers propose "ATEX
certified" products.
− Several notable American manufacturers are taking steps to apply the
ATEX directive (turbogenerators...).
− Today most manufacturers produce equipment in conformity with
CENELEC standards.
• Uniformity:
− Difficult to accept for TOTAL / E&P two different rules (inside and
outside Europe) for items related to safety at the highest level.
− If ATEX directive was not applied outside Europe, the only way to
certify equipment would be to accept a "Certificate of conformity" to
IEC standards.
− For simplification and ease of understanding, TOTAL / E&P shall apply
one rule: ATEX Directive 94/9/EC.
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• Simplification, consistency and standardisation:

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− For TOTAL / E&P managing various projects it is better to apply

simple and consistent rules that allow all potential manufacturers to
be compared and selected on a transparent basis.
− Apparently the ATEX directive 94/9/EC is becoming a de facto
international "code" and not only a European one (several non
European countries recognize the ATEX directive).
8. NOTIFIED BODIES
• Number of N.B.s has passed from some fifteen (old directive) to
about 55! New comers are expected in the future (Romania,
Bulgaria, etc).
• As many N.B.s will be new to many users some form of forum is
required to report feedback to ensure new N.B.s meet the paper
requirements.
• TOTAL / E&P wonders whether competence of all the N.B.s will be
identical, although it is on the paper. This is a serious issue.
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• The E.U. commission has been criticised for this issue, but the E.U.
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commission has no power for the appointment of a N.B. which

remains in the hands of the Member States’ Authorities.
• The non acceptance by an Operator of an E.C. type examination

certificate and/or a quality assurance notification issued by a
Notified Body who might appear "doubtful" is illegal!
• A restrictive list of Notified Bodies would be also illegal!
• Major concern also at other Operators!
• For TOTAL/E&P projects, it is highly advisable to identify the
NOTIFIED BODY before place the P.O., and remain very cautious
with "unknown" N.B.
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Partial list of notified bodies (today 55 N.B.!)
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LIST OF NOTIFIED BODIES UNDER DIRECTIVE 94/9/EC

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Country Name of Notified Body Identification

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number
Austria Technischer Uberwachungs-Verein Ostereich (TUV-A) 0408
Belgium Institut Scientifique des Services Publics (ISSEP) (ex INIEX) 0492
Denmark Danmarks elektriske Materialkontrol (DEMKO) 0539
Finland Technical research Centre of Finland (VTT) 0537
France Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques 0080
(INERIS) (ex: CERCHAR)
Laboratoire Central des Industries Electriques (LCIE) 0081
Germany Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) 0102
Bergbau-Versuchsstrecke (BVS)
TUV Hannover / Sachsen-Anhalt eV (TUV CERT) 0032
TUV Product Service GmbH (Munchen) 0123
DMT Gesellschaft fur Forschung und Prufung mbH (Essen)
Forschungsgesellschaft fur angewandte Systemsicherheit 0158
und Arbeitsmedizin mbH (FSA) - Mannheim 0588
Bundesanstalt fur Materialforschung und Prufung (BAM) - 0589
Berlin
IBExU-Institut fur Sicherheitstechnik GmbH – Freiberg 0637
Zelm ex Pruf- und Zertifizierungsstelle - Braunschweig 0820
Italy Centre Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano (CESI) 0722
Luxembourg Service de l’Energie de l’Etat (SEE) 0499
Netherlands KEMA Registered Quality BV 0344
Northern Industrial Science Centre (ISC)
Ireland
Norway Norges Elektrske Materiell Kontroll (NEMKO) 0470
Det Norske Veritas Classification AS (DNV)
0575
Spain Laboratorio Oficial José Maria Madariaga (LOM) 0163
Sweden Sveriges Provnings- OCH Forskininstitut (SP) 0402
United Electrical Equipment Certification Service (EECS) (ex 0600
BASEEFA)
Kingdom Sira Certification Service (SCS)
0518
ITS Testing and Certification Ltd 0359
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Conclusion
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 The ATEX story is not still the final chapter. Many discussions are
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still in progress with various partners including public authorities

(CLATEX in France, etc.).
 An "ATEX WORKING GROUP" has been created within TOTAL

organisation for coordination and implementation of the two
directives at Group level.
 An implementation guide has been recently issued (first edition).
 More responsibility is placed on the end user, in line with a

general trend found in other domains where the responsibility is
more and more on the end user’s shoulders whatever technical
provisions have been made.
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Conclusion
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  Greater vigilance for the next 2‐3 years is advisable to allow

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all the involved parties to be fully familiarised with all these new
concepts and requirements.
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Useful websites
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 Text of directive 94/9/EC:

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• http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/atex/direct/newpproach/ht
 List of competent authorities known to the Commission:

• http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/atex/listcomp.htm
 Useful addresses:
• http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/atex/usefullinks.htm
 List of Notified Bodies:

• http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/atex/nb/nblist.htm
 List of Harmonised Standards:

• http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/newapproach/standardization/ha
rmstds/reflist/atex.htm
 IEC Ex Scheme:
• www.iecex.com/about.htm
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The IECEx system (world level)
New rules for explosive atmospheres
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The IECEx System
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 The IECEx system is an international conformity assessment

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scheme for electrical equipment for use in hazardous locations

(HazLoc), based on IEC’s International Standards.
 It is a voluntary certification scheme intended to facilitate global

trade (ATEX is mandatory in the E.U. countries).
 The IECEx system aim is to achieve a harmonised product

evaluation by eradicating the need for multiple national
certification, reducing costs (testing and certification) to the
manufacturer, reducing barriers to entry, reducing time to
market.
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The IECEx System
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 Many countries operate under different standards, Ex equipment

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often needs to be re‐tested and re‐certified to the appropriate

standards of that country.
 Under the IECEx scheme, Ex products will be tested by National
Certification Bodies, to ensure that the product has been
manufactured and tested to IEC international standards.
 An Ex product will receive an IECEx Test Report (ExTR), which is
acceptable to all other countries within the scheme.
 In addition to the ExTR, the manufacturer will obtain an IECEx
Certificate of Conformity (ExCoC) from a Certification Body
accepted in the scheme. The ExCoC will enable the manufacturer
to sell his products in other countries without going through their
national certification bodies.
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The IECEx System
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 A Quality Assessment Report (QAR) of the factory producing the

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Ex product shall be delivered to the manufacturer after successful

audit.
 The manufacturer will affix the IECEx mark of conformity to

illustrate compliance to the IEC Ex scheme.
 The QAR is based on a document which is identical to the ANNEX

IV of the ATEX directive (whatever the product).
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The IECEx System
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IEC STANDARDS:
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 The IEC Ex is based on IEC international standards.
 Therefore, every national standard applied by member countries

of the Scheme must be identical to the corresponding IEC
standards.
 For countries where national standards are not identical to IEC

standards, a period of transition will take place, allowing time for
the standards to be made identical to those of IEC, and for
national acceptance of CoC and the IEC Ex mark of conformity.
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The IECEx System
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 Following publications have been relased by the IECEx system :

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• IEC Ex 01: IECEx scheme for Certification to Standards for Electrical

Equipment for explosive atmospheres. « Basic Rules ».
• IEC Ex 02: « Certified Equipment Scheme ». Rules of Procedures.
• IEC Ex 03: « Certified Service Facilities Scheme ». (Repair and

overhaul)
• IEC Ex 04: « Conformity Mark Licensing scheme »
• IEC Ex 05: « Certification of Personnel Competencies »
The above documents are completed by a set of Operational Documents (OD’s)
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The IEC Ex Scheme
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 The ultimate aim of the IEC Ex scheme is a worldwide acceptance

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of:
• ONE STANDARD: IEC 60079 series for explosion protection
techniques, and IEC 61241 for combustible dust.
• ONE CERTIFICATE: one certificate from one certification body

(Electronic certificates via a secure Internet Website).
• ONE MARK: one single IEC Ex Mark accepted in all countries.
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An example
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 A UK Manufacturer wishes to export Ex products to Canada.

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Sends the equipment to
a UK certification body
Tests to IEC standards,
issues an IECEx Test Report (ExTR)
Manufacturer sends ExTR
to Canadian certification body
in the IECEx Scheme
Recognising the UK body as a member of IECEx,
the foreign body issues a certificate without
the need for testing the equipment
The UK Manufacturer can now affix
the mark of conformity of Canada and can now
export the equipment to these countries
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Edition 1.0 2008-08

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IECEx PUBLICATION
IEC System for Certification to Standards relating to Equipment for use

in Explosive Atmospheres
An Informative Guide comparing various elements of both IECEx and ATEX

IECEx 01A:2008(E)
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THIS PUBLICATION IS COPYRIGHT PROTECTED
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Copyright © 2008 IEC, Geneva, Switzerland

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All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form
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Edition 1.0 2008-08

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IECEx PUBLICATION
IEC System for Certification to Standards relating to Equipment for use

in Explosive Atmospheres
An Informative Guide comparing various elements of both IECEx and ATEX
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION PRICE CODE
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–2– IECEx 01A © IEC:2008(E)
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INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION
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An Informative Guide comparing various elements

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of both IECEx and ATEX
INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of the IECEx On-Line Certificate of Conformity, late 2003, there has
been a constant flow of inquires seeking an explanation of the differences between the IECEx
System and European ATEX System.
This document aims to provide a brief overview of the differences between the IECEx and the
ATEX Systems relating to specific items that are commonly raised.
This document is not a full listing of the differences and the reader is encouraged to consult an
appropriate organization, body or individual when in need of a more detailed explanation of
such differences.
Likewise, the information contained in this document is for information purposes with the rules
of the IECEx System and ATEX system taking precedence at all times.
Document History
Date Summary
August 2008 Original Issue (Version 1)
Address:
IECEx Secretariat
SAI Global Building
286 Sussex Street
Sydney NSW 2000
Australia
Contact Details:
Tel: +61 2 8206 6940
Fax: +61 2 8206 6272
e-mail: chris.agius@iecex.com
http://www.iecex.com
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Brief Table of Comparison
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ITEM IECEx ATEX
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Organisation / Management Industry Representatives E. U. Commission
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(Manufacturers, Certification Bodies, Ex (Government Regulatory)
Equipment End Users, Regulators, Community
interests)
IECEx 01A © IEC:2008(E)
Aim One Single Certificate, for any hazardous area Covers Equipment, Remove barriers to trade and
product and Services recognised and accepted improve safety for equipment and workers
worldwide (Market Acceptance)
Validity / Legal Today: ATEX Directive is Law in all the E. U. Countries

- Products with IECEx Certificate accepted in (Mandatory application)
several countries
- Alternatively a single test report (ExTR) can be Limited to Europe
–3–
sent to any IECEx Certifier to issue locally

accepted certification
Field of Application Current:

- Electrical and Non electrical products and - Electrical and non electrical products and
systems systems
- Gas / Dust Industries - Gas / Dust Industries
- Now Covering SERVICE INDUSTRIES, e.g. Repair - Equipment ONLY
and Overhaul
Standards Used International Standards only, e.g. IEC Any recognised Standard may be applied provided
it meets the Essential Health and Safety
Requirements of the Directive. However, the E.U.
Commission approves list of Harmonised
Standards.
Compliance to Standards is mandatory Allows for Interpretation
Compliance to Standards not mandatory but is

generally used to assess products
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ITEM IECEx ATEX
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Certification Procedure ExCBs issue [for Certified Equipment Scheme]: ExNBs issue ai
- ExTR (Product Type) - EC Type examination certificate ni
- Ex QAR (production facility quality audit) - Ex QAN (Quality Assessment notification for ng
- IECEx CoC (Certificate of Conformity) production facility)
ExCBs issue [for Certified Service Facilities

Scheme]:
- CAR (IEC 60079-19 Compliance Report Form)
- FAR (Facilities Audit Report Form)
- IECEx CoC (Certificate of Conformity)
On-Line Certificate of Conformity System:

- Reports are officially registered on IECEx
website http://www.iecex.com
- Electronic On-Line CoC available for full public
view, acts as master controlled version
–4–
Common Rules applicable to all applications:

- Rules of Procedure for each Scheme (IECEx 02,
IECEx 03, IECEx 04)
- Operational Document ODs provide Standard
operating procedures to be followed by all
ExCBs
- Technical Decision Sheets
- Accessible full listing along with all System
documents maintained and available via single
IECEx website location
- Single appeals body available
- Decisions of the Management Committee are
binding on all ExCBs, Certificate Holders etc.
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ITEM IECEx ATEX
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Conformity Assessment For IECEx Certified Equipment Scheme: ai
Declaration of Conformity by Manufacturer to ni
ExTR + QAR = IECEx Certificate of Conformity declare that he is in possession of necessary ng
(CoC) documents and reports.
ExTR = IECEx Test Report - Certificate issued by ExNB only for category 1 / 2
QAR = IECEx Quality Assessment Report and M 1 / 2 electrical equipment
Applicable to ALL products, no difference between - Self certification allowed for Category 3 and
Zones or products Category 2 Mechanical.
CoC issued via Secure IEC website ensures FULL

Public access to issued Certificates
Self Certification not permitted

–5–
For IECEx Certified Services: Does not cover service facilities.
FAR + Assessment of Competencies = IECEx

Certificate
FAR = Facilities Audit Report
Applicable to ALL Services

CoC issued via Secure IEC website ensures FULL
Public access to issued Certificates
Self Certification not permitted

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ITEM IECEx ATEX
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Organisms for Certification All ExCBs and ExTLs are subject to the following ATEX Notified Bodies (ExNBs) appointed by ai
assessment: individual nomination of the governments of their ni
countries. ng
- Initial Peer Assessment by a 3 member IECEx
Assessment Team, prior to entry to IECEx A common assessment system does not exist.
- Annual Surveillance of ExCBs and ExTLs Surveillance of ExNBs dependant upon national
governments
- 5 Year re-assessment for all ExCBs and ExTLs
Dedicated IECEx Technical Secretariat to manage

day to day operations of the IECEx System
IECEx Management Committee (ExMC)
IECEx Technical Assessment Group (ExTAG)

–6–
IECEx Conformity Mark Committee (ExMarkCo)
Manufacturer Surveillance ExCB maintains the Status of the IECEx Certificate ExNBs conduct regular audits of manufacturers
of Conformity based on the outcome of follow up
Quality Audits, QARs
Work place Requirements Nothing – Refers to National regulations ATEX Directive 137 contains special requirements
for workers and management.
Putting IECEx and ATEX Together

The Key Elements:
- Technically Identical Standards for Electrical Equipment since 2005 (very few exceptions)
- When using IEC Standards a single set of Tests and assessments can be used for both IECEx and ATEX, in accordance with the
respective rules
- An ATEX EC Type Examination can be based on an IECEx ExTR BUT ATEX documentation alone is not sufficient for IECEx
- QA audits are the same for both IECEx and ATEX.
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INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
3, rue de Varembé
PO Box 131
CH-1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland
Tel: + 41 22 919 02 11
Fax: + 41 22 919 03 00
info@iec.ch
www.iec.ch

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12. Electrical installation works

The following are general considerations, as seen by an electrical

engineer (past, present, future)

 Connection to a public grid (reliability?) or local own generation

 Power supply to satellites (cluster) either by local generation or centralized

 Construction works with sometimes electrical equipment energized (to

 Power increase since the 80’s (5/10 MW – 40 MW – 100 MW and more)

 Use of Electro‐submersible pump (ESP) at variable speed (offshore). Operation

 Tar sands extraction (Canada) requires huge quantities of energy (steam).

 Deep offshore requires installation of FPSO (especially in Africa)

 Development of all electric well

 Sustainable Development input to be integrated in facilities

design but with which impact? (CO2 emission, energy efficiency…)

 Motor efficiency: many efforts from manufacturers to increase

 Consideration for use of Renewable Energies (solar energy

 First development of platforms supplied by HVDC subsea cable

 An electrical system includes always 3 parts whatever the type of

 This section aims at covering only a few basics

To supply the plant with electrical power

230kV 230kV 11kV

'' 33kV '' HV

'' 400V '' LV SWITCHBOARD

MCC LIGHTING DC BATTERIES LIGHTING

NORMAL EMERGENCY ESSENTIAL

− Public Utility (P.U) network capacity (MW available)

− Power availability (frequency of power cuts / outages / disturbances) – may be

• Emergency lighting and escape lighting, and beaconing (offshore)

The architecture of the electrical system is always a compromise between:

DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, COSTS OF THESE ITEMS ARE VERY DIFFERENT

Electrical Consumers (loads) are mainly motors, lighting, heaters,

and sometimes Variable Speed Drives (V.S.D.).

 V.S.D. (Variable Speed Drive sometimes referred as ASD=Adjustable Speed

A V.S.D. (Variable Speed Drive) equipment is made of:

UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply)

 These units aim at supplying consumers which cannot tolerate

 They include a rectifier bridge, a battery, an inverter + a

 For loads to be supplied at DC, the units include a rectifier bridge

 Attention is drawn to readers that this chapter MUST not be

ignored by engineers, technicians, supervisors, whatever the

 Industrial facilities, including electrical installations, are subject to

meet requirements of rules

 These rules can be divided into 2 categories:

 The rule of LAW is a « legal maxim » that states no person is

 REGULATION is controlling human or societal behaviour by rules

• O.S.H.A. (Occupational Health and Safety Administration) for onshore

 The main goal of the European Union EU is the progressive

integration of Member States’ economic and political systems

 To this end, its Member States cede part of their sovereignty

 These laws (regulations, directives and decisions) take

automatic enforcement, no action from national government for

 Decision: specific cases for particular authorities

The Commission’s role is to ensure EU laws are properly applied

 The European Union directives known as the “New Approach

directives” define “essential requirements” as to health, safety

 The three European Standardisation Organisations, CEN

 An International standard is a document, established by

consensus and approved by a recognized body, that provides, for

 This international standard is made available to the public.

 The word "consensus" is important since it represents a common

 Consensus does not imply unanimity!

LEVEL NON ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

INTERNATIONAL ISO IEC IUT