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Research Methods Lecture 2 Dr.

Yassir Abdulkadhim Yassir

STAGES OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Generally, the stages of the scientific research process are shown in the flow chart. Research process
should be explained in details, the purpose should be clearly defined, research design, methods of
data collection and analysis should be carefully planned and appropriate, the validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully, and the researcher should have a good knowledge and control
over research methodologies and should declare all the possible errors and limitations of the
research.

Flow Chart of Research Process

Identify a Research Topic

Review of Literature

Define the Research Question

Generate the Research Hypothesis

Design the Research

Collect Data

Analyse Data - Test


the Hypothesis

Interpret &
Report

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Research Methods Lecture 2 Dr. Yassir Abdulkadhim Yassir

Identifying a Research Topic


Getting started with the first step can seem uncertain because of the difficulty of how to choose a
topic, or deciding what would be a “good” topic. A helpful rule of thumb is to select a subject that is
of interest, either personally or professionally (or both). You may or may not already know something
about the topic, but you must like it enough to want to learn more about it. Without genuine appeal
and curiosity, any topic can quickly become uninteresting. Keep in mind that the research process is
lengthy and extensive, and tremendous focus and energy can be exhausted. If you don’t really like the
topic you’re studying, then you’ll probably hate it by the end of the research process. If you have had
the topic chosen for you, try instead choosing a research method which interests you. It is usually
recommended to start with a general topic until you’ve had a chance to explore the existing literature
on the subject and begin to narrow down your topic in a more specific context.

Review of Literature
Reviewing the literature can be time consuming and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. Reviewing
the literature is a continuous process. It begins before a research problem is finalized and continues
until the report is finished. The literature review can help in four ways. It can:

1. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area.

2. Clarify and focus to your research problem.

3. Improve your research methodology.

4. Integrate your findings with the existing body of knowledge.

There are four sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography:

1. Books (good quality but not always up-to-date)


2. Journals (up-to-date information)
3. The Internet (e.g. PubMed Central which can be looked at as a logical extension of MEDLINE
“MEDlars onLINE" which is the major international reference database for biomedical
computerized literature).
4. Suggestions of previous studies
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Research Methods Lecture 2 Dr. Yassir Abdulkadhim Yassir

It is also important for the researcher to attend scientific meetings, be a good observer and
imaginative in order to conceive a good research topics.

Note: The term ‘non-peer reviewed literature’ includes ‘free’ journals, daily and weekly newspapers,
and online material such as Wikipedia. In general, they should not be quoted in a scientific paper as
they are not peer reviewed and may contain opinions that cannot be supported with objective
scientific facts.

Having performed a literature searching, the topic becomes more clarified and defined and the
research question/problem can be clearly stated.

Criteria for a good research topic are:

1. Feasibility: The research can be done and completed in terms of the number of subjects required,
research facility, cost, investigators’ expertise, and the research objectives.

2. Interest: The research topic must be of interest to the investigators and to the scientific
community. If the investigators are not excited about the topic, or cannot get colleagues
interested in it, the project is probably not worth doing.

3. Novelty and Relevance (so-what?): Novel does not necessarily mean that the research has not
been done before. The progress of science is incremental, with knowledge gradually building up
from different studies. The question should not be about whether the study has been done
before, but whether it will have the potential to advance scientific knowledge, influence clinical
management, influence health policy, or guide further research.

4. Ethical: Ethical issues must be addressed at the early stage of selecting the research topic. Other
ethical issues will need to be addressed in planning the research.

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Research Methods Lecture 2 Dr. Yassir Abdulkadhim Yassir

Defining and Refining the Research Question


In order to develop the research design, the research topic/problem often has to be changed to a
research question, and the research question should be defined and refined so that it can be
answered with precision.

The research question should be clear, simple, and direct (answerable). Questions that begin with
"why" are difficult to answer.

The formulation of a research question/problem is like the identification of a destination before


undertaking a journey. In the absence of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest – or
indeed any – route.

Once you sum up your research project in one sentence, discuss your sentence with your
supervisor and revise if there is any confusion.

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Research Methods Lecture 2 Dr. Yassir Abdulkadhim Yassir

Generating the Research Hypothesis


If the research question is concerned with relationships between observations or variables, a research
hypothesis will need to be developed. The research hypothesis is an unproven theory that can be
tested by a scientific research design. Like the research question, the hypothesis should be simple,
clear and specific (usually indicate the direction of the relationship or differences in groups).

Hypotheses can be derived from theory or suggested from previous research, clinical experience,
or observation. The purpose of the study is to test the hypothesis and, ultimately, to provide evidence
so that the researcher can accept or reject it.

There are two types of hypothesis; the null hypothesis (H0) or the hypothesis of “no effect” and the
alternative hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis (H0) assumed that there is no difference between two
sets of data. If the difference could have arisen by chance (not real), then H0 is true and it cannot be
rejected. If the difference could not have arisen by chance (real difference), then H0 is false and it can
be assumed that there is a difference between the two data sets. In this case, the alternative
hypothesis (H1), namely that there is a difference between the two data sets, is adopted. To explain
the procedure statistically, we need to calculate the probability that the two sets of data are part of
the same population. If this probability is less than 5% (P ≤ 0.05), then the chance that there is no
difference between the two data sets (namely that H0 is true) is less than 1 in 20. In which case, H0
can be rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) can be accepted.

When testing the hypothesis, two types of error can occur:

• Type 1 error: rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive)

• Type 2 error: accepting false null hypothesis (false negative)

Note: in qualitative studies, construction of hypotheses is neither advocated nor practiced.

❖ Check the Supplementary Materials for Lecture 2

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