G
Gear Hobbing
▶ Gear Cutting
Gear Cutting
Fritz Klocke
Fraunhofer-Institut f€ur Produktionstechnologie,
Aachen, Germany
Synonyms
Bevel gear; Broaching; Continuous cutting of
bevel gears; Cylindrical gear; Gear hobbing;
Indexing cutting of bevel gears; Manufacturing
technology; Shaping
Definition
Gears are used in many applications and geome-
tries. The geometry reaches from gears with only a
few millimeters of diameters until large gears with
diameters of several meters. Most power gears
for the automotive and high-performance
industry sector are manufactured by cutting.
Further manufacturing technologies are casting,
powder metallurgy, and forming. The most
common gear types for such applications are
cylindrical and bevel gears. The general geome-
try elements of gears are manufactured by
The International Academy for Production Engineering (ed.),
CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20617-7, # CIRP 2014
conventional technologies like turning and
grinding. But for manufacturing of the tooth
gap, gear-specific manufacturing technologies
are used. This is caused due to the complex
geometry and high requirements on the
manufacturing accuracy of gears.
Figure 1 shows the two general gear cutting
technologies: generating and profiling
manufacturing technologies. This refers to the
cutting of cylindrical gears as well as bevel
gears. Generating manufacturing technologies
mostly have a more complex process kinematic
and tool design. They are more flexible regarding
the workpiece design. It is possible to machine
gears with different number of teeth and profile
modification with one tool design. In addition
to that, a continuous movement of the tool is
possible. But generating manufacturing technol-
ogies work with a point contact between the tool
and the workpiece. The results are feed mark and
generated cut deviations by machining with a
defined cutting edge.
Theory and Application
Gear Cutting of Cylindrical Gears
For cylindrical gears, different machining
operations are used depending on size, geometry,
and the demanded geometrical accuracy of the
parts. Gear planing, gear hobbing, gear shaping,
and gear skiving are generating cutting processes,
while form milling and broaching are profiling
processes.
G 570
Gear Cutting, Fig. 1 Overview on gear cutting technologies
Gear Cutting, Fig. 2 Overview on the generating gear cutting technologies for cylindrical gears
Generating Manufacturing Technologies
In generating gear cutting processes, the gear
profile is generated by a rolling movement of
the tool along the workpiece. Thus, an involute
profile can be generated by straight tool profiles.
Using generating processes, parts with different
numbers of teeth and addendum modifications
can be machined using the same tool. Different
Gear Cutting
generating processes are used for cylindrical
gears (Fig. 2). Gear hobbing and gear shaping
are widely used in the industrial production
(Bausch 2010).
Gear Planing Gear planing is a production
method, which uses a rack-type cutter in the
shape of the gear reference profile. The clearance
Gear Cutting
Gear Cutting, Fig. 3 Designation of workpiece and tool in gear hobbing
angle is realized by relief grinding. The rack is
moved tangentially along the rolling workpiece
while carrying out an oscillation along the
workpiece axis. This oscillation can be divided
into a cutting stroke and a return stroke. Before
the return stroke, the tool is drawn of the
workpiece to avoid collisions. As the number of
teeth on the tool is normally smaller than the
number of teeth on the workpiece, an indexing
movement is necessary during the process.
Gear Hobbing Gear hobbing is the most
productive generating process for external cylin-
drical gears. The kinematics in gear hobbing is
similar to a worm rolling on a worm drive. The
worm represents the tool, while the worm gear
represents the workpiece. A spur gear is produced by
a feed in axial direction along the workpiece (Fig.
3).
The hob equals a worm, which is divided into
single teeth by chip flutes, which are either
parallel to the worm’s middle axis or helical
along the worm. The number of these chip flutes is
called number of flutes or number of gashes (ni).
The number of threads on the hob is called
number of starts (z0). The helix angle (g0) of
the hob results from the normal pitch (pn,0) and
571
the tool reference diameter (d ). To produce the
0
necessary clearance angle, the teeth are relief
ground. The tool is ground in a way, in which
the tool profile stays constant after regrinding the
tool’s rake faces.
During the process, the tool is tilted against the
workpiece by a tilting or pivot angle (Z), which
equals the difference of the helix angle of the
workpiece (b ) and the helix angle of the tool
2
(g ). To machine the whole part, the tool is
0
moved along the workpiece middle axis with an
axial feed (fa) (NN 1976).
Gear Shaping Gear shaping is a process used
for external and internal gears. Due to little
run-out length and the possibility to use small
tools, gear shaping has advantages in the produc-
tion of internal gears and parts with interfering
contours.
The tool in gear shaping equals a cylindrical
gear with the tool reference profile. To produce a
clearance angle, the tool is relief ground,
resulting in a beveloid gear shape. The kinemat-
ics of the process can be described by two rolling
cylindrical gears superposed with an oscillating
movement of the shaper cutter. The oscillation
can be divided into a cutting stroke and a return
G 572
Gear Cutting, Fig. 4 Profiling manufacturing technologies
stroke. Before the return stroke, the tool is
drawn off the workpiece to avoid collisions. For
the production of helical gears, another rotational
movement of tool and workpiece is necessary.
This movement can be realized by a mechanical
screw guidance or the machine’s numerical unit. The
mechanical guidance allows higher numbers of
strokes, but it is limited to one helix angle. For a
change in the helix angle, the guidance has to be
replaced. The numerical control is more
flexible, as it can be used for different helix
angles. The possible number of strokes using
the NC guidance is lower (NN 2003).
Gear Skiving Gear skiving is another generat-
ing manufacturing technology for gear
manufacturing. The kinematics of the process
resembles those of a crossed helical gear trans-
mission. The cross axis angle (S) is the sum of the
helix angles of tool and workpiece. A sliding
movement along the lead of the workpiece results
from the cross axis angle, allowing the formation
of chips.
The skiving wheel is similar to shaper cutters. It
can be either conical or cylindrical. Using
conical cutters, the clearance angle is already
realized in the tool. These processes are designed in
a way that the cross axis point lies on the
plane of the cutter face. Using cylindrical cutters,
Gear Cutting
the clearance angle has to be realized in the
kinematics. The tool is tilted away from the work-
piece, leading to an offset of the cross axis point
away from the cutter face.
Profiling Manufacturing Technologies
The tools used in profiling manufacturing
technologies have the same profile as the finished
tooth gap. For this reason, each gear geometry
needs its individual tool.
Form Milling Form milling is a indexing gear
cutting process. The most common tools for form
milling of gear teeth are circular type milling
cutters. The rotational axis of circular type mill- ing
cutters is crossed with the workpiece middle
axis by Z = 90□ □ b . During the process, the tool
2
completes a feed motion in flank direction of the
tooth (Fig. 4). A second opportunity are end mill
cutters. Form milling of gears with end mill
cutters is a rarely applicated technology. This is
caused by the inferior wear behavior. Herring-
bone and large module gears, where the needed
minimal diameter of side milling cutters will be so
large that the tool becomes uneconomical, are
possible applications. End mill cutting can be
done on milling and turning machines.
Milling with side milling cutters is the only
technology to green machine large module
Gear Cutting 573 G
internal gears efficiently. To manufacture Profile Broaching is a highly lar
an external gear, the technology competes with productive technology for gear ge
gear manufacturing. Because of the high tool -
hobbing. Especially for large module gears with a costs, this process is economic for sc
small number of teeth, the advantages of form al
milling dominate. It is possible to use several e
parallel circular type milling cutters to reduce the pr
main time. Milling cutters can be designed as solid od
tools or as indexable insert tools. In manufacturing uct
large module gears, indexable insert tools ion
are s
used. Primarily at high number of parts, indexable on
insert tools have clear advantages. ly.
Depending on the requested quality of Br
the tooth space, the tools can be fitted with oa
straight inserts which approximate an involute chi
form or with involuted formed inserts. In ng
addition to the cutting with a form cutter, it is ca
possible to rough the workpiece with a form n
cutter and finish with gear hobbing. This be
combination of technologies can be realized in us
a gear hobbing machine tool in a single ed
workpiece setting. to
Broaching Broaching is a w
manufacturing technology with a multiple- or
tooth tool whose cutting teeth are arranged k
in rows (Fig. 4). The feed motion is replaced wi
by the radial stepping of the teeth. Spur th
gears are produced with sof
a translational, helical gears with a helical cutting t
motion. Broaching processes are classified in the an
groups planar broaching, circular d
broaching, helical broaching, profile ha
broaching, and form broaching. A further rd
distinction is done by external and internal en
broaching. Both tool and workpiece can ed
perform the cutting motion. w
In Fig. 4 a broaching tool is pictured or
schemat- ically. Normally the tool is kp
divided ie
ce
into a roughing, a finishing, and a calibration s.
zone. The teeth in the roughing zone are De
staggered by a feed rate of f ¼ 0.1 – z pe
0.25 mm and in the finishing zone by ndi
a feed rate of f ¼ 0.0015 – 0.04 mm. In
z ng
the calibration zone, the teeth are not on
staggered to each other and have the same th
contour as the finished workpiece. This e
zone gives the opportunity to recondition ap
the tool. The geometry of the single pli
cutting edge is aligned to the application. cat
ion, the use of cutting fluid is possible or necessary. bevel gears running at high speed, usually
Gear Cutting of Cylindrical Gears bevel gears with curved flank contour are
For bevel gears, the manufacturing process is used. Bevel gears with curved flank contour
closely related to gear design. Bevel gears are can be divided into bevel gears with
characterized based on geometrical gear data, circular, epicycloid, involute, and
which differs from cylindrical gears. In bevel hypocycloid flank contours. For description of
gears, for example, a mean normal module mnm the curvature, the mean spiral angle bm is
is defined, as the module changes across the tooth used (Klingelnberg 2008).
width. Additionally bevel gears are usually For all of the described geometrical categorie
designed with an asymmetric tooth profile, so s
the pressure angles of the concave and the convex of bevel gear designs, unique process
flank are different. Furthermore, bevel gears are routes are necessary (Stadtfeld 2008). With
classified according to their tooth height across the the gear design, the process route is defined
tooth width and the shape of their flank as well. For bevel gear manufacturing,
contour. generally a process route of blank G
Gear designs with constant or conical tooth manufacturing, gear cutting, heat treatment,
height exist. The maximal tooth height of gears with and hard finishing is used. For gear cutting
conical tooth height is at the big gear diameter and hard finishing, different processes
(heel) and the minimum tooth height is at the small together with special machine tools and
gear diameter (toe). By variation of tooth height, the tool systems have been developed,
profile contact ratio as well as the elastic tooth enabling the different degrees of freedom
deformation is influenced (Klingelnberg 2008). in gear design
Generally bevel gears with straight, inclined, (Weck and Brecher 2008). Among those differen
and curved flank contour exist. For highly loaded t
G 574
Gear Cutting, Fig. 5 Common process chains of bevel gear manufacturing
manufacturing processes, the combinations
continuous cutting and lapping as well as single
indexing cutting and grinding have been
established as the most common application in
automotive industry; see Fig. 5.
For both cutting processes shown in Fig. 5,
axial face cutter heads with coated HSS or
carbide blades are used. The blades are specially
ground for each gear design from normed
substrate blanks and positioned in the cutter
head by a CNC truing machine. Thereby the
blade manufacturing is included in the closed
loop between blade and gear manufacturing and
measuring. Usually the tools are coated either
only on the rake face or on rake and clearance
face. One gap is cut by a group of one to three
blades. Most common are blade groups with an
inside blade, cutting the convex flank, and an
outside blade which cuts the concave flank.
The tooth root is separated between inside and
outside blade.
The combination of continuous cutting and
lapping results in an epicycloid flank contour
and a constant tooth height, while the tooth
thickness changes in tooth width direction; see
Fig. 6 (Klingelnberg 2008).
In continuous cutting of bevel gears, cutter
head and gear rotate in a fixed ratio. Hereby all
Gear Cutting
gaps are cut at the same time and the coupled
rotation results in an epicycloid flank curvature.
Each blade group of the cutter head is positioned
eccentrically relative to the center of the cutter
head. Due to the epicycloid flank contour,
continuous cut bevel gears cannot be ground, so
lapping or hard machining with definite cut- ting
edge is the subsequent hard finishing
processes.
The combination of single indexing cutting
and grinding results in a circular flank contour
and a constant tooth thickness in tooth width
direction with changing tooth height; see Fig. 7
(Klingelnberg 2008).
In single indexing cutting of bevel gears, the
cutter head rotates with the cutting speed,
while the gear is stationary. Hereby all gaps are
cut one by one and the rotation of the cutter head
results in a circular flank curvature. All blade
groups of the cutter head are positioned circular
relative to the center of the cutter head. Due to the
circular flank contour, single indexing cut bevel
gears can be ground or hard machined with
definite cutting edge.
In both process variants, the cutter head has to
fulfill a generating feed movement to cut the
profile curvature, which is necessary for a
meshing gear pair. However, in applications
Gear Cutting 575

Gear Cutting, Fig. 6 Continuous cutting of bevel gears

Gear Cutting, Fig. 7 Single indexing cutting of bevel gears

with high transmission ratio, the ring gear can References

also be manufactured with a straight tooth profile, Bausch T (2010) Innovative Zahnradfertigung: Verfahren,
Maschinen und Werkzeuge zur kosteng€unstigen
while the curvature of the pinion is adapted.
Herstellung von Stirnr€adern mit hoher Qualit€at [Inno-
vative gear manufacturing: manufacturing technology,
machine tools and tools for cost effective manufactur-
Cross-References ing of high quality spur and helical gears]. Expert,
Renningen (in German)
▶ Cutting, Fundamentals
G 576
Klingelnberg J (2008) Kegelr€ader – Grundlagen,
Anwendungen [Bevel gears – basics, applications].
Springer, Berlin (in German)
NN (1976) W€alzfr€asen, Teil 1 [Hobbing, Part 1]. 2nd ed.
Pfauter Werkzeugmaschinenfabrik, Ludwigsburg.
Springer, Berlin (in German)
NN (2003) Verzahntechnik - Informationen f€ur die Praxis
[Gear technology – information for industrial applica-
tion]. Liebherr Verzahntechnik GmbH, Kempten
(in German)
Stadtfeld HJ (2008) Kontinuierliches Verzahnen und
L€appen oder Einzelteilverfahren und Schleifen - Eine
Frage der Anwendung und des Fertigungsumfeldes
[Face hobbing-lapping or face milling-grinding -
A question of application and environment]? Seminar
“Innovationen rund ums Kegelrad [Innovations in
bevel gear technology]” 12.–13. M€arz 2008, Aachen
(in German)
Weck M, Brecher C (2008) Werkzeugmaschinen 1 -
Maschinenarten und Anwendungsbereiche [Machine
tools 1 – types of machine tools and range of applica-
tion], 6th edn. Springer, Berlin (in German)
Gear Grinding
Bernhard Karpuschewski
Institute of Manufacturing Technology and
Quality Management, University of Magdeburg,
Magdeburg, Germany
Synonyms
Gear manufacturing; Hard gear finishing
Definition
Gear grinding is a hard finishing method for
gears, using tools with a specific geometrical
profile. It is divided into two main groups: gen-
erating grinding and profile grinding, relating to
the manufacturing of the tooth flank. Further-
more, these groups can be subdivided into con-
tinuous and discontinuous processes (DIN 8589).
Extended Definition
Classification of Hard-Fine Machining Processes and
Their Position in the Process Chain
At the beginning of the process chain of gear
manufacturing, there are either forming
Gear Grinding
processes like forging in dies or cutting processes
with geometric well-defined cutting edges like
drilling, turning, and milling, which in this spe-
cific case is called hobbing, Fig. 1.
Thus gear hard machining is the necessary
final process step to achieve the two most impor-
tant goals, maximum load capacity and minimum
running noise, Fig. 2. The related measures like
flank modifications and reduction of form errors
have thus to be achieved with the most suitable
manufacturing processes.
The grinding processes can be distinguished in
generating grinding and profile grinding though
another classification of continuous and discon-
tinuous processes has to be made, Fig. 3. In the
past, the processes of discontinuous generating
grinding had a high economic importance; com-
panies like Niles and Hoefler for the machining of big
gears and Maag for small precise gears were
dominating the market. Their importance has
now been reduced due to specific machine tool
and process improvements.
Theory and Application
Profile Grinding
Discontinuous Profile Grinding
With discontinuous profile grinding, the tooth
flanks of a gear can be either ground separately
or joint depending on the number and set-up of
the grinding wheels, Fig. 4 (Abler et al. 2004).
Grinding pins can be employed in the single
flank grinding (a) or in the two-flank grinding
mode (b). Usually, grinding wheels are applied
instead of grinding pins. Figure 4c shows the single
flank grinding in three versions; the preferable
variant is I due to lower axial forces compared to
versions II and III. With the two-flank profile grind- ing
wheel (Fig. 4d), both flanks of the gap can be
ground simultaneously. Figure 4e shows the simul-
taneous grinding of two gaps at different locations.
This application with two single grinding spindles
can reach an improved grinding behavior due to the
tilting of the grinding wheels, because this
measure increases the peripheral grinding com-
pared to the side grinding. With the use of a
several groove grinding wheel, the productivity
 Gear Grinding 577

G
Gear Grinding,
Fig. 1 Gear
manufacturing process
chain (Karpuschewsk i et
al. 2008)

maximum load capacity minimum running noise

high quality gear

flank modifications
- tooth
correction
- crowning
- tip or root
relief
reduction of form - topological for hard gear finishin
errors modifications g
- flank profile, (Karpuschewski
profile variations surfaceetintegrity
al.
- pitch errors 2008)
- high compressive residual stresses
- concentricity
deviation - tumbling
error
Gear Grinding,
Fig. 2 Goals of gear
finishing (Karpuschewski
et al. 2008)

Gear Grinding,
Fig. 3 Abrasive processes
 - no thermal damage (grinding burn)

surface quality
- surface
roughness
- surface texture

m=2 Z=20
G 578
Gear Grinding, Fig. 4 Discontinuous profile grinding – tools and set-up (Karpuschewski et al. 2008)
can be increased (Fig. 4f). The same effect can be
achieved by using a duo grinding wheel. Two
grinding wheels will be employed according to Fig.
4d, the first responsible for roughing and the second
to realize the finishing operation.
Continuous Profile Grinding
The continuous profile grinding of tooth flanks is
done by using a globoid worm-shaped grinding
wheel which surrounds a part of the workpiece.
The dressing (profiling) is made with a diamond-
coated dressing wheel which nearly has the shape of
the workpiece to be produced (i.e., it is a
dressing gear). The globoid worm grinding
wheel can only be used for one specific work-
piece geometry; therefore this process is
predestined for serial or mass production.
Gear Grinding
Concerning the necessary grinding stock
allowance, the gaps of the worm grinding
wheel will be profiled slightly wider. During
the rotation of the globoid worm wheel, contact
areas occur on several tooth flanks. Generally, it is
not necessary to use axial traverse speed due to
the geometry of the worm grinding wheel
(Escher 1996). The rotation of the workpiece
occurs with the rotation of the worm grinding
wheel (Fig. 5) (Abler et al. 2004). The worm
grinding wheel will be radially positioned at the
end position. Afterwards, the workpiece does
a defined feed and rotary motion in one
direction, whereby all tooth flanks of one side
will be ground. In analogue sequence, the other
side of the flanks will be ground. This process
has been developed to series-production
Gear Grinding
G
Gear Grinding,
Fig. 5
Cycle of continuous
gear profile grinding
(Karpuschewski et al.
2008)
readiness around 1980. Due to the microscopic
grinding structure which often causes a
wheezing noise in the gear box, gear honing is
usually applied after this continuous profile
grinding.
Generating Grinding
Discontinuous Generating Grinding
Discontinuous generating grinding was industri-
ally applied for the first time around 1930. During
generating grinding, the tooth flank of the spur
gear will be approximated stroke by stroke with a
double conical grinding wheel by polygonal small
cuts. Due to the process kinematics and the
process geometry, the cutting conditions at the
contact zone are changing within one stroke as
well as at successive strokes which are
reflected in the form and size of the contact
zone between workpiece and tool.
Discontinuous generating grinding can be dis-
tinguished between one flank and two flanks
grinding, Fig. 6. One flank grinding, which has a
varying grinding wheel width, generates a
better gearing accuracy compared to two flank
grinding. The tool can be optimally adjusted to
the machining task. One flank grinding is mostly
employed in the single part production. At two
flanks grinding, where the left and right flank is
ground simultaneously, the width of the grinding
wheel is related to the geometry of the workpiece
and has to be adjusted accordingly.
579
Continuous Generating Grinding
In 1945 continuous generating grinding was
employed for the first time to manufacture spur
gears. During this process, which is still in a
stormy development situation (Bausch 2006), a one
pass or multi-pass worm-shaped grinding wheel is
continuously moving along the gear in a hob-type
mode. The shape of the grinding worm
corresponds with the profile of a straight gear
rack. The geometry of the worm grinding wheel
only depends on the workpiece geometry
regarding module and penetration angle.
Figure 7 (Delavy et al. 1992) illustrates the
process principle which is similar to the process
principle of gear hobbing regarding the
kinematics.
Stroke movement, feed movement, and shift
movement, known from gear hobbing, are neces-
sary as well. In analogy to hobbing, a grinding
wheel working area is formed (theoretically).
Within this area there is a multi-point contact on
both flanks. To gain symmetrical force distribu-
tion and to avoid torsion angle mistakes during
gearing synchronization which could lead to
tooth flank profile deviation, it is necessary to
influence the position of these contact points
(Abler et al. 2004; T€urich 2002). As a result of
the multi-point contacts, more than two flanks
can be ground. An additional pitch movement is not
necessary; as a result this process can reach a
very high productivity.
G 580
Gear Grinding, Fig. 6 Discontinuous generating grinding (Karpuschewski et al. 2008)
Gear Grinding,
Fig. 7 Schematic
representation of
continuous generating
grinding (Bausch 2006)
Honing of Tooth Flanks
Gear honing was applied for the first time in the
1970s of the last century to remove transportation
damages on hardened tooth flanks. The honing
distinguishes from established tooth flank grind- ing
processes in the kinematics and the tool, which
usually has a gear shape (Marzenell 2000;
T€urich 2002), Fig. 8. Process-specific
advantages are the possibility of adjustment of
gearing failures and the favorable surface struc-
ture in height and width direction of the tooth
flank. The mixed orientation of the manufactur-
ing grooves, which asymptotically approach the
pitch diameter, results in a very favorable noise
Gear Grinding
level of the running gears due to the stochastic
characteristics of its structure and the absence of
parallel exciting structures. For that reason, hon- ing
has been increasingly employed as a post-
processing operation after tooth flank grinding.
For this application the stock allowance of each
tooth flank is only approx. 10–15 mm. A gear-
shaped body with abrasive material is used as
tool, which removes material from the tooth
flanks under crossing rotational axes. For the
honing of external gearing, a ring-shaped tool
with an integrated internal gearing is used.
Another development is high performance or
power honing (in the process chain soft
Gear Grinding 581

Gear Grinding, Fig. 8 Specific honing kinematics (Karpuschewski et al. 2008)

Gear Grinding,
Fig. 9
Comparison of the
productivity of gear
grinding processes
(After Bausch 2006)

premachining-hardening-honing). It has just been Process Productivity

developed in the last years and competes with the An essential factor for the effectiveness of any
discontinuous profile grinding and the continuous hard-finishing process is the process productivity.
generating grinding for market shares. In the most important area of gear manufacturing,
G 582 Gear Grinding

Gear Grinding, Fig. 10 Technological and economical comparison of different gear finishing processes (After Bausch 2006)

which includes the majority of all produced gears considerable for the latest machine tool genera-
with diameters up to 500 mm, Bausch recently tion compared to the older ones.
published a summarizing comparison of the Technological and Economical Comparison
material removal rate for different hard-finishing A compact summary of all relevant hard-finishing
processes taking different tools and application processes is presented in Fig. 10. In addition, some
cases into account, Fig. 9 (Bausch 2006). further trends are especially expected in the area of
The major differences in the productivity of large gearings (diameter > 500 mm):
the processes become apparent. As can be seen, – A trend of complete hard finishing of gears
the variants of continuous generating (more machining processes in one machine
grinding are able to realize the highest material tool).
removal. The differentiation of older and newer – A compensation of eccentric clampings and
machine tools with their obvious productivity thermal deformations will be possible.
differences demonstrates the innovation which – A discontinuous profile grinding for work-
has been achieved for these processes. Surpris- pieces up to a diameter of 5,000 mm will be
ingly the productivity increase from SG corun- possible.
dum to CBN as abrasive material is not very
Geometric Modeling of Machining 583 G
Cross-References
Geometric Modeling of Machining
▶ Dressing
▶ Gear Cutting Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 2, Nr. 568, V
Berichte
o
aus dem Institut f€ur Fertigungstechnik und
Spanende l
References Werkzeugmaschinen, Universit€at Hannover, k
Abler J, Felten
K, Kobialka C, Lierse T, Mundt A, VDI- e
Pomp Verlag (in German)
r
H, Sulzer G (2004) Verzahntechnik: Informationen f€u T€urich A (2002) Schleifen von Verzahnungen,
r Jahrbuch
die Praxis [Gear cutting technology - Practice hand- Schleifen, Honen, L€appen und Polieren B
book]. Liebherr-Verzahntechnik GmbH, Kempten, (Grinding of o

Germany (in German) gears. Grinding, honing, lapping and finishing

¨
Bausch T (2006) Innovative Zahnradfertigung: Verfahren, annual),
Maschinen und Werkzeuge zur Vulkan Verlag, Essen, 60:209– ß
kosteng€unstigen 219 (in German)
Herstellung von Stirnr€adern mit hoher Qualit€at
(Inno-
I
vative gear manufacturing: manufacturing technology,
machine tools and tools for cost effective manufact F
ur-
Gear Manufacturing W
ing of high- ,
quality spur and helical gears) Renningen: ▶ Gear Grinding
Expert (in German)
Delavy J-F, Cadisch J, Thyssen W, Sch€ache L
P, e
Schwaighofer R (1992) Reishauer- i
Fibel b
Verzahnungsschleifen [Reishauer-Hornbook on Gear
Grinding]. Reishauer AG, Wallisellen (CH) n
(in i
German) z
DIN 8589-11:2003-09 (2003)
Fertigungsverfahren
Spanen – Teil 11: Schleifen mit rotierendem
U
n
Werkzeug; Einordnung, Unterteilung, Begriffe i
v
(Manufacturing processes chip removal – Part 11:
Grinding with rotating tool; Classification, subdivisio e
n r
and definitions) (in German) s
Escher C (1996) Simulation und Optimierung i
der
Erzeugung von Zahnflankenmodifikation t
€
an a
Zylinderr€adern (Simulation and optimization of t
tooth
flank relief modification on cylindrical gear
H
wheels),
Diss. RWTH Aachen, Dissertation) (in German) a
Karpuschewski B, Knoche H-J, Hipke M (2008) n
Gear n
finishing by abrasive processes. In: International insti-
o
tution for production engineering research: CIRP
annals. Elsevier, Oxford, Bd. 57, 2, S. 621–640 v
Marzenell C (2000) Verzahnungshonen mit e
Diamantwerkzeugen (Gear honing using diamond r
tools), Diss. University of Hannover
Dissertation,
,
Germany cutting tool relative to a workpiece. If the
track of the tool intersects with the
workpiece, the intersected part has to be
Synonyms removed from the shape of the workpiece.
NC simulation; Tool path simulation; Virtual To create a virtual representation of
machining machin-
ing processes within computers, a description of
the movement as well as geometric models of the
Definition workpiece and the tool is necessary. To
Theory of data structures for representation of include the change of the shape of the
geometrical objects within a computer for pur- pose workpiece caused by intersection of the G
of virtual investigation of machining pro- cesses moving tool, it is necessary to use shape
(Altintas et al. 2005). Only geometric aspects are representations which allow fast calculation
considered, but investigation of phys- ical processes of modifications.
(e.g., forces or temperatures) is possible as long Usage of Known Geometric Models
as they can be derived from geometric data. The compound solid geometry (CSG)
model, known from ▶ computer-aided design
(CAD), defines each volumetric object as a
Theory and Application combination of only few so-called
From a strictly geometric view, a machining primitives. Combination can be done by
process can be described as movement of a union, intersection, or difference.
G 584 Geometric Modeling of Machining
To represent cutting with a tool, a
difference between the workpiece and the
tool has to be performed.
The boundary representation
(BREP) model, another model of CAD,
defines each object by its surface. Usually
the surface is divided in patches of possibly
different kind,
e.g., a piece of a plane, a sphere, or more complex
surface. The union of all patches should wrap
the whole volumetric object with no
gap. This property is also denoted as
“waterproof”.
To perform a cutting process, the surfaces
of
the workpiece and the tool have to be intersect
ed. The intersection usually is a curve in
space.
This curve is used to define the border of new Geometric Modeling of Machining, Fig. 1 Schematic
view of voxel model
patches which can be assembled to the new shape
of the object.
A model known from ▶ finite element method
(FEM ) is the representation of the surface by shape of the object can be approximated with a
plane polygons or even triangles solely. This maximum error of the grid distance.
method is called triangulation. It is comparable The voxel model is very easy to implement but
with the BREP model, but intersection can be has the disadvantage of a memory amount of
performed much easier, because of the restriction in order n3. To describe a cube of edge length of
surface types. Each intersection of two poly- gons 200 mm with an accuracy of 0.1 mm, a bit array of
is a line segment which can be calculated with size 8 □ 109 is necessary, which is 1 Gb of
low effort. memory. To reduce the amount, special data
Specific Models for Virtual Machining structures have been introduced. One of these is
There are some geometric models which have the octree model which varies the size of the
been designed for the application in machining or cubes.
at least for frequent shape modification by
Dexel
geometric differential operation. These The dexel model discretizes the geometric object in
approaches have in common a discretization of two dimensions and keeps continuity in one
the geometric object but differ in the number of direction. The origin of this approach lies in a
dimensions which are modeled discrete respec- method which is used by computer graphics
tively continuous (Denkena and T ¨nshoff 2013).
o
devices called z-buffer. To build up the current
Voxel picture on the screen for each pixel, the topmost
The voxel model is comparable with a three- object of the current view has to be calculated.
dimensional bitmap. The name is an artificial To do this, the objects are all drawn and the depth
word for volume element or volumetric pixel. for each pixel position is compared and stored if
The geometric object is represented by a topmost.
number of cubes of the same size. The cubes are The dexel model stores the depth of the top
located on an equidistant three-dimensional matrix and the bottom position at each position.
(Fig. 1). The actual structure for represen- The elements thus represent some kind of parallel
tation of this model is an array of Boolean values, nails on a grid. Depending on the volumetric
indexed by integers for x-, y-, and z-position. If 0 is view, each nail represents a quadratic prism, or
considered no material and 1 as material, the four neighbored dexels define a long cuboid
which has been cut at both sides (Fig. 2).
Geometric Modeling of Machining 585

G
Geometric Modeling of
Machining, Fig. 2
Voxel model of a cuboid

Because the simple dexel model is not able

to represent undercuts in direction of the
dexel elements, an extended model is used
for most implementations, where more than
one element can be stored at each grid
position.
The amount of memory needed for a
dexel grid is of order n . To store a single
2

element, at
least two float values are necessary. The accura
cy
of this model strongly depends on the direction
of view. While parallel to the elements a very
high accuracy is received, depending on the
accuracy
for the depth values, in the direction of the grid operation (Fig. 3).
axes, only low accuracy is given. A very common
approach to reduce this dependency is the
multidexel model, which stores a dexel grid for
each principal axis of the coordinate system
(Weinert and Stautner 2002).
Level Curve Model
The level curve model represents the geometric
object by its intersections with a number of
parallel, equidistant planes. The resulting curves
define levels of equal height and thus are very
similar to the depiction of landscape surveys in
maps. To intersect the represented workpiece
with a tool, it is sufficient to determine the section of
the tool in the respective plane and to intersect
the resulting section line with the respective level
curve. This operation can be carried out much
more easily than with the general polyhedron
model since it is a two-dimensional intersection
Geometric Modeling of Machining, Fig. 3 Level
curve model
Application
The main application for models in machining is
verification of results from ▶ computer-aided
manufacturing. The created NC code defines the movement
of the tool which is used to visualize
machine movement. The described models are used
to calculate and show the change of the shape of the
workpiece. Commercial systems usually are used to analyze
geometric properties of milling or turning
processes, e.g., to check for collisions between tool and
machine components. In research the analysis of the
cut of part gets more important as character- istic
properties of the process can be calculated by
appropriate means (Denkena and B ¨ß 2009). This
o
includes occurring process forces or temperatures as
well as wear characteristics of different tool zones.
Additionally analysis of grinding processes has become
more common lately.
G 586
Cross-References
▶ Computer-Aided Design
▶ Computer-Aided Manufacturing
▶ Cutting Force Modeling
▶ Finite Element Method
References
Altintas Y, Brecher C, Weck M, Witt S (2005) Virtual
machine tool. CIRP annals - manufacturing technol-
ogy 54(2):115–138
Denkena B, Bo¨ß V (2009) Technological NC simulation
for grinding and cutting processes using cutS. In:
Arrazola PJ (ed) Proceedings of the 12th CIRP confer-
ence on modelling of machining operations, 7–8
May 2009, vol II. Donostia-San Sebastia´n, Spain,
pp 563–566
Denkena B, To¨nshoff HK (2013) Abrasive processes
(Lecture notes in production engineering). Chapter 6:
Modeling and simulation. Springer
Weinert K, Stautner M (2002) An efficient discrete
simulation for five-axis milling of sculptured surfaces.
Ann Germ Acad Soc Prod Eng IX/1:47–51
Green Manufacturing
▶ Cleaner Production
▶ Sustainable Manufacturing
Grinding
Jan Aurich and Christian Effgen
Institute of Manufacturing Technology and
Production Systems, University of Kaiserlautern,
Kaiserlautern, Germany
Definition
Grinding is defined as machining, using tools
with a large number of geometrically undefined
cutting edges with mostly negative rake angles,
which are composed of natural or synthetic
abrasive material retained by a bonding material.
The chip formation is characterized by
Green Manufacturing
a noncontinuous contact and a high relative
velocity between the abrasive grains and the
workpiece.
Theory and Application
Introduction
Grinding is a manufacturing process that belongs
to the group of material removal processes. Mate- rial
removal processes can be subdivided into the groups
of cutting processes and abrasive pro- cesses.
Grinding differs from other abrasive pro- cesses
such as honing, lapping, polishing, and blasting by
the tools that are used, the depth of cut, and the
kinematics during chip formation. The tools that
are used for grinding are grinding wheels, pins,
and belts, where the abrasive grains are retained
in a bonding material. The main advantages of
grinding are:
• The good machinability of hard and brittle
materials
• The high form and dimensional accuracy
• The excellent achievable surface quality
Figure 1 shows an exemplary grinding process
without coolant use. As illustrated by the fire
sparks, most of the energy that is placed into the
material removal process is being transformed
into thermal energy. A consequence of improper
process design due to the high thermal energy can
be thermal damages (Kirsch et al. 2010).
Grinding Processes
Regarding to the DIN Standards, the different
grinding processes can be classified by several
specific attributes (See Table 1).
Grinding Tools
Common grinding tools (also grinding wheels)
have a round wheel shape. The standard wheel
shapes and sizes result from the FEPA Standard
(Fe´deration Europe´enne des Fabricants
de Produits Abrasifs). Special wheel shapes for
specific grinding tasks are common. Grinding
wheels are divided into two main categories,
conventional and superabrasive grinding
wheels. This separation results from the used
abrasive, such as aluminum oxide (Al O ) or2 3
Grinding 587

G
Grinding, Fig. 1 Fire
sparks while face grindi
ng without coolant

G
Grinding, Table 1 Attributes and resulting grinding pro- includes the subcategories dressing and cleaning.
cesses (DIN 8589–11 Standard 2003; CIRP Dictionary of
Dressing is subdivided into profiling (regenera-
production engineering 2004)
tion of the macro geometry) and sharpening
Attribute Grinding process
(regeneration of the micro geometry). Cleaning in
Kind of area that has to Surface grinding, cylindrical
be ground this case means removing chips out of the
grinding, screw grinding, gear
grinding, profile grinding, form bonding with a high-pressure coolant jet, aimed
grinding directly at the bond. More about conditioning
Position of the area that External (cylindrical) grinding, (see ▶ Dressing).
has to be ground internal (cylindrical) grinding
Active surface of the Face or side grinding, peripheral Coolants
grinding tool grinding
Grinding is a thermodynamically dominated pro-
Feed direction Longitudinal or traverse
grinding, plunge grinding, angle cess due to the high friction in the contact
grinding arc. Hence coolants are always necessary for
Kind of feed control Free form grinding, form high-performance grinding processes, and their
grinding, kinematic form three resulting main tasks are (VDI 3397 Part 1
grinding, NC form grinding 2007):
Kind of rolling motion Continuous gear shape grinding,
discontinuous gear grinding
• Lubricate the action point for reducing the
Feed and infeed Creep (feed) grinding, pendulum
friction.
combination or reciprocating grinding • Dissipate the heat from the action point, e.g.,
Surface quality Rough grinding, finish grinding, by cooling.
fine grinding • Flushing chips out of the area of contact
Feed and cutting speed Down grinding, up grinding
combination
and transport them to the coolant filter
equipment.
A distinction for coolants is drawn
between non-water-miscible (base oils with
silicium carbide (SiC) for conventional and without additives) and water-miscible cool-
grinding wheels and diamond (natural and ants (oil in water emulsions or solutions). In
synthetic) or cubic boron nitride (CBN) for general non-water-miscible coolants have
superabrasive grinding wheels (see also much better lubricating properties than water-
▶ Grinding Wheel). miscible coolants but comparatively bad cooling
Grinding Wheel Preparation properties. Water-miscible coolants have
Before a grinding wheel can be used or after it is opposite qualities. The support of coolant to the
worn, it needs to be conditioned. Conditioning area of contact has to be set up for every specific
grinding task with the right quantity,
G 588 Grinding

Grinding,
Fig. 2 Schematic view of
a flat grinding machine

velocity, and direction. For further information

see Grinding Fluids (coolants).
Grinding Machines
A wide variety of machines is used for
grinding, e.g.,
• Sanders mostly for belt grinding
• Handheld power tools such as angle grinders
• Bench grinders
• Various machine tools, here grinding
machines in a narrow sense
Very popular grinding machines are flat and
profile grinding machines, such as shown in
Fig. 2. Those machines are able to grind a
wide range of work pieces starting with
geometric simple parts like linear guideways
or profiled parts like broachs. Typical grinding
operations
with this kind of machine are surface and form Grinding, Fig. 3 Schematic view of a 5-axis CNC tool
grinding done as peripheral grinding. If the grinding machine
machine is also equipped with an index table or
additional spindle, it is also possible to perform Application
internal circle grinding, gear grinding, Grinding as a key technology, for manufacturing
etc. Standard are three translational axes and advanced products and surfaces, can be found
one spindle for the grinding wheel. where one or more of the following factors
Another popular kind of grinding machines apply (Marinescu et al. 2007).
are tool grinders (Fig. 3). Those machines are High Accuracy
used for production or resharpening of drills, Due to its high accuracy, grinding is used to
mills, tread cutters, inserts, etc. To fulfill these produce parts with high requirements for accu-
operations, CNC tool grinders have at least five racy and tolerance as well as surface roughness
full CNC-controlled axes (here three translational and performance. The range varies from large
and two rotational axes).
Grinding Fluids 589 G
References
CIRP Dictionary of production

engineering
(2004) Manufacturing systems, vol 2, 1st edn.

Springer, Berlin
DIN 8589–11 Standard (2003) Fertigungsverfahren

Spanen. Teil 11: Schleifen mit

otierenden
r

Werkzeugen; Einordnung, Unterteilung, Begriffe

[Manufacturing processes chip removal – Part

11:
grinding with rotating tools. Classification,
subdivi-
sion, terms and definitions]. Beuth, Berlin (in Germa
n)
Kirsch B, Herzenstiel P, Aurich JC (2010) Experimental
Grinding, Fig. 4 Crank shaft for a 2-cylinder motorbike ▶ Chip Formation re
engine with ground bearing seats su
(Abrasive Process)
lts
▶ Dressing usi
parts like hardened machine tool slideways ▶ Grinding Wheel ng
▶ Honing a
to small parts such as medical injection ▶ Lapping gri
needles. ▶ Polishing nd
High Material Removal Rate in
Grinding is recommended particularly for g
mate- rials that are hard to machine (like wh
ee
Inconel or tungsten carbide). The
l
achievable material removal rates are much wi
higher compared to other machining th
processes. Examples are the flute grinding an
int
of mills and drills out of solid tungsten
er
carbide rods in one pass na
with superabrasive grinding wheels or l
grinding dove tails on turbine vans (nickel- co
oli
base alloys) with conventional grinding wheels
n
in one pass. g
Machining of Hard/Brittle Materials lub
Grinding is the predominate process ric
an
when machining brittle materials as glass, t
ceramics, or even diamond and all that with su
high accuracy. The ability to machine those pp
materials makes grinding also the first choice ly.
In
for finishing tasks. Examples are grinding of :
hardened bearing seats or machining A
engineering ceramics. Figure 4 shows a crank oy
shaft with ground bearing seats. a
m
a
Cross-References T,
T
▶ Abrasive Material
ak
▶ Bonding Materials eu
 chi
Y (eds) Proceedings of the 4th CIRP international
conference on high performance cutting, 24–26 Oct
2010, Gifu, Japan, vol 1, pp 443–448
Marinescu ID, Hitchiner M, Uhlmann E, Rowe WB,
Inasaki I (2007) Handbook of machining with grinding
wheels. CRC, Boca Raton
VDI 3397 Part 1 Standard (2007) Metalworking fluids.
VDI, D€usseldorf
Grinding Fluids
Ekkard Brinksmeier
LFM – Labor f€ur Mikrozerspanung, Bremen,
Germany
Synonyms
Cooling lubricants; Metalworking fluids
Definition G
Grinding fluids belong to metalworking
fluids. These are engineering media which are
used for the optimization of material removal
processes, i.e., cutting and abrasive
processes.
Theory and Application
Introduction
Metalworking fluids play a significant role
in machining operations (in particular grinding)
and have a substantial impact on tool life, shop
pro- ductivity, and workpiece quality. In
machining
G 590
processes such as turning, milling, grinding, and
m an y other material removal processes,
metalworking fluids perform several essential
functions. One of the main functions of coolants
is to lubricate. This is achieved by reduction of the
friction that develops in the contact zones between tool
and workpiece as well as between tool and chip.
Heat dissipation, i.e., cooling of the work- piece and
washing chips away from the contact
zone, is a further important function of the coolant
(Brinksmeier et al. 1999, 2004; Inasaki et al. 1993;
Howes 1990). The combined lubrication and
cooling effect reduces tool wear and enhances
surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the
workpiece. Cooling and lubrication requirements differ
in every application and mainly depend on process
conditions. Coolants should, ideally, be
composed to suit each specific case. Every coolant
consists of a basic fluid, to which are added other
products such as anti-wear, anticorrosion, or emul-
sifying agents. According to DIN 51385, coolants are
divided into oil-based and water-based types
(Brinksmeier et al. 1999).
Oil-Based Coolants
In order to decrease friction, high pressures, and
temperatures during machining processes, it is
necessary to create separation films (consisting of
coolant and specific additives) between the solid
surfaces of the tool and workpiece. Oil-
based coolants normally consist of 80–95 % basic oil
and can be divided into four groups:
• Straight oils without additives
• Straight oils with chemically active additives •
Straight oils with surface active additives
• Straight oils with chemically active additives
and extreme pressure additives (additives that
form stable adsorption layers)
Water-Based Coolants
For high cooling efficiency and washing-away
capabilities, water-based emulsions or solutions are
employed. Their main disadvantage is
susceptibility to leakage oils and microorganisms
making high-maintenance costs unavoidable.
Furthermore, the water and oil phases must be
separated before disposal. Water-based solutions
consist of inorganic and/or organic substances
Grinding Fluids
and water and very seldom contain mineral oils.
High chemical stability and transparency are fur-
ther advantages in high cooling efficiency and
washing-away capability.
Water-based emulsion concentrates contain
20–70 % basic oil (mostly mineral oil). For
metal grinding operations, oil-in-water emulsions
are common; the amount of oil determines the
lubrication ability of the emulsion. Common oil
concentrations in emulsions for grinding opera-
tions are between 2 % and 15 %. Water-based
coolants contain up to 20 components in which
each of the components can themselves be
multicomponent mixtures.
Additives
Additives are added to basic fluids to broadly
optimize particular types of production process:
each one is aimed at improving specific coolant
properties. Additives can be divided into four
main groups:
• Enhancers of physical coolant characteristics •
Enhancers of chemical coolant characteristics •
Enhancers of chemical and physical coolant
characteristics
• Other additives
Grinding Fluids
The main characteristic of grinding in comparison
to other machining processes is the relatively large
contact area between the grinding wheel and the
workpiece and the high friction between the abra-
sive grits and the workpiece surface. This leads to
difficulties in supplying coolant to the grinding
arc, thus resulting in a high risk of thermal damage to
the workpiece surface layer as well as loading and
wear of the grinding wheel. Thermome- chanical
processes in the contact zone are defined by
tribological relationships between the grain cutting
edge, the grinding wheel bonding, the
workpiece, and the chip as it forms, so that cooling
lubrication plays a decisive role during grinding
with respect to heat generation and dissipation. In
addition, the coolant type, composition and
filtration, and coolant supply (nozzle position,
nozzle geometry, supplied flow rate, and jet
characteristics) can influence process productivity,
workpiece quality, and tool wear considerably.
Grinding Fluids
G
Grinding Fluids,
Fig. 1
Effects of water-
based and oil-based
grinding fluids
Coolants should, ideally, be composed to suit each
specific case (Brinksmeier et al. 1999).
In grinding, the chip is formed as material is
deformed by the grit or grain cutting edge and
displaced sideways or forward according to the
orientation of the cutting edge. When the material
shear stress is exceeded, the chip flows over the
face of the grain. The coolant in the contact zone is
building up a lubricant film. The evaporation
behavior and rheology of this lubricant film help to
lower frictional forces and cool both the
workpiece and tooling surfaces.
As the lubrication effect increases, there is a
corresponding increase in elastic–plastic
deformation under the cutting edge of the abra-
sive grain, resulting in a decrease in workpiece
roughness (Fig. 1). By reducing friction forces,
friction heat is reduced and therefore also the
total process heat. However, too much lubrication
can cause negative thermal effects, as the
efficiency of the cutting process is reduced, and
relatively more energy is used in the shearing and
deformation processes (Vits 1985).
Another important influence of coolants on
lubrication is the lowering of friction along the
591
chip flow line, i.e., between the chip, the grain
cutting edge, and the grinding wheel bond. This
reduces bond abrasion and grinding wheel wear
(Vits 1985). Effects of coolant lubrication and
cooling, respectively, are influenced by the type
of coolant (straight oil, emulsion, solution) and its
composition (emulsion concentration, additives)
(Brinksmeier et al. 2009).
Cooling Supply in Grinding
The heat flux during grinding can create form devi-
ations of the workpiece and subsurface damage.
The grinding fluid in the contact zone between
workpiece and tool counteracts these undesirable
effects by building a lubricant film which reduces
friction forces between the acting partners and by
cooling the contact zone. To achieve the greatest
cooling effect, a variety of coolant nozzles is avail-
able for different grinding processes. In grinding,
flooding nozzles like jet nozzles and shoe nozzles
(a nozzle which covers the grinding wheel partly)
have proven to be favorable. Using jet nozzles the
required cooling is often tried to be realized by an
oversupply of coolant in front of the grinding arc
instead of an optimum wetting of the grinding
G 592
wheel. With increasing coolant flow rate, an
improvement of the cooling effect is achievable in
principle but reaches saturation when exceeding a
critical coolant flow rate (Klocke et al. 2000). The
benefit of using shoe nozzles is the significant
reduction of required coolant amount (Brinksmeier et al.
1999; Heinzel 1999).
Cross-References
▶ Abrasive Material
▶ Grinding
▶ Grinding Wheel
▶ Machinability
▶ Roughness
▶ Wear Mechanisms
References
Brinksmeier E, Heinzel C, Wittmann M (1999) Friction,
cooling and lubrication in grinding. Ann CIRP
48(2):581–598
Brinksmeier E, Heinzel C, Wittmann M (2000)
Visualization of coolant flow in shoe nozzles and
their effect on the residual grinding stresses. Ann
WGP VII/I:9–12
Brinksmeier E, Walter A, Lucca DA (2004) Chemical
aspects of machining processes. Ann CIRP
53(2):685–699
Brinksmeier E, Garbrecht M, Heinzel C, Koch T,
Eckebrecht J (2009) Current approaches in design
and supply of metalworking fluids. Tribol Trans
52(5):591–601
DIN 51385:1991-06. Lubricants; metal working fluids;
terms
Heinzel C (1999) Methoden zur Untersuchung und
Optimierung der K€uhlschmierung beim Schleifen
[Investigation and optimization methods for cooling
lubricants for grinding]. German Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Bremen, Shaker-Verlag (in German)
Howes TD (1990) Assessment of the cooling and
lubricative properties of grinding fluids. Ann CIRP
39(1):313–316
Inasaki I, To¨nshoff HK, Howes TD (1993) Abrasive
machining in the future. Ann CIRP 42(2):723–732
Klocke F, Baus A, Beck T (2000) Coolant induced forces
in CBN grinding with shoe nozzles. Ann CIRP
49(1):241–244
Vits R (1985) Technologische Aspekte der
K€uhlschmierung beim Schleifen [Technological
aspects of cooling lubricants for grinding].
Rheinisch-Westf€alische Technische Hochschule
Aachen, Shaker-Verlag (in German)
Grinding Monitoring
Grinding Monitoring
Konrad Wegener
Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing
(IWF), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
(ETH), Z€urich, Switzerland
Synonyms
Condition monitoring
Definition
Grinding monitoring comprises all technologies
that enable to observe and analyze the grinding
process, the energy conversion, the grinding tool,
and the finished workpiece properties.
Theory and Application
Introduction
The process “high-performance grinding,” from
which high material removal rates, best surface
quality and integrity, and high geometrical accu-
racy are required, is a highly sensitive process
subject to numerous influences. Some of those
influences today can hardly be predicted and
also can hardly be directly controlled by input
parameters to the grinding machine system.
Especially the wear of the grinding tool,
consisting of macro wear and micro wear, a
truly complicated process, which is still today not
fully understood, introduces unpredictable
transient changes to the grinding wheel and thus
into the process. Therefore, observation of the
process becomes necessary. But observation
alone is insofar not sufficient as only by help of
suitable process and measuring theory the
necessary informations for the evaluation and
subsequently control or even closed loop control
of the process can be distilled out. The accessible
data stem from the different sources: direct
access to the wheel surface by optical means
reveals directly the deterioration of the tool.
Grinding Monitoring 593 G
Energy conversion, forces, power, heat genera- plunge grinding into some soft material An
tion, and acoustic emission comprise like graphite. ot
different aspects of the process behavior, and he
finally mea- suring the workpiece discloses r
the grinding results to decide. All three groups po
can be used to take corrective measures only ssi
after interpreta- bili
tion. Also contact detection by acoustic emission ty
, is
though it is not used for continuous monitoring of th
the process, is subgrouped to grinding e
monitor- ing, and it is one of the most m
frequently applied methods in industry. ea
Wear is the prevailing process su
responsible for transient behavior of the re
grinding process. Besides the contact detection, m
all monitoring is at the same time an en
indirect or direct wear monitoring. Macro t
wear deteriorates the work- piece geometry, of
whereas micro wear is responsi- ble for the th
change of the process and is made up from e
attritious wear, pullout, grain break, wear of the ou
bond, and loading of the grinding wheel as ter
reviewed in (Wegener et al. 2011). There en
also further literature on monitoring can be vel
found. Depending on the control data also op
chatter might be detected that can also be affected e
by wear. of
Monitoring of Macro Wear th
Detecting macro wear requires measurement of e
the diameter, the profile, and the pr
geometric runout. Runout yields signals ofi
varying with the rotation angle and thus le
can be detected by measuring the force or by
power signal such that it also portrays a op
unique footprint within the AE signals. The tic
diameter is directly derived from the al
positional data of the dressing device on m
the grinding machine, because the valid ea
profile is the envelope of all meridian lines of ns
the grind- ing wheel. Direct probing becomes as
impossible because the single meridian is de
insufficient as data to characterize the profile scr
and because of probe wear when scanning ibe
the profile. Profile data is thus gathered by d
transmission of the grinding wheel in in
some workpiece, which then can be scanned wh
by mechanical means and can thus be part of er
the final part inspection. With the help of e
quality control cards, the feedback into the las
process is achieved. This profile er
measurement can also be carried out by pr
obes and light screens can be used in between
process steps.
Monitoring of Micro Wear
Despite the fact that alterations of the process
behavior are due to micro wear, the most
common grinding monitoring deals with direct
process data such as forces and power and thus
allows without knowledge of the real reasons for this
behavior from the view of the process
corrective actions such as redressing. The
primary goal for micro wear detection is essen- tially
to decide whether an abrasive layer is still sufficiently
good for grinding or not. This is already a
demanding challenge, since this deci- sion needs to
survey the totality of the abrasive surface. Only one
bad area of the surface is able to degrade the
grinding wheel to uselessness. Other classes of
monitoring strategies are therefore direct
observation of the abrasive layer and evaluation of
the geometry in different directions. In total
according to (Wegener et al. 2011), the following
technologies exist:
1. Force monitoring
2. Temperature/heat monitoring
3. Power monitoring
4. Acoustic emission
5. Optical observation
6. Optical observation of profile
7.Scanning electron microscopy
8.Monitoring of fluid flow characteristics
9.Tactile probing of the surface
10.Magnetic properties of the surface
Direct process monitoring (indirect
wear
monitoring) needs the definition of a
threshold to decide on a good or bad
process, which is dependent on the
workpiece material and all other process
parameters such as feed, cutting speed, G
coolant flow, and wheel characteristics. But
also, closed loop controls, warning, and
shut down levels can be specified.
Somewhat unique is the use of acoustic
emission (AE), since this does not give direct
information from the grinding process but
delivers indirect signals, from which the
process properties may be derived. AE is
much more related to the direct
G 594
Grinding Monitoring,
Fig. 1 AE RMS signals for
cast iron grinding wheel
after different material
removal and depending on
the interaction area (half
circle) (From Stephenson
et al. 2006)
monitoring from the evaluation point of view, as it
yields continuous signals from which the
relevant data needs to be extracted and then
correlated to the process. AE can be evaluated in
the direction of spectral composition in
frequencies by FFT or for the detection of tran-
sients by wavelet transform. Furthermore, ampli- tude,
RMS value, and also time patterns are
extracted. With changing penetration depth and also
with the number of grit interactions, the AE
signal will change. AE is used to monitor the state of
the grinding wheel during grinding as well as
during dressing. The AE sensor typically is
placed nearest to the process, mostly on the work-
piece holder, or the dresser, sometimes in the
grinding wheel with telemetric or slide ring data
transfer and also on tailstock or spindle head.
Figure 1 shows the sampling procedure for AE
measurements and the significant change in AE
with wear. Also it can be seen that the AE signal
Grinding Monitoring
depends also on the interaction area, which
means that the thresholds must be teached in for
each new grinding process, which makes it useful
only for high volume production. But it is also
reported that the reliability of AE is limited due to
changes in the machine’s behavior.
In (Gomes de Oliveira and Dornfeld 2001), an
AE analysis is developed, where the AE signal is
correlated to the position on the grinding wheel
with a sampling rate, that allows for detection of
each collision between a truing diamond and the
grinding wheel as seen in Fig. 2.
Thus, a complete image of the interaction
between wheel and truer can be developed,
showing the density of active grains at low
cutting depth. Furthermore, application of the
system during grinding shows wear behavior by
characteristic changes of the noise.
Optical observation of the layer gathers
enormous amount of data and thus must be
Grinding Monitoring 595 G
Grinding Monitoring,
Fig. 2 Vs Grinding
Image construction Wheel
procedure for fast AE
RMS analysis (From
Gomes de Oliveira and
Dornfeld 2001)

Abrasive Grains
Diamond Tool

Fast RMS unit

AE Sensor

G
Wheel Axis direction AE Amplitude Time
Perimetral direction

3D Picture

Grinding Monitoring, Fig. 3 Image processing to extract shiny areas, depicted area: 2.1 □ 1.6 mm (From Feng and
Chen 2007)

condensed to a few parameters which can be Reflectivity measurements are used to

correlated to the behavior of the grinding wheel detect loaded areas, as they become shiny. The
and are significant. Optical detection of the abra- image processing is shown in Fig. 3. The derived
sive layer yields: parameters are the total loaded area fraction or
1. Reflectivity parameters of some fractal analysis of the
2. Grey levels contour of the shiny areas (Feng and Chen
3. Topographical data 2007). Grey levels furnish the database for tex-
Scanning electron microscopy today is impos- sible ture analysis, where especially in (Arunachalam
for in-process measurement but yields fine and Ramamoorthy 2007), some investigation on
topographical information. the suitability of first- and second-order
G 596 Grinding Monitoring

Grinding Monitoring, 0 Specific Energy

Fig. 4 Change of the 0.05 = 0.54 J/mm2
20 0.1
distribution asperity 0 0.15
heights due to wear
(From Chen et al. 2003)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15

20
0
0
0.05 Average Height 78 μm
0.1
[%] 0.15
20 0
0 Specific Energy
0.05 = 0.41 J/mm2
Height Average Height 52 μm
[mm]
20 0.15
0
Specific Energy
= 0.33 J/mm2
Average Height 43 μm

Before dressing
Average Height 27 μm

parameters are shown, indicating wear states of the
grinding wheel.
It was shown that change in the grey level co-
occurrence matrix indicates wear and the
arithmetic average of the grey level can be corre-
lated to wear, but no causality could be derived.
From full 3D-topograhical data in (Chen at al.
2003), the distribution of asperity heights is
deduced and it can be shown that the distribution
when dressing significantly changes to a more
even distribution as shown in Fig. 4.
In (Brown et al. 2007), F-tests on optically
detected volume-filling distributions are used to
differentiate between surface layers generated by
different dressing conditions and can thus be
used to differentiate between worn and new
state of the grinding wheel.
For monitoring with the help of fluid flows,
the fluid is applied through a flapper nozzle,
issuing air and measuring the flow resistance/
pressure. For free chipping space, the flow resis-
tance is smaller than for loaded or worn grinding
wheels. Monitoring the flow field of the coolant is yet
to be found in literature. Surface monitoring
through magnetic field changes and detection has
yet to be developed but can be applied for loading
detection. All these monitoring strategies can be
and partially are utilized during grinding to detect
the degradation of the wheel and during dressing
to detect the degree of regeneration achieved.
Cross-References
▶ Dressing
▶ Grinding Wheel
▶ Wear Mechanisms
References
Arunachalam N, Ramamoorthy B (2007) Texture analysis
for grinding wheel wear assessment using machine
vision. Proc IMechE 221(Part B):419–430
Brown CA, Hahn RS, St. Gelais RM, Powers B, Geiger
DJ, Bergstrom TS (2007) Grinding wheel texture and
diamond roll plunge dressing feed-rates, on CD:
ISAAT 2007. In: Precision grinding and abrasive
technology at SME international grinding conference,
Dearborn, 26–28 Sept 2007
Chen M, Sun F, Liu G, Jian X, Li X (2003) Theoretical
and experimental research on generation mechanism
of grinding wheel topography by laser dressing
and 3D laser scanning. Key Eng Mater 233–236:
497–502
Feng Z, Chen X (2007) Image processing of grinding
wheel surface. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 32(5/6):
452–458
Gomes de Oliveira JF, Dornfeld DA (2001) Application of
AE contact sensing in reliable grinding monitoring.
CIRP Ann 50(1):217–220
Grinding Parameters 597 G
Lezanski P, Rafalowicz J, Jedrzejewski J (1993) An inte actuated variables, the cutting to
l-
ol
ligent monitoring system for cylindrical
grinding. pr
CIRP Ann 42(1):393–396 op
Stephenson DJ, Sun X, Zervos C (2006) A study on ELID ert
ies
ultra precision grinding of optical glass with acoustic
,
emission. Int J Mach Tool Manuf 46(10):1053– an
1063 d
Wegener K, Hoffmeister H-W, Karpuschewski B,
th
Kuster
F, Hahmann W-C, Rabiey M (2011) Conditioning e
and monitoring of grinding wheel. CIRP w
Ann or
60(2):757–777
kp
ie
ce
pr
Grinding Parameters op
er
Jens K ¨hler
tie
o

Institut f€ur Fertigungstechnik und

s.
Werkzeugmaschinen, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
D
Universit€at Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
ue
to
th
Synonyms e
Contact length; Engagement conditions; Process
co
parameters; Single-grain chip thickness
m
ple
x
Definition int
For grinding processes the actuated
err
variables
ela
(e.g., cutting speed, feed velocity) and the syste
tio
m variables (e.g., grinding tool properties)
ns
have to be distinguished from the process
hip
parameters. The process parameters allow a
s
good correlation to the process behavior.
du
Examples for these process parameters are
rin
the geometric contact length between tool
g
and workpiece or the equivalent chip
gri
thickness. In the following, these process
nd
parameters are explained.
in
g
pro
Theory and Application ce
Introduction ss,
The grinding process is a geometrical pa
undefined cutting process due to the undefined ra
number and geometry of cutting edges
m
interacting with the workpiece. The load on et
the workpiece as well as the load on the er
grinding wheel is a result of the programmed
s have been defined to describe the process
behavior. These parame- ters are described in
the following article (see also standard ISO 3002–
5).
Process Parameters
The basic process parameters in grinding processes are
the cutting speed v , the feed velocity v , the depth of
c f
cut a , and the width of cut a (see Fig. 1, see also
e p
Denkena and T ¨nshoff 2011). The cutting speed is in
o pro-
general equal to the circumferential speed of the
grinding wheel. The feed velocity is oriented in feed
direction. The feed direction in grinding processes can
be oriented in tangential or axial to the grinding
wheel. For this reason the tangential feed velocity v
and the axial feed veloc- ity v have been defined. In
fa
cylindrical grinding the feed velocity can also be
oriented radial to the
grinding wheel. In this case the radial feed velocity v is
fr
defined. Depending on the grinding process, also the
workpiece can have an actuating velocity which is not
in every case equal to the feed direc- tion. This
velocity is then called the workpiece velocity v . The
w peripheral grinding by (see Fig. 1)
depth of cut ae is the engagement of the grinding
wheel in radial direction, while the width of cut ap
is the engagement of the grinding wheel in axial
direction. For this reason the depth
of cut ae is also known as the working engagement,
and the width of cut ap is known as
back engagement.
Further parameters relevant for grinding
cesses are the width of the grinding wheel b , s
the width of the workpiece b , and the
w
diameter of the grinding wheel d as well as
s
for cylindrical grinding the diameter of the
ft workpiece d .w
Productivity G
The process productivity in grinding is
described by the material removal rate Q (Salje
w
´ 1991). The material removal rate is a result
of the process actuated values working
engagement a , feed velocity v , and back
e f
engagement a and can be calculated for
p
Qw ¼ ae □ ap □ v t ¼ Aw □ vft
f
G 598 Grinding Parameters

Grinding Parameters, Fig. 1 Process parameters and kinematics for different grinding processes

In general the material removal rate can be grinding wheel radius r and the working
s

calculated by the actuating cross section Aw, engagement ae:

which is the cross section between tool and work-
piece orthogonal to the feed direction. A general
rs□□ are □
overview on the process parameters and the cal- lg ¼ rs □ arccos s

culation of the material removal rate for these

processes is given in Fig. 1. The geometrical contact length is a mathemat-
To compare the productivity of different ical value which does not consider the kinematics
grinding processes, the material removal rate is between tool and workpiece, the elastic deforma-
related to the back engagement and is then called tions as a result of the grinding forces, the rough-
material removal rate per unit active grinding ness of tool and workpiece, and the real contact
wheel width Q : 0
w
conditions between the single grains and the
workpiece (appr. 1 % of the geometrical value).
Qw The kinematic contact length lk considers the
Qw ¼
0

feed and cutting speed for ideal even surfaces. It

ap
can be calculated by (see Fig. 3)

Geometrical and Kinematic Engagement 1

Conditions lk ¼ l□
g □ a□
q□
e

For the chip formation process in the engagement

zone, the geometrical and kinematic contact
(+ down grinding, □ up grinding)
conditions are relevant. The engagement zone is
while the parameter q is the speed ratio v /v . c ft
equal to the contact area A which can be
con
The material removal rate Q has to be the w
determined by the geometrical contact length l and
same as the material volume which is removed
g

the back engagement a . The geometrical con-

per time unit by the cutting speed and the
p

tact length l is shown in Fig. 1 and depends on the

g
Grinding Parameters 599

Grinding Parameters, Fig. 2 Geometrical contact length

Kurrein also defined the external

material removal rate Q , which can be
wa

calculated equal to the material removal rate

Q (Kurrein 1927).
w

The equivalent chip thickness describes

the thickness of a material band which is
removed by the grains due to the cutting
speed v . The equivalent chip thickness is
c

a mathematical value and is not equal to

the removed material per grain (Denkena and
T ¨nshoff 2011). For the determination of the
o

medium single-grain chip thickness, the

number of grains in the contact zone N A

has to be known (Reichenbach et al.

Grinding Parameters, Fig. 3 Kinematic contact length
1956). The number of grains in the contact zone
engagement of the single grains. The produced
N depends on the grain size and the grain con-
A
volume flow is known as the internal material
centration. For the same grain concentration, an
removal rate Q . According to Kurrein (1927) the
increased grain size results to a decreased number of
wi

internal material removal rate can be calcu- lated

grains in the contact zone. When N is A
by
determined by counting the grains via a view on
Qwi ¼ h q □ ap □ vc
e
the grinding wheel surface, the following
presumptions have to be considered:
while h is the equivalent chip thickness which can – Every grain is cutting actively.
eq

then be calculated by (Fig. 4)

– Every grain has the same protrusion height.
– Elastic and plastic deformations are not
vft considered.
h q ¼ ae □
e

vc – The path overlap is not considered.

Using the assumptions of Kurrein (1927), the
medium chip thickness can be calculated by
G 600 Grinding Parameters

Grinding Parameters,
Fig. 4 Equivalent chip
thickness

1
v 1 ae
2 breakout and to higher wear rate. Furthermore,
hc ft □ □ a higher medium grain chip thickness results in a
vc NA □ l
□ lg □ higher workpiece roughness. With this knowl-
Lambda is a factor that describes the shape of edge, the grinding process can be optimized
the grains. regarding tool wear, workpiece properties, and
The number of active grains in the contact productivity.
area N depends on the geometric contact area as
A

well as the grain size and the grain concen-

tration in the grinding wheel. This means that Cross-References
the medium chip thickness per grain depends on the
grinding wheel properties as well as the ▶ Centerless Grinding
actuated values. The medium grain chip thick- ▶ Gear Grinding
ness can be increased by increasing the feed rate, the ▶ Grinding
working engagement, the grain size, and the ▶ Grinding Wheel
grinding wheel radius or by decreasing the cut- ▶ Ploughing (in Grinding)
ting speed and the grain concentration in the ▶ Residual Stress (Abrasive Processes)
grinding wheel. Several results show that the
values contact length as well as medium grain
chip thickness show a good correlation to the References
process results tool wear and workpiece proper- Brinksmeier E (1991) Prozess- und Werkst€uckqualit€at in
ties (Brinksmeier 1991; Lierse 1998). An der Feinbearbeitung [Process and workpiece quality in
fine machining]. Habilitationsschrift, Universit€at
increasing contact length leads to higher tem-
Hannover, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe 2, Nr. 234.
peratures in the contact zone and though to a VDI-Verlag, D€usseldorf
higher tendency towards grinding burn. A higher Denkena B, To¨nshoff HK (2011) Spanen – Grundlagen
medium grain chip thickness leads to a higher [Cutting – basics], 3rd edn. Springer, Berlin/
Heidelberg
mechanical load on the grains and though to
a higher tendency towards grain
Grinding Wheel 601 G
ISO 3002-5 (1989) Basic quantities in cutting and processes).
grinding – Part 5: basic terminology for grinding
pro-
T
cesses using grinding wheels
h
Kurrein M (1927) Die Bearbeitbarkeit der Metalle in
e
Zusammenhang mit der Festigkeitspr€ufung
o
[The
ry
machinability of metals in correlation to
a
strength n
test]. Werkstatttechni k 21:612–621
d
Lierse T (1998) Mechanische und thermische Wirkungen A
beim Schleifen keramischer Werkstoffe [Mechanical
p
and thermal effects in grinding of ceramic materials].
pl
Dr.-Ing. dissertation, Universit€at ic
Hannover. at
VDI-Verlag, D€usseldorf io
Reichenbach GS, Mayer JE, Kalpakcioglu S, Shaw MC n
Int
(1956) The role of chip thickness in grinding. ro
Trans du
ASME 78:847–859
Salje´ E (1991) Begriffe der Schleif- und Konditio- cti
on
niertechnik
[Terms in grinding and dressing
technol- In
ogy]. Vulkan Verlag, Essen
ge
ne
ral
,
Grinding Tool Gr
in
▶ Grinding Wheel di
ng
W
he
els
Grinding Wheel ar
Jan Aurich and Benjamin Kirsch e
Institute of Manufacturing Technology and dis
Production Systems, University tin
of Kaiserlautern, Kaiserlautern, Germany gui
sh
ed
Synonyms in
co
Grinding tool nv
en
tio
na
Definition l
A Grinding Wheel is a round tool, consisting an
of the basic body and the abrasive layer. It is d
used for most ▶ grinding processes (surface hig
grinding, cylindrical grinding, screw h-
grinding, gear grinding, profile grinding, pe
etc.) with very few exceptions (e.g., belt rfo
grinding or other special grinding rm
ance wheels. While conventional Grinding
Wheels are completely made of abrasive
layer, high-
performance Grinding Wheels consist of a basic body
and the abrasive layer. For both types, the abrasive
layer consists of the abrasive grains and the bond
(See Fig. 1).
As indicated by their names, conventional
Grinding Wheels are commonly used for conven-
tional grinding processes with low material
removal rates and Grinding Wheel speeds.
High-performance Grinding Wheels are used with from plain cylindrical to complex grooved
the primary goal to achieve high removal rates.
High removal rates require high Grinding Wheel
speeds which conventional Grinding Wheels
cannot withstand. Because of the high Grinding
Wheel speeds and material removal
rates, the basic body has to provide high mechan-
ical stability, good damping, and thermal conduc- tivity. the abrasive grains until they are blunt. Blunt
Materials used for the basic body of high-
performance Grinding Wheels are:
• Metal (aluminum; steel; bronze)
• Synthetic resin (with metallic and nonmetallic
filler)
• Fiber-reinforced synthetic resin
• Ceramics
Commonly, aluminum or steel is used for
the
basic body of high-performance
Grinding Wheels. They provide sufficiently
high mechan- ical stability and thermal
conductivity, thereby overcompensating their
poor damping.
The geometry of Grinding Wheels
ranges
pro- files (DIN ISO 525). The materials of
the bond and the abrasive grains for both
Grinding Wheel types will be outlined in G
detail below.
Bond
The bond is responsible for the retention of
grains should ideally break out of the bond
to allow subsequent sharp grains to
participate in the material removal process.
The bond has to provide room for chips
and cooling lubricant
G 602 Grinding Wheel

Grinding Wheel,
Fig. 1 High-performance
grinding wheel and a close-
up of an abrasive layer

(either by pores or by space between grains). removal rates. Its porosity can be adjusted,
There are three types of bond that are commonly which offers the possibility to generate large
used for Grinding Wheels: pores for ▶ g rind in g flu id delivery and
• Synthetic resin chip transport. The main advantage of metal
• Ceramic bond, specifically galvanic bond, is their extreme
• Metal (also galvanic) high grain retention force. This enables
Other types of bond like rubber or glue are not material removal rates of 50–300 mm3/(mms) in
relevant for material removal of metals or indus- trial applications (Tawakoli 1990).
ceramic and will not be discussed. The ideal Grinding Wheels with metal bond provide high
bond would provide the following properties grain pro- trusion heights and do not need
(Yegenoglu and Thurnbichler 1995): ▶ dressing, while conventional Grinding Wheels
• Good dimensional stability have to be dressed regularly.
• High toughness Abrasive Grains
• Good thermal conductivity The abrasive grains are the cutting edges of the
• Good damping Grinding Wheel, embedded in the bond, that
• Good temperature stability perform the actual material removal. They have to
• Potentiality to profile provide (Klocke and K ¨nig 2005; Yegenoglu and
o

None of the available bond types provides all Thurnbichler 1995)

these properties. Figure 2 shows the different
types of bonds and their properties. While, for
example, synthetic resin bond is easy to profile
and provides good damping, its temperature
stability is low and it provides poor thermal
conductivity. Wheels with metal bond possess
excellent temperature stability and thermal
conductivity but only low damping and are hard to
• High hardness and toughness
• High thermal conductivity and thermal
(alternating) resistance
• High chemical resistance
The abrasive grains used for Grinding Wheels
today are synthetic. Natural abrasives are rarely
used because they provide low stability (Klocke
and K ¨nig 2005). Similar to the Grinding Wheel
o

profile, or, in the case of galvanic bond, they itself, the synthetic abrasive grains can be
cannot be profiled at all. subdivided into:
The bond is chosen depending on the • Conventional abrasive grains (silicium
intended application: the material to be carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide or corundum
removed, the required quality, and the ▶ grind- ing (Al O ), Sol-Gel corundum)
2 3

parameters (cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate).
Synthetic resin bond is commonly used for
conventional grinding processes and is the
most economical bond. Ceramic bond is used for
thermally critical processes and high
• High-performance abrasive grains (diamond,
cubic boron nitride (CBN))
As indicated by their names, conventional
abrasive grains are commonly used for
Grinding Wheel 603 G
Grinding Wheel,
Fig. 2 Properties of bond
(Zitt 1999)

dimension stability
thermal temperaturepotentiality to
toughness
conductivity damping stability profile
nthetic resin
sy
high

medium

ow

ramic
G
ce
high

medium

ow

etal
m
high

medium

ow

lvanic
ga
high

conventional Grinding Wheels and high- medium of the ground surface. This can be attributed to
performance abrasive grains for high- owthe higher undeformed chip thickness, because
performance Grinding Wheels. This is due to the the same amount of material has to be removed
fact that diamond and CBN are much harder and by a smaller number of grains. Therefore, in
tougher than conventional abrasive grains. The ultra-precision grinding, very small grain sizes
physical properties of the abrasive grains are and high grain concentrations are applied to gen-
depicted in Table 1. erate high surface finish.
Beside the type of abrasive grains used for a When using a specific grain size, the grain
Grinding Wheel, the grain size and grain concentration itself can be increased or
concentration significantly influence the grinding decreased. Decreasing the grain concentration
process and the workpiece quality. Generally, can bring advantages concerning the material
higher grain sizes lead to a smaller grain concen- removal behavior (Aurich et al. 2008; Tawakoli et
tration, resulting in increased surface roughness al. 2007). This is realized by lowering the
G 604 Grinding Wheel Preparation
Grinding Wheel, Table 1 Physical properties of abrasives (Zitt 1999)
Al O
2 3 Sol-Gel SiC CBN Diamond
Density (g/cm ) 3
3,96 3,87 3,15 3,48 3,52
Hardness (HK01) 1,850–2,000 1,900–2,400 2,450–5,000 4,500–5,000 5,000–7,000
Hardness (HV01) 2,100 – 2,500 6,000 –
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 400 – 400 680 890
Poisson’s ratio 0,20 – 0,17 0,17 0,20
Coefficient of friction 0,34 0,34 – 0,19 0.05–0.15
Melting point ( C) □
2,050 – 2,300 2,730 3,700
Temperature stability ( C)□
1,750 2,000 1,500 1,200 900
Coefficient of thermal 7.4 (<500 C) □
– 4.7 3.6 0.8 (RT) 1.5–4.8
expansion (10 /K)□6
7.5–8.5 (>500 □C)
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 30
(>(RT) 14
500 C) □ 30 (RT) 14 110 (RT) 55 200 (400 □C) 600–2,000 (RT)
(400 C) □
(400 C)
□
(600 C)□

Heat capacity (J/gK) 1.08 (400 C) □

1.08 (400 C) □
1.1 (500 C) 1.57 (400 C)
□ □
6.19 (RT)

number of stochastically placed grains. For high- ▶ Grinding Fluids

performance Grinding Wheels, this can also be
realized by structuring the Grinding Wheel or by
using defined grain patterns. A lower grain
concentration when using a specific grain size
leads to:
• Higher chip space
• Less number of rubbing and plowing grains
• Higher undeformed chip thickness
• Smaller grinding forces and power, resulting
in smaller thermal loads of the ground
workpiece
• Higher grain wear, resulting in a higher
Grinding Wheel wear
• Higher surface roughness
The surface roughness of ground surfaces is
also influenced by the sharpness of the Grinding
Wheel, specifically the sharpness of the grains.
Sharper grains lead to higher surface roughness.
While blunt grains lead to a lower surface rough-
ness, they also result in higher friction and hence in
higher thermal impact of the workpiece. The
sharpness of Grinding Wheels is influenced by the
▶ dressin g conditions.
▶ Grinding Parameters
▶ Ultraprecision Grinding
References
Aurich JC, Herzenstiel P, Sudermann H, Magg T (2008)
High-performance dry grinding using a grinding wheel
with a defined grain pattern. CIRP Ann Manuf Technol
57(1):357–362
DIN ISO 525: Schleifko¨rper aus gebundenem
Schleifmittel, August 2000
Klocke F, Ko¨nig W (2005) Fertigungsverfahren 2:
schleifen, honen, l€appen. Springer
Tawakoli T (1990) Hochleistungs-flachschleifen –
technologie, verfahrensplanung und wirtschaftlicher
einsatz. VDI Verlag
Tawakoli T, Westk€amper E, Rabiey M (2007) Dry grind-
ing by special conditioning. Int J Adv Manuf Technol
33:419–424
Yegenoglu K, Thurnbichler M (1995) Hochleistungss-
chleifen: CBN-schleifscheiben als wichtige systemkom-
ponenten beim hochleistungsschleifen. wt-produktion
und management 85:517–522
Zitt U (1999) Modellierung und simulation von hochleis-
tungsschleifprozessen. FBK Produktionstechnische
Berichte 34. Dissertation, TU Kaiserslautern

Cross-References Grinding Wheel Preparation

▶ Dressing
▶ Grinding ▶ Dressing
Groove Milling 605 G
resulting surface finish is more important. For
Groove Milling economic reasons the results do not have to
Inge Klobasa be as good as possible, but only as
Germanischer Lloyd Industrial Services, good as necessary. For achieving this, it is
Renewables Certification, Hamburg, essential to
Germany know the machining result in advance, dependin
g on the boundary conditions.
Real Shape of a Milled Slot
Synonyms A slot ideally has a rectangular cross section with
even surfaces. A milled slot will have
Slot milling; Slotting surfaces which are not flat (Fig. 1) (Schr ¨der o

1974; Hann 1983; Gey 2002), and scallops

will be visible from the single cutting edges
Definition of the tool. G
Groove milling or slot milling is a Figure 2 shows three different types of carbi
machining operation where a milling cutter de
removes mate- rial on 180□ cutters. The third one has chip-breaking
of its circumference. The direction of feed is grooves and is used for rough machining
generally perpendicular to the rotational axis operations. The first and the second tools can
of the milling cutter. If the face of the be used for fine machining.
tool has cutting edges along the whole Measurements of milled grooves
radius (normally one cutting edge crosses the using
rotational a coordinate measuring machine clearly
axis of the cutter), the tool can be used for drillin show the form deviations of the slot flanks.
g operations and it is possible to machine Figure 3
pockets. shows the exaggerated flank forms of slots mille
d with a 2-teeth cutter and with a 3-teeth
cutter.
Theory and Application Looking at Figs. 2 and 4, it can be
Application clearly
Groove milling is necessary for various seen that the tools do not have a
applica- tions. For a keyed joint, for example, rectangular outline. The slot flanks are
it is neces- sary to produce keyseats, which machined only by short sections of the
are slots or pockets. Cooling fins may also cutting edges at a time. In the case of a 3-
be produced by groove milling. teeth cutter, these short sections are at
In some cases the resulting dimensions and different heights. This is the reason why a
forms are very important; in other cases slot milled with a 3-teeth cutter is not
the symmetric.
In the places where the tool is in contact
with
the material, there is a reaction force acting on th
e
tool. The force causes bending of the tool, and t
he bending causes a deviation of the flank
surfaces (see Fig. 4).

Groove Milling,
Fig. 1
Shape of an ideal
slot and a milled slot
(exaggerated)
G 606
Having a closer look at the slot flanks (Fig. 5),
the scallops of the single teeth are clearly visible.
These slots have been machined in AlCuMg1 F40
(Klobasa 2007).
The next chapters will deal with the mathe-
matics behind these phenomena.
Trajectory of a Single Point of the Cutting
Edge
The milling cutter has a rotational movement
around its own axis and a translational movement in
feed direction. The trajectory of each point of the
tool can be described by a trochoid. A
trochoid is defined in a way that a circle is
rolling on a line; and each point that is fixed
relatively to the circle will move on a trochoidal
curve (Bronstein et al. 1995). Point A in Fig. 6
moves on its trochoid to point A’, and point B
moves on its shifted trochoid to point B’.
slot and calculated trochoids are laid on top of
each other and the coherence is visible.
Groove Milling, Fig. 2 Three carbide cutters: with 3 teeth,
with 2 teeth, and with 3 teeth and chip-breaking grooves
Groove Milling, Fig. 3 Left: milled with 2-teeth cutter. Right: milled with 3-teeth cutter
Groove Milling
The formulas for describing a trochoid are
xðjÞ ¼ a □ j þ r □ sinðjÞ yðjÞ
¼ r □ cosðjÞ
with:
j: angular position
a: radius of the rolling circle
r: radius of the tool
Now the open question is: How long is the
radius of the circle, named a? The answer can
be found in Fig. 6: The distance between the tool
in any position and after one whole revolution is
equal to the circumference of the rolling circle,
which is 2 · p · a . On the other hand it is equal to
the feed, which is the feed per tooth times the
number of teeth (f · z). Combining these two
z
formulas, a is given if the number of teeth of the
cutter is known and if the feed per tooth is known:
a ¼ ðfz □ zÞ=ð2 □ pÞ
Furthermore there is a relation between geom-
etry and speeds: The quotient of the tool radius r
and the rolling circle radius a is equal to the
quotient of the cutting speed vc and the feed
velocity vf (n is the rotational speed) (T ¨nshoff
o
and Denkena 2004):
r=a ¼ ð2 □ p □ r □ nÞ=ðfz □ z □ nÞ ¼ v =vf c
In Fig. 7 photographs of the ground of a milled
The material to be removed by one cutting
edge is the area between two adjacent trochoidal
 Groove Milling 607 G

Synchronous milling

Upcut milling

Forces
Cutting edges in Tool deflection Flank G
contact with flanks form
Groove Milling, Fig. 4 Explanation for flank form deviations
milling side and the synchronous milling
side. The formulas for the trochoids are
known. To be able to calculate the scallop
height, the y values of the points P1, P2, P3,
and P4 must be known. Then the maximum
scallop height on the upcut milling side is

RY□upcut ¼ yðP2Þ □ yðP1Þ

and the maximum scallop height on the
synchro- nous milling side is

RY□synchronous ¼ yðP4Þ □ yðP3Þ

Groove Milling, Fig. 5 Scallops on the tooth flanks

The variables in the trochoid formula for y are

y, j, and r. The y value is wanted. The radius of
trajectories. In Fig. 7 the trochoids rather look
like circles, but if the cutting edge enters the the tool is given. The variable j is known for P2
and for P3:
material on one flank, it exits the material on the
jðP2Þ ¼ 0
other flank at a different x-position (see Fig. 6). and
For a better understanding of the shapes of the
material to be removed, Fig. 8 shows the depen- jðP3Þ ¼ p
dency of this shape on the feed per tooth and on The j values for P1 and P4 are not known but can
the number of cutting edges. The distance d is the be calculated using the trochoid formula for x. The
difference in x-positions. rolling circle radius a can be calculated from the feed
Geometrical Description of the Flank Shape per tooth and the number of teeth. The tool radius r is
(Without Cutting Forces) known. The x value is zero for j ¼ 0 (at P2):
The examination of the trochoids at the flank
sides helps in understanding the surface finish of the
xðP2Þ ¼ 0
slot flanks (Fig. 9). The maximum scallop height
is different for both sides, the upcut
G 608 Groove Milling

Groove Milling, Rolling circle

Fig. 6 Cutting-edge points
move on trochoidal paths Base line Tool cross section

y
n

B B'
x A A' vf
vc
a
fz ˙ Z
r

Trochoid of point B
Trochoid of point A
fz ˙ Z = 2π ˙ a

Groove Milling,
Fig. 7 Comparison of
a photograph of a milled
slot ground and calculated
trochoids

fz·z
d= small feed per tooth fz big feed per tooth fz
2

Toolfew
with
cutting edges

d d

many Tool with

cutting edges
Groove Milling,
Fig. 8 Dependency of d on
the number of cutting edges
and on the feed per tooth d d
Groove Milling 609 G
Groove Milling, y
Fig. 9 Scallop height
calculation

Max. scallop height upcut

P2 milling side
P1

material removed by one

cutting edge
peaks

valleys x

Max. scallp height synchronous

P4 milling side
P G
3

fz

Groove Milling, Fig. 10

Values of
machined trochoidal paths
parameters: scallops: trochoids:
y
fz = 0,32 mm Max. scallops heights:
5
z=3 RY-upcut = 2,4 μm
mm
r=5 RY-synchronous = 2,7 μm
3
mm Scallop angle:
2
λ=
α = 1,75° 1
45° x
0 2 4 6
mm
y
fz = 0,03 mm Max. scallops heights:
5
z=3 RY-upcut = 0,02 μm
mm
r=5 RY-synchronous = 0,02 μm
3
mm Scallop angle:
2
λ= α = 0,16° 1 x
45°
0 2 4 6
mm

The x value for P1 is □f /2: z

xðP1Þ ¼ □fz=2

The x value for P4 is x(P1) + d with d ¼ (f · z

z)/ 2 (see Fig. 8):

xðP4Þ ¼ □fz=2 þðfz □
zÞ=2
¼ fz=2 □ ðz □ 1Þ
With the known x values, j can be
calculated for P1 and P4 and hence the
y values can be calculated.
 known (without considering forces). As the milling
cutter is rotating and moving forward, the points
To get an idea about what values will be P1, P2, P3, and P4 are moving upward and forward. So
achieved for realistic examples, in Fig. 10 two trochoids
the scallops are tilted by the angle a (Fig. 11).
are shown where the feed and the tool diameter are to
The next task is to calculate the scallop angle a.
scale and slots have been milled with these values
Figure 12 leads to the formula which is needed to
(Klobasa 2007).
calculate alpha. On the left-hand side, there is the
Now the theoretic profile of the slot in a plane is
G 610 Groove Milling

Groove Milling,
Fig. 11 Evolution of
angled scallops

fz

λ hz
α
hz · z
hz

hz

feed
fz = feed per tooth 2·π ·r
α = scallop angle
Groove Milling, hz = pitch
Fig. 12 Evolution of the fz · z · tan λ z = number of teeth
formula to calculate the λ = helix angle
a = arctan
2·π ·r r = tool radius
scallop angle alpha

triangle with the two legs of the right-angled trian- gle

the forces on the tool, which lead to a tool deflec-
(feed per tooth fz and pitch hz) and the wanted angle a.
tion. The force depends on the amount of material
The height hz can be calculated, as shown
which has to be removed by the teeth. Again the
in Fig. 12 on the right-hand side, from the two legs first analysis is being done in a plane (Fig. 14). The
of the triangle hz z and 2 · p · r and the helix angle l
effective direction of motion of the tip of the cutting
of the tool. So the scallop angle depends on the feed edge is tangential to the trochoid, and the effective
per tooth, the number of teeth, the helix angle of the cutting depth is perpendicular to the effective direc-
teeth, and the tool radius: tion of motion. The effective cutting depth can be
calculated for each point by finding the intersection point
a ¼ arctanððfz □ z □ tanðlÞÞ=ð2 □ p □ rÞÞ between the line along the effective cutting depth
Figure 13 helps in understanding the motion of the and the previous trochoid.
cutting edges. The extension of the 2D examination to the 3D
Forces on the Tool milling cutter is shown in Fig. 15. Due to the helix
After the investigation of the pure geometric bound- angle, each point of the cutting edge is at a
aries when milling a slot, it is necessary to analyze different rotational position on the tool and on
a different height. So for an analytical calculation,
the cutter has to be divided into height increments
Groove Milling 611 G
(e.g., Kline et al. 1982), and for each The forces can be calculated using
increment the effective cutting depth and thus the
the resulting force increment has to be following formula, which is adapted to
calculated. this milling process from the original
(Altintas 2000):

Fi ¼ b □ ðKic □ hðjÞ þ KieÞ

with i ¼ e (effective), eN (normal to

effective),
a (axial)
b ¼ incremental height
h ¼ effective cutting depth G
K and K ¼ constants, calculated from tests
ic ie

j ¼ rotational position of the cutter

The forces then have to be converted
into an
X- and Y-coordinate system
The angle between the effective force
direc-
tion and the tangent to the tool (cutting
speed direction) is Z, which is illustrated in
Fig. 16. The lengths of the arrows in Fig. 16
representing the forces are not proportional
to their values. They are drawn to clearly
visualize the angle Z. The formula to obtain Z
is
Groove Milling, Fig. 13 Rotating tool
Z ¼ arctanðsin j=ðr=a þ cos jÞÞ
y or
Z ¼ arctanðsin j=ðv =vf þ cos jÞÞ
c

mm

direction of motion
tangential to trochoid

effective cutting depth

length: perpendicular to
current trochoid, up to
Groove Milling, –5 intersection with previous
Fig. 14 Calculation of trochoid
effective cutting depth 0 5 mm 10
G 612 Groove Milling

Groove Milling,
Fig. 15 Cutting depths at
different locations on the
tool

y
y FeN workpiece mm
FcN
5
ϕ−η

ϕ
ϕ η Fe
Fc

vf x 0 x
n

Ve
−5
Groove Milling, Fig. 16 Effective cutting force Vc Vf
0 5 mm 10
Groove Milling, Fig. 17 Cutting speed v , feed v , and
c f

As shown in Fig. 17, v is tangential to the

c
effective cutting speed v
e

tool, v is in feed direction, and v is in the

f e
resulting effective direction.
The resulting forces are shown exemplarily as
measurements during slot milling using a 2-teeth
cutter (Fig. 18). On the left-hand side, the forces
are plotted along the rotational position of the
cutter. On the right-hand side, the forces are plot-
ted in a 3D force system. There are several thin
lines, which are bundled in two curves. The two
dotted vertical lines in the left diagram corre-
spond to the two arrows in the right diagram.
The repeatability of the measured forces per rev-
olution is high, but the two edges of the cutter
produce slightly different forces. The reason may
be the detailed micro-geometry of the cutting
edges, which changes with time and wear and is
never exactly the same on all cutting edges, or
oscillations of the tool.
Bending of the Tool Due to Cutting Forces
After the examination of the occurring forces on
the tool, the reaction of the tool has to be ana-
lyzed. The tool is not a simple cylinder, but
a complex piece of metal with different moments of
inertia on different heights and in different
directions (Fig. 19).
 Groove Milling 613 G
F FZ
1500
N
1000 FY
FX
FZ

500 600
Forces on milling cutter

0 FY 400
1500 N
ϕ FXYZ 200 FX
1000
0 π 500
N 500
0 N
2π 1000
Rotational position G
Groove Milling, Fig. 18 Forces on milling cutter with two teeth

Groove Milling,
Fig. 19 Neckings on
different tools, dependi
ng
on the rotational positio
n

Groove Milling,
Fig. 20
Different bending
lines, depending on the
rotational position
G 614
Simplifying, the area moment of inertia for the 2-
teeth cutter, which is displayed, e.g., in Fig. 16, can
be calculated analytically by taking two half circles
and using basic formulas as given in, e.g. Bronstein IN, Semendjajew KA, Musiol G, M€uhlig H
(Beitz et al. 1995), using the parallel axis theorem
and coordinate transformations for rotations.
The different bending lines of a 2-teeth cutter
are illustrated in Fig. 20.
The deflections of the tool (bending and
torsion) at the corresponding positions on the
cutting edges can then be added to the theoretical Hann V (1983) Kinetik des Schaftfr€asens [Kinetics of end
slot geometry, and thus, it is possible to predict the
slot surfaces. The whole procedure is
explained in Klobasa (2007) in more detail.
In this method, possible vibrations are not
considered.
Cross-References
▶ Cutting Fluid
▶ Cutting Force Modeling
▶ Cutting, Fundamentals
References
Altintas Y (2000) Manufacturing automation: metal
cutting mechanics, machine tool vibrations , and CNC
design. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Groove Milling
Beitz W, Dubbe l H, K€ uttne r K-H (1995) Dubbel –
Taschenbuch f€ur den Maschinenbau [Handbook of
mechanical engineering], 18th edn. Deutschland,
Berlin (in German)
(1995) Taschenbuch der Mathematik [Handbook of
mathematics], 2nd edn. Verlag Harri Deutsch
(in German)
Gey C (2002) Prozessauslegung f€ur das Flankenfr€asen von
Titan [Process design for the flank milling of titanium].
Berichte aus dem IFW. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe
2 Nr. 625. Universit€at, IFW, Dr.-Ing, Hannover. Dis-
sertation (in German)
milling]. Berichte aus dem WZL. Fortschritt-Berichte
VDI Reihe 2 Nr. 66. Aachen, Laboratorium f€ur
Werkzeugmaschinen und Betriebslehre der RWTH
Aachen. Dr.-Ing. Dissertation (in German)
Kline WA, DeVor RE, Lindberg JR (1982) The prediction
of cutting forces in end milling with application to
cornering cuts. Int J Mach Tools Des Res 22(1):7–22
Klobasa I (2007) Analytische Berechnung der
Flankengestalt beim Nutenfr€asen [Analytical calcula-
tion of the flank shape in slot milling]. Berichte aus
dem IFW Band 06/2007. Hrsg. B. Denkena, Hannover :
PZH Produktionstechnisches Zentrum GmbH.
Hannover, Universit€at, IFW, Dr.-Ing Dissertation
(in German)
Schro¨der K-H (1974) Ursachen der Fertigungsungen-
auigkeiten und deren Auswirkungen beim
Schaftfr€asen [Causes of manufacturing inaccuracies
and their effects on end milling]. Aachen, RWTH,
Laboratorium f€ur Werkzeugmaschinen und
Betriebslehre. Dr.-Ing. Dissertation (in German)
To¨nshoff HK, Denkena B (2004) Spanen: grundlagen
[Cutting: fundamentals], 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin
(in German)