Literature Review on Curriculum Development

Veronica S. Rellosa

MaED in Curriculum Development

Dr. Herminilito Salazar Luna, JD

April 8, 2020
Veronica S. Rellosa
MaED in Curriculum Development
Dr. Herminilito Salazar Luna, JD
April 8, 2020

Literature Review on Curriculum Development

A. Integrating Differentiated Instruction & Understanding by Design

B. In Pursuit of Continuing Quality in Higher Education through Accreditation: The
Philippine Experience. International Institute for Education Planning
C. The Principal as Curriculum Leader: Shaping What Is Taught & Tested
D. Curriculum Development and K-12 Challenges in the Philippines: A Reflexive Case
Analysis towards Redesigning Language and Literature Education in College
E. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 22, Issue 2, Ver.
III
F. The International Journal of Business Management and Technology, Volume 2 Issue
G. Curriculum development for teacher education in the Southern Philippines: A
simultaneous process of professional learning and syllabus enhancement
H. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction First Edition, Revised Edition, Kindle
Edition
 Few teachers find their work effective or satisfying when they simply “serve up” a
curriculum—even an elegant one—to their students with no regard for their varied learning
needs. For many educators, Differentiated Instruction offers a framework for addressing learner
variance as a critical component of instructional planning
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is
sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. Numerous definitions indicates
dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all about. The definitions
are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, and political as well as cultural experiences.

A. Understanding by Design and Differentiated Instruction are currently the subject of many
educational conversations, both in the United States and abroad. Certainly part of the
reason for the high level of interest in the two approaches to curriculum and teaching is
their logical and practical appeal.
Beset by lists of content standards and accompanying “high-stakes” accountability tests,
many educators sense that both teaching and learning have been redirected in ways that
are potentially impoverishing for those who teach and those who learn. Educators need a
model that acknowledges the centrality of standards but that also demonstrates how
meaning and understanding can both emanate from and frame content standards so that
young people develop powers of mind as well as accumulate an information base. For
many educators, Understanding by Design addresses that need.
Simultaneously, teachers find it increasingly difficult to ignore the diversity of learners
who populate their classrooms. Culture, race, language, economics, gender, experience,
motivation to achieve, disability, advanced ability, personal interests, learning
preferences, and presence or absence of an adult support system are just some of the
factors that students bring to school with them in almost stunning variety. Few teachers
find their work effective or satisfying when they simply “serve up” a curriculum—even
an elegant one—to their students with no regard for their varied learning needs. For many
educators, Differentiated Instruction offers a framework for addressing learner variance
as a critical component of instructional planning.
That a convergence of the two models seems useful for addressing two of the greatest
contemporary challenges for educators—crafting powerful curriculum in a standards-
dominated era and ensuring academic success for the full spectrum of learners—is
gratifying. however, to move the conversations beyond a sense of “intuitive fit” to a more
grounded exploration of why each of the models is potentially significant in today's
classrooms—and why their partnership is not only reasonable but essential wherever
teachers strive to help each student develop his or her maximum capacity.
B. Higher education in the Philippines is both highly diversified and pluralistic, where
Catholic private institutions coexist with private and non-sectarian establishments of
Protestant affiliation, as well as with institutions in the public sector. This
segmentation is a legacy of the colonial history of the Philippines where structures for
higher education were established consecutively under Spanish, American and
Filipino rule. The accreditation movement in the Philippines began in 1951,through
the initiative of a group of educators from private higher-education institutions
who were convinced of the importance to enhance quality in higher education
through a system of standards, continuous monitoring of implementation, and self-
assessment done on a voluntary basis. The system of higher education in the Philippines
adopted accreditation as a means of achieving high-level quality on a voluntary basis. It
was also envisioned that through accreditation, appropriate guidance could be
provided to parents and college-bound students. The accrediting association likewise
heightened co-operation among higher-education institutions. From the 1950s to70s,
three accrediting bodies were formed: the Philippine Accrediting Association of
Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU); the Philippine Association of
Colleges and Universities – Commission on Accreditation (PACU-COA); and the
Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities – Accrediting Agency
(ACSCU-AA). Each of the associations has its own accrediting instruments and
standards. In striving towards common standards and instruments, the Federation of
Accrediting Agencies in the Philippines (FAAP) – an umbrella organization of
accrediting agencies – was established in1976.

With the formation of the accrediting agency for state colleges and universities, a
fourth accrediting body was formed –the Accrediting Association of Chartered
Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP). AACCUP is mainly for
members of the Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges
(PASUC),and PAASCU is mainly for Catholic schools (PACU-COA for non-
sectarian groups, and ACSCU-AA for the Protestant sector.) The system of
accrediting bodies is not restrictive, however: some institutions, members of
PAACSU, are from the non-sectarian or Protestant groups, and/or from the state
sector, whereas certain sectarian schools are accredited by the PACU-COA.
Accreditation is a quality-management mechanism that occurs in adjunction to the
minimum requirements of quality that are stipulated for institutions and programs,
and verified by the Commission for Higher Education Development (CHED), a
national buffer in charge of higher education. Moreover, many professions have
also established entry requirements, which ensure the professional competences of
higher-education graduates. The Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) conduct
these examinations. In consequence, accreditation is only one of the mechanisms
for quality assurance in Philippine higher education. All Philippine accreditation
agencies have opted to focus on programme accreditation, for which they have
developed considerable number of specific instruments. The process leading to
accreditation complies with the generally accepted dual process of a self-study and
 site visit. The accreditation agency decides whether a programme will be granted
accreditation, but the umbrella body(FAAP) that acts as a meta-evaluation agency,
must certify that the accreditation decision conforms to its own quality
requirements. Due to the variations of quality, it was also decided to offer
accreditation at four different levels, each entailing specific benefits both in terms
of administrative autonomy and access to incentive funds. The higher the level of
accreditation, the more the autonomy granted to the institution. Accreditation has
been successful in the Philippines as a scheme utilized by the government in the
supervision of the higher-education system in the country. This is consistent with the
provisions of the Philippine Constitution, in which the state recognizes “... the
complementary roles of public and private institutions in the educational system”
and affirms that it “... shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all
educational institutions. “The success of accreditation can also be gauged through its
impact on the quality of higher education in terms of performance indicators such as
employment, income levels of new graduates, and percentage of passes in professional
board examinations. In the light of the importance of an accreditation system in
the enhancement of quality in higher education in the Philippines, this paper has
the following objectives:
• to trace the history of the accreditation system;
• to relate the system to the development of higher education in the country;
• to identify its critical issues;
• to analyze problems, issues and solutions in the implementation of accreditation
schemes;
•to evaluate the impact of accreditation on selected institutions and on the entire higher-
education system in the country. When relating accreditation to the development of
higher education, a short analysis of the history of both private and state higher
education serves as a starting point.

C. Aligning the Curriculum several different types of curriculum are at work in the school.
When ~ - they are reasonably congruent with each other, student achievement is
improved. This chapter reviews briefly the several types of curriculum and then explains
how a comprehensive model for aligning these curricula can be planned and executed.
Types of Curricula Seven types of curricula need the attention of the principal.
Recommended curriculum. The recommended curriculum is that which is recommended
by scholars and professional organizations. The best source for the recommendations of
professional organizations is Kendall and Marzano (1997). Written curriculum. The
written curriculum, as the term is used here, is the curriculum that appears in state and
locally produced documents, such as state standards, district scope and sequence charts,
district curriculum guides, teachers' planning documents, and curriculum units. Supported
curriculum. The supported curriculum includes those resources that support the
curriculum-textbooks, software, and other media. Assessed curriculum. The assessed
curriculum is that which appears in tests and performance measures: state tests,
standardized tests, district tests, and teacher-made tests. Learned curriculum. The learned
curriculum is the bottom-line curriculum-the curriculum that students actually learn.
Hidden curriculum. This is the unintended curriculum. It defines what students learn from
the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school. Here is an
 example. Each week teachers in an elementary school devote 250 minutes to reading and
50 minutes to art. Students learn this lesson: "In this school, art is not considered very
important." Figure 10. I shows the relationship of these curricula as they interact with
each other. Notice that the research suggests there are varying patterns of influence
among the several types. The recommended curriculum seems to have little influence on
the written, although districts seem to be increasingly concerned with state standards,
especially if they are accompanied by state tests. Also, the standards developed by the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989) seem to have had a significant
influence in the development of district mathematics guides. The written curriculum
seems to have a moderate influence on the taught curriculum. Teachers report that they
typically check the district guide early in the year, just to remind themselves what it
includes. They are much more influenced by the assessed curriculum, especially if they
are held accountable for students' results. Students are similarly sensitive to the assessed
curriculum, as evidenced in the standard student question, "Is this going to be on the test?'
Teachers are perhaps most sensitive to the learned curriculum, making their decisions on
the basis of students' needs, as they perceive them, and students' responses to the taught
curriculum. Whereas conventional wisdom holds that teachers are textbook driven, the
research suggests that the textbook is only one of several sources that the teacher consults
in planning for instruction (see Brown, 1988). And textbook series often do not match
closely the written curriculum because they are developed for a nationwide mass market.
A relationship often exists between the written and the assessed curricula. Typically, the
assessment is an objective test that samples low-level learning.

D. Higher education in the Philippines has been challenged to adopt changes in the
curriculum given the institutionalization of K-12 basic education program in the country.
In this context, faculty and administrators of higher education institutions in the country
needed to take proactive measures to redesign its curriculum that would meet the need of
a new generation of learners and advance the thrusts of the school. This reflective paper
presents the case of Dela Salle-College of Saint Benilde’s English department and a
critical analysis of its efforts to reinforce and advance its curricular offerings on language
and literature that would meet the K-12 challenges come academic year 2018-2019. This
scholarship applied qualitative techniques to review existing empirical works and
pertinent institutional documents to develop a framework that guided the department in
identifying new course offerings that are K12 compliant. Also, the paper explores on the
structural implication of K-12 developments to the department’s organization and the
need for retooling the faculty. The discussion in this paper offers an opportunity for
faculty and school administrators to reexamine and reflect on their curriculum
development efforts towards meeting curricular challenges by grounding it on a sound
review of literature as basis of action and informed decisions.

E. The study is about curriculum development, importance of curriculum development and

guide to Curriculum Development: Purposes, Practices, and Procedures in higher
education. Previous studies have shown that curriculum development today is exposed to
 different pressures to respond to demands in labor markets and in society at large. Less is
known about how faculty members engage in curriculum development and how their
ways of engaging are related to their understandings of curriculum, and their teaching and
research experiences. This research investigates how curriculum is understood in history
as a discipline and how the faculty members engage themselves in its development. It
also seeks answer of how faculty members’ understandings of curriculum, and their
teaching and research experience influence their curriculum development work.

F. The Philippine education system had undergone a major transformation in the last 4
years. This is a major renovation in the existing number of years in both educational and
instructional time. The implementation of the K-12 is perhaps one of the biggest change
that shaken the whole Philippine education system. With the move there are many flaws
identified that hinders us from becoming even more competitive globally. The
implementation of the K-12 plan in the Philippine Basic Education curriculum will
elevate Philippine Education to the next level. Because most countries internationally and
globally have a standard basic education of 12 years therefore this reform and change is
necessary for us to follow. This will provide students sufficient instructional time for
various subjects where they can apply their knowledge, skills and abilities. The
challenges, changes and issues involved in the process are discussed in this research
study in order to enhance and assess its competitive edge.

G. This paper reflects on the process of curriculum development in 21 tertiary education

institutions in the Southern Philippines. Assisting capacity-building of the teaching
profession is an ongoing need in developing countries, but rarely does it extend to pre-
service education. In this study of one aspect of a three year AusAid-funded education
development project, the process of developing syllabi for English, mathematics, science
and practicum/pedagogy courses was an unfamiliar activity for the majority of the sixty
Filipino teacher educators and their colleagues. These educators were used to following
institution prescribed syllabi without question. The focus of this study was the educators’
participation in the intensive process of syllabus review, construction and enhancement
which occurred concurrently with a series of regular professional development activities
based on the needs and interests of the educators. The process was documented as it
evolved and was evaluated at key stages. A major outcome was the enhancement, or
construction, of more than 200 syllabi across the 21 tertiary institutions. However, an
unexpected and significant outcome of the process was the development of strong cross-
institutional and even cross-regional relationships and a level of collegiality not
previously experienced by the participants. It is argued here that such an approach to
curriculum development raises the potential for sustainable long-term outcomes in
international development projects.
H. The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940’s, is the quintessential prototype
of curriculum development in the scientific approach. One could almost dare to say that
every certified teacher in America and maybe beyond has developed curriculum either
directly or indirectly using this model or one of the many variations.

Tyler did not intend for his contribution to curriculum to be a lockstep model for
development. Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction for his students to give them an idea about principles for to
making curriculum. The brilliance of Tyler’s model is that it was one of the first models
and it was and still is a highly simple model consisting of four steps.

• Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

• Identify educational experiences related to purpose
• Organize the experiences
• Evaluate the purposes

Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do the
students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that are
indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the
school and this is often neglected in curriculum development. For example, a school that
is developing an English curriculum may create an objective that students will write
essays. This would be one of many objectives within the curriculum.

Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step one.
For example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The learning
experience might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay. The students
than might practice writing essays. The experience (essay demonstration and writing) is
consistent with the objective (Student will write an essay).

Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or should
the students learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and preference is
determined by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the students. The point is
that the teacher needs to determine a logical order of experiences for the students.

Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the students’
ability to write an essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the teacher could
have the students write an essay without assistance. If they can do this, it is evidence that
the students have achieved the objective of the lesson.

There are variations on this model. However, the Tyler model is still considered by many
to be the strongest model for curriculum development.
I. According to Richards (2001) curriculum development refers to the “range of planning
and implementation processes involved in developing or renewing a curriculum” (p. 41).
Many curriculum-development textbooks present the stages of the curriculum-
development process as follows: 1. Needs analysis; 2. Setting goals and objectives; 3.
Course organization; 4. Selecting and preparing teaching materials; and 5. Evaluation.
190 • The CATESOL Journal 24.1 • 2012/2013 Lacking experience in developing a
curriculum, at first we tried to follow the exact order of the curriculum-development
process based on the progression of our Curriculum and Assessment course and the
textbooks we were using in our class. However, after many failed attempts to achieve our
directives for the course design, we realized that we must approach the process from a
different angle. Instead of following the presented order from our textbooks, which is to
determine goals and objectives before deciding course content, we decided to approach
the process backward by first setting principles for the course content, next evaluating
and revising the existing assignments based on identified students’ needs, then deciding
the scope and sequence of the content, and finally eliciting objectives students would be
able to achieve. From this experience, we learned that curriculum development is “a
framework of components that overlap both conceptually and temporally” (Graves, 1996,
p. 5), which means that curriculum developers should start wherever and whenever they
think it is suitable in their own situations. In this section, first we will focus on our
¨backward¨ approach to articulating goals and objectives of the EAP course. Then we will
reflect on how our approach to curriculum development helped us understand the
interactive dynamic among the framework components of the course-construction
process and enabled us to map our own stages of the process that made sense to us. What
follows is an outline of the stages of the curriculum-development process we were
involved in. In the following section, these stages will be outlined in more depth. 1.
Conduct needs and situation analyses. 2. Conceptualize the content. 3. Evaluate existing
assignments based on students’ needs and institutional goals. 4. Identify what was
missing or lacking in the existing assignments. 5. Revise and change assignments to
fulfill course goals, bring unity to the course, and motivate students. 6. Articulate the
goals and objectives based on the assignments we determined. 7. Compare them with the
existing ones, and then add our goals and objectives to the existing ones. 8. Organize unit
content (scope and sequence) and developing of course materials. 9. Choose evaluation
methods that connected and built off one another.

J. The concept of curriculum is elusive and epistemologically ill defined, because of the fact
that education is everybody's business, from the lay person to educational scientists.
Another factor contributing towards the problem of precise terminology is that there is
not much agreement on where curriculum matters finish and where the rest of education
begins. According to Pratt (1994:5) the acts of instruction, teaching and learning are not
curriculum, for curriculum refers to plans or blueprints for instruction - but there are
alternative interpretations of the concept. By 1971, Rule (Lewy, 1991 :26) had already
identified 119 different definitions for curriculum which may be delineated against two
extremes: specific and prescriptive versus broad and general (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998:10). A linear, more prescriptive definition is that of Tom (1984:89), which is also in
line with Tyler's (1958) and Taba's (1962) description, who define curriculum as a plan
 for teaching or instruction, while Pratt (1994:5) expanded the definition to "a plan for a
sustained process of teaching and learning". A broader definition of curriculum is rooted
in Dewey's (1938, 1975) explanation of the relationship between education and learner
experiences. Shepherd & Ragan (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998:9) assert that a curriculum
"consists of the ongoing experiences of children under the guidance of the school .. .
(where) children achieve selfrealization through active participation within the school".
The tendency to define curriculum in terms of experience, and not merely a plan, arose as
a result of the feeling that what was planned in a written document, was not necessarily
put into practice by means of experiences (Lewy, 1991 :27). Closer to home, Jansen
(1984) also added his voice to the plethora of definitions. According to him "a curriculum
is a plan or a programme for teaching and learning prepared in the light of certain goals
and which contains at least a reference to selected and sequenced leaming content'
(1984:90).

Education is on the frontline of the battle for the Philippine’s future competitiveness.
With the help of a good curriculum there will be a productive education.  The
organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea
of a curriculum.  But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized?   

Meaning and concept of curriculum

development
Curriculum development in its word meaning stands for the
development of the curriculum.

1. Rogers and Taylor:-

 Curriculum development describes all the ways in which
teaching or training organization plans and guides
learning. This learning can take place in groups or with
individual learners. It can take place inside or outside the
classroom. It can take place in an institutional setting like
school, college, training center, or in a village or a field. It
is central to the teaching-learning process.

1. Curriculum development is a process involving activities like

 conceptualizing the curriculum,

 selecting and organizing the content, material and learning
experiences
 suggesting the method and ways of providing these
experiences
 Evaluating the learning outcomes in terms of attainment of
desired educational objectives.

What is curriculum
In simple words

A curriculum refers to a defined and prescribed course of

studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a
certain level of education.

Some influential definitions combining various elements to describe

curriculum are as follows
  John Kerr:- According to John Kerr, a curriculum is planned
and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups,
individually inside or outside the school.
 The curriculum is a total learning experience provided by the
school. It includes the content of courses (the syllabus), the method
employed (strategies) and other aspects like norms and values,
which relate to the way schools are organized.
 Thus a curriculum is neither development nor a sequence of
experiences. It is a plan for facilitating learning for students.
 This plan starts with where the child is. It enumerates all the
aspects and dimensions of learning that are considered necessary. It
gives a reason why such learning is considered necessary and what
educational aims it would serve.

In a nutshell,

 the curriculum is a means followed by the teachers and

students for achieving the set goals and the aims or objectives of
education being provided in the school.

 urriculum, in every sense, is supposed to be used for all

experiences. These may be curricular or co-curricular, imparted by
the school for the realization of the stipulated aims and objectives of
the school education.

Need and importance of curriculum development

(or construction)
 Curriculum development is a purposeful activity.
 It is undertaken to design or redesign for the realization of
certain specific educational objectives.
 The curriculum is the heart of the student’s college/school
experience.
 The curriculum should be reviewed and revised on a regular
basis so that it is able to serve the changing needs of both students
and society.
 The following points iterate the needs and importance of
curriculum development.
1. Clear purpose and goals:-  Curriculum construction provide
written curricular goals which are nothing but intended student
development outcomes. These goals and objectives are specified in
considerable detail and in behavioral language.
2. Continuous assessment and improvement of
quality:- Valid and reliable assessment of the curriculum is
necessary. The curriculum followed by an institution should be
reviewed regularly in order to maintain it’s effectiveness in regards
to the changing needs of the society as a whole.

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3. A rational sequence:- In a curriculum educational activities

are carefully ordered in a developmental sequence. This
developmental sequence helps to form a well planned (or
coherent)curriculum based on intended goals and outcomes of the
curriculum and its constituent courses.
4. Making strategy in teaching and learning:- Curriculum
development helps in suggesting suitable teaching-learning
strategies, teaching methods, instructional materials, etc. It helps in
providing for the proper implementation of the curriculum on the
part of teachers and learners.
5. Helps in the selection of learning
experiences:- Curriculum development is needed for appropriate
selection and organization of learning experiences. It helps in the
selection of study matter and other activities so that learners are
able to acquire goals and objectives of teaching.

1. The process of curriculum development is needed for

conceptualizing a curriculum in terms of the determination of
educational objectives for teaching-learning at a particular grade of
school education.
2. Helps in continuous and comprehensive education:-

Curriculum development considers the need of providing a scheme

of education for CCE of the teaching-learning outcomes. With proper
feedback, it helps to bring necessary improvement in the teaching-
learning process and environment.
 References
Tomlinson, C and McTighe J, (2017).
Integrating Differentiated Instruction and Understanding by Design, Chapter 8. USA:
Association for Supervision and Management Curriculum

Arcelo, A. (2016).
In Pursuit of Continuing Quality in Higher Education through Accreditation: The
Philippine Experience. International Institute for Education Planning

Glatthorn, Allan A.
The Princpal as Curriculum Leader: Shaping What Is Taught & Tested. 2nd ed.

Rodrigo C. Rivera, Dela Salle-College of Saint Benilde

Curriculum Development and K-12 Challenges in the Philippines: A Reflexive Case Analysis
towards Redesigning Language and Literature Education in College of the Philippines, the IAFOR
International Conference on Education
http://25qt511nswfi49iayd31ch80-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-
content/uploads/papers/iicehawaii2018/IICEHawaii2018_39059.pdf

IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 22, Issue 2, Ver. III (Feb. 2017) PP 01-
05 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
www.iosrjournals.orghttp://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol.%2022%20Issue2/Version-
3/A2202030105.pdf

The International Journal of Business Management and Technology, Volume 2 Issue 2 March 2018 ISSN:
2581-3889 Research Article Open Access Educational Transformation in the Philippine Education
System:Towards Global Competitiveness Aggabao, B. A.,1Aggabao, N.T.,2Antiado, D. F.,3, Castillo, F. G.4
University of Fujairah, Fujairah1,4, United Arab Emirates Isabela State University2, Isabela, Philippines
American College of Dubai3, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
http://www.theijbmt.com/archive/0920/238971531.pdf

Curriculum development for teacher education in the Southern Philippines: A simultaneous

process of professional learning and syllabus enhancement
Article in International Journal of Educational Development 32(2) · March 2012
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251595464_Curriculum_development_for_teacher_edu
cation_in_the_Southern_Philippines_A_simultaneous_process_of_professional_learning_and_sy
llabus_enhancement

Ralph W. Tyler 
 Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction First Edition, Revised Edition, Kindle
Edition
https://educationalresearchtechniques.com/2014/07/01/curriculum-development-the-tyler-model/

REEMA ALBILEHI San Francisco State University, JU YOUNG HAN San Francisco State University,HEATHER
DESMIDT American Language Institute
The CATESOL Journal 24.1
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1111877.pdf

A Review of the Literature on Curriculum Development and Reform, with particular reference to South
Africa

https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/26011/02chapter2.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y