Scientific Measurement & Common Instruments

Measurement
We already know that observations are an important part of the scientific method. Hypotheses are
accepted or rejected based on how well they explain observations. Some observations, such as "the
plant turned brown" are qualitative; these observations have no associated numbers.
A quantitative observation includes numbers, and is also called a measurement. A measurement is
obtained by comparing an object to some standard. Any observation is useful to a scientist, but
quantitative observations are commonly considered more useful. Even if the measurement is an
estimate, scientists usually make quantitative measurements in every experiment.
Consider the following pair of observations.
1. When the volume of a gas is decreased, its pressure is increased.
2. When the volume of a gas is reduced from 2.0 liters to 1.0 liter, the pressure increases from
3.0 atm to 6.0 atm.
A great deal more information, and more useful information, is available in the second observation.
Since accurate measurement is a vital tool for doing science, a consistent set of units for measurement
is necessary. Physicists throughout the world use the International System of Units (also called the
SI system). The SI system is basically the metric system, which is convenient because units of
different size are related by powers of 10. The system has physical standards for length, mass, and
time. These are called fundamental units because they have an actual physical standard.
The standard SI unit for length is the meter, and is denoted by "m". Originally, the meter was defined
as the length between two scratches on a piece of metal which was stored in a secure vault under
controlled conditions. The meter's definition has changed over time, but it is now accepted to be
the distance light travels in a vacuum over 1/299792458 of a second.
The standard unit of time, the second, was once defined as a fraction of the time it takes the earth to
complete an orbit around the sun, but has now been redefined in terms of the frequency of one type of
radiation emitted by a cesium-133 atom. Seconds are denoted by "s" or, less commonly, "sec."
The standard unit for mass is the kilogram. The kilogram's standard is a block of platinum-iridium
metal kept near Paris, France. Other countries, of course, keep copies. A kilogram is denoted "kg" and
is a multiple of the smaller unit of mass, the gram ("g").
Meters, seconds, and kilograms are not the only unit entities. Take, for example, speed. Speed is
a derived unit, measured in meters per second (m/s). Derived units are units that are expressed using
combinations of the fundamental units.
Example 1
Convert 500 millimeters to meters.
The equivalency statement for millimeters and meters is 1000 mm = 1 m.
To convert 500 mm to m, we multiply 500 mm by a conversion factor that will cancel the millimeter
units and generate the meter units. This requires that the conversion factor has meters in the numerator
and millimeters in the denominator.

500 mm is equivalent to 0.5 m.

Measuring Tools for Length

Let's start with tools you would use to measure length or the distance between the two points.
When you need to measure length you might use a ruler. This is a straight piece of material, generally
wood, plastic, or metal, with calibrated lines for measuring distance.
 Image 1. Ruler

Vernier calipers may not be a tool that comes to mind. While this can be used to measure length like
a ruler, it is often used to measure the thickness and diameter of objects like pipes. This tool is more
precise than a ruler and it is made up of an arm and a jaw.

Image 2. Vernier caliper

Let's zoom in to see what the measurement is and briefly go over how to read this type of tool.

Image 3. Measuring using a Vernier caliper

 Make sure the object is snug between the 'jaws' of the caliper (Image 3). Read the main scale
on the calipers. Here it is 3.
 Next, see which little line (in this case a millimeter) lines up with the 0. Here it is 5 (each line
is 1). So our current reading is 3.5 cm.
 Look for alignment between the two scales (Where on the centimeter (cm) scale and the
millimeter (mm) scale do the lines line up?). If you look closely, the 2 on the mm scale lines
up with the cm scale. So this means 0.02.
 Add up the values you have: 3.5 + 0.02 = 3.52. Don't forget the units: 3.52 cm.

Let's continue our science tools tour with the micrometer screw gauge. This is another tool used to
measure length, specifically the diameter of objects like wire. It can also be used for other
measurements. This measuring tool is u-shaped and the object needing to be measured is held snuggly
with a screw. Reading it is very similar to reading a Vernier caliper.
Rajasthan

Rajasthan literally, "Land of Kings")[8] is a state in northern India.[9][10][11] The state covers an area of

342,239 square kilometres (132,139 sq mi) or 10.4 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is
the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. Rajasthan is located on the
northwestern side of India, where it comprises most of the wide and inhospitable Thar Desert (also
known as the "Great Indian Desert") and shares a border with the Pakistani provinces of Punjab to the
northwest and Sindh to the west, along the Sutlej-Indus river valley.

The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British
Raj for its dependencies in the region[13] – was merged into the Dominion of India.
Its capital and largest city is Jaipur. Other important cities
are Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner, Ajmer and Udaipur. The economy of Rajasthan is the ninth-
largest state economy in India with ₹9.24 lakh crore (US$130 billion) in gross domestic
product and a per capita GDP of ₹108,000 (US$1,500).[3] Rajasthan ranks 29th among Indian
states in human development index.[5]
Ancient
Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation and Indus Valley
Civilization. Kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the
Indus Valley Civilization.[17] Another archaeological excavation at Balathal site in Udaipur
district shows a settlement contemporary with the Harrapan civilisation dating back to 3000 –
1500 BC. Stone Age tools dating from 5,000 to 200,000 years were found
in Bundi and Bhilwara districts of the state.[18]
Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the
former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan and included the whole of Alwar with portions of
Bharatpur.[19][20] The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar (modern Bairat), which is said to
have been named after its founder king Virata.[21][need quotation to verify]

JAISALMER
WHERE THE FORTS ARE STILL ALIVE
Jaisalmer traces its inception to the 12th century. History tells us of Rawal Jaisal, the eldest
heir of the Rawal of Deoraj, was passed over for the throne of Lodurva and a younger half-
brother was crowned king. Rawal Jaisal went looking for a new location to set up his capital
when he came across sage Eesul. The sage told him about Krishna’s prophecy which said that
a descendant of his Yaduvanshi clan would found a new kingdom at this same spot. It was in
1156 that Rawal Jaisal constructed a mud fort, named it Jaisalmer after himself and declared
it his capital.
JAISALMER FORT
The Jaisalmer Fort also goes by the name Sonar Quila (Golden Fort) as it rises from the
desert itself and seems to become one with the golden hues of the sand. The setting sun adds
its own magic and shrouds the fort with mystique. The fort is constructed in the classic style
of the royals by local craftsmen. This fort is a world heritage site and forms an important plot
point in one of Satyajit Ray’s famous Feluda stories and corresponding movie, Sonar Kela
(The Golden Fortress).

GADISAR LAKE

Gadisar Lake was constructed in the 14th century by Maharawal Gadsi Singh to meet the water needs
of his arid lands. Considering its importance, many small temples and shrines were constructed
around it, transforming it into a pilgrimage centre and a tourist attraction.

SAMBHAR LAKE
Sambhar Lake is one of the largest inland salt lake and lies just 70 kms from Jaipur. It is an incredible
landscape, almost resembling the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Apart from producing a large percentage of
India's salt supply - it also an incredible place to spot birds including large flocks of flamingos. The
views from the Shakambhari Mata Temple are breathtaking at sunset and one can spend hours in
solitude. Another unique aspect is the Saltwork's own railway system built to transfer salt from the
pans to the processing unit. A visit to the salt lake and a walk in the Sambhar town is also a must do
activity. Devyani Kund, Sharmishtha Sarovar, Salt Museum, Circuit House, etc are also important
places to visit in Sambhar. One can also visit religious sites Naraina & Bhairana on the way to
Sambhar.
JUA FALLS - BANSWARA
Rajasthan is a state that is home to a number of hidden gems, and one of the sites that are yet to be
fully explored is the Jua Falls in Banswara. The Jua Falls are best visited during the rainy season
when this naturally forming waterfall is at its full glory. Offering a beautiful escape from regular life
and a serene atmosphere to relax and unwind, there are many reasons why Jua Falls is a visit worth
remembering.

BHARATPUR
WORLD’S MOST FASCINATING BIRD RESERVE
The history of Bharatpur dates back to 5th century BC, when the Matsya kingdom flourished here.
The Matsyas were allies of the Pandavas in the Mahabharata war. Legends say that the origin of the
name Bharatpur is traced to Bharat, younger brother of Lord Ram. Laxman, the other brother, was
given the most prestigious position as that of the family deity of the ruling family of Bharatpur. His
name also appears in the state seals and coat-of-arms.

In the early 18th century, Maharaja Suraj Mal captured the fort of Bharatpur by vanquishing
Khemkaran, the rival chieftain and laid the foundation for Bharatpur. The valiant Maharaja was very
keen to expand the cities and is credited with building the numerous forts and palaces that dot the
kingdom, including the Pleasure Palace Complex at Deeg.

Bharatpur is also home to one of the world's best-known bird watching destinations, Keoladeo Ghana
National Park (KNP). 250 years ago, the then ruler built embankments that allowed flooding of this
land, turning it into a marsh. Named after the dense jungle that surrounded an old Shiva Temple, this
29 square kilometre man-made wetland is renowned for migratory birds – ducks, geese, waders,
raptors, flycatchers and more. In winter, avid birders and ornithologists flock to the park to observe
and study the feathered beauties. With more than 370 recorded species, KNP used to also host the
Siberian crane. It is a World Heritage Site.

BAND BARETHA
Band Baretha is an old wildlife reserve of the rulers of Bharatpur, currently under the administration
of the Forest Department. The construction of the dam on Kakund River was started by Maharaj
Jaswant Singh in 1866 AD and completed by Maharaj Ram Singh in 1897 AD. The palace inside the
reserve was built by Maharaj Kishan Singh and is the private property of the Bharatpur royal family.
Band Baretha is a bird watcher’s paradise because of over 200 species of birds, including the elusive
Black Bittern.

Pushkar Fair
The Pushkar Fair, also called the Pushkar Camel Fair or locally as Kartik Mela or Pushkar
ka Mela is an annual multi-day livestock fair and cultural fête held in the town
of Pushkar (Rajasthan, India). The fair starts with the Hindu calendar month of Kartik and ends on the
Kartik Purnima, which typically overlaps with late October and early November in the Gregorian
calendar.
The Pushkar fair[4] is one of India's largest camel, horse and cattle fairs. Apart from the trading of
livestock, it is an important pilgrimage season for Hindus to the Pushkar lake. Pushkar fair has also
become a significant tourist attraction for domestic and international travelers, given the cooler
season, the abundance of colorful cultural themes. [2] Cultural events and competitions include dances,
tug of war between women teams as well as men teams, the "matka phod", "longest moustache"
competition, "bridal competition", camel races and others.

DHULANDI FESTIVAL IN JAIPUR

Fairs and festivals which are an integral part of Rajasthan’s essence,present an opportunity for the
state to exhibit its rich heritage and culture to one and all. And the festival of Holi with its inescapable
vibrancy and unmatchable appeal rightly corresponds with the nature and feel of Rajasthan. Holi in
Jaipur, the Pink City of India, is celebrated with special fervor and charm. The city folk put in a lot of
effort and heart to make this festival not just a hit but also unique. And it is this that generates
excitement among the locals while attracting a huge crowd from different parts of the nation and
outside.
 THE MANY NAMES OF DHULANDI
Holi in Jaipur and most parts of India is a two-day festival marking the onset of the season of spring.
Holiis widely recognized as the Dhulandi festival in Jaipur and neighboring areas of Rajasthan, and is
celebrated on the second day, following Holika Dahan. Holika Dahan or the traditional bonfire is
observed post-sunset on the first day of Holi, and is known by several names, the most popular among
them beingChhoti Holi and Holika Deepak. As per Hindu scriptures, Holika Dahan commences on the
evening of Purnima (Pradosh Kaal), after Bhadra, in the month of Phalguna. As the festival of color
and gaiety, Holi or Dhulandi brings along a much needed fervor amongst the population, as young or
old alike gather around to celebrate it.
 THE LEGEND BEHIND IT
The legend associated with Dhulandi is as fascinating as the festival itself.It states the popular story of
Prahalada, the famed devotee of Hindu God, Vishnu. Hiranyakashyap (also known as
Hiranyakashyapu), king of demons had obtained a boon that bestowed on him five special powers,
which made him nearly invincible. His special powers included –
1. No human being or animal could ever kill him
2. He could be killed neither indoors nor outdoors
3. He could be killed neither at night nor during the day
4. No Astra (projectile weapon) or Shastra (handheld weapon) could ever kill him
5. He could be killed neither on land nor in the sky
The boon not only made him powerful but also arrogant, and Hiranyakashyap went on oppressing the
poor and the weak. He even forced his subjects to worship him as their new god. However, his own
son Prahalada had devoted himself to Lord Vishnu, and continued praying to him alone. Angered by
this, Hiranyakashyap subjected him to various punishments, none of which could break his resolve.
Eventually, the king sought help of his demonic sister, Holika, who having received a boon from Lord
Brahma; another Hindu God, had been rendered immune to fire. To put an end to Prahalada’s
devotion, Holika sat amidst a roaring pyre,carrying Prahalada in her lap. However, Prahalada was
graced with life for his undying devotion towards Vishnu, while Holika burned in the pyre to
everyone’s surprise. Vishnu, the protector of mankind, to restore balance on Earth, then incarnated in
the form of Narasimha (half man, half lion), and eviscerated Hiranyakashyap with his lion paws
(neither Astra nor Shastra) while placing him on his lap (neither land nor sky) towards dusk (neither
day nor night), killing him. The defeat of the tyrant Hiranyakashyap restored people’s faith in Lord
Vishnu, and they rejoiced throwing colors in the air. This legend can be traced back to Chapter 7 of
Shrimad Bhagavata Gita, ancient Indian scripture and revered text to Vaishnavism.

Agricultural production
Rajasthan is the largest producer of barley, mustard, pearl
millet, coriander, fenugreek and guar in India. Rajasthan produces over 72% of guar of the
world and 60% of India's barley. Rajasthan is major producer of aloe
vera, amla, oranges leading producer of maize, groundnut. Rajasthan government had
initiated olive cultivation with technical support from Israel. The current production of olives
in the state is around 100–110 tonnes annually. Rajasthan is India's second largest producer
of milk. Rajasthan has 13800 dairy co-operative societies.

Hindi is the official and the most widely spoken language in the state (90.97% of the population as per
the 2001 census), followed by Bhili (4.60%), Punjabi (2.01%), and Urdu (1.17%).[11] Rajasthani is one
of the main spoken languages in the state. Rajasthani and various Rajasthani dialects are counted
under Hindi in the national census. In the 2001 census, standard Rajasthani had over 18 million
speakers,[59] as well as millions of other speakers of Rajasthani dialects, such as Marwari.

The climate of Rajasthan keeps varying throughout the state. In the desert areas, it is usually hot and
dry in summer and cold during the winters. Coming to the Aravali range, to the west, both rainfall and
humidity are low. While to the east, weather can be characterized by high humidity and better rainfall