Task 1 (LO3):

1. Describe the behavior of a p-n junction under forward and reverse biasing
in terms of semiconductor behavior and sketch the V-I Characteristics of a p-
n Junction.
Definition:

It is an interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a
single crystal of semiconductor, the "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n"
(negative) side contains an excess of electrons the outer shells of the electrically
neutral atoms there and this allows electrical current to pass through the junction only in one
direction

P-n junction theory:

When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a
very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some
of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing the negative ions as shown in
figure1.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to
the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side
and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite
direction into the region where there are large numbers of free electrons as shown in figure1.
Finally, the charge of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor
ions ( NA ), and the charge of the N-type along the junction becomes positive.

Figure1 (p-n junction theory)

1
The P-n junction under forward and reverse bias:
1- Under forward bias: the voltage is connected in positive (+ve) to the p.type and negative
(-ve) to the n-type across the diode, and this make an effect of decreasing the width of the
period of the p.type in the p-n junction.

2- Under reverse bias: the voltage is connected in negative (-ve) to the p.type and positive is
connected to the n.type across diode, which make an effect of decreasing the n.type in p-n
junction.

VI Characteristics of PN Junction in forward bias:

The VI characteristics of PN junction diode in forward bias are nonlinear, that is not a straight
line and this nonlinear characteristic illustrates that during the operation of the N junction, the
resistance is not constant and the slope of the PN junction diode in forward bias shows the
resistance is very low as shown in figure2.

Figure 2(forward bias)

2
VI Characteristics of PN Junction in reverse bias:
In this type of biasing, the characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth quadrant of the
below figure. The current in this biasing is low till breakdown is reached and hence the diode
looks like as open circuit. When the input voltage of the reverse bias has reached the breakdown
voltage, reverse current increases enormously as shown in figure3.

Figure3(reverse bias)
Finally we have a picture in the two biasing as shown in figure4:

Figure4

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2. Describe and critically evaluate the performance of a range of discrete
semiconductor devices used in modern electronic systems in terms of simple
semiconductor theory, and suggesting appropriate applications for each such
as:

 LED
 Transistor
 Triac
 MOSFET
 Thyristors

LED: the light emitting diode is a semiconductor light source that shines light when the
current flows through it.

Types of LED:

1- SMD LED: SMD stands for Surface Mounted Device and they are one of the new
generations of the LED lighting, it contains chips that add the extra brightness as shown
in figure as shown in figure5.

Figure5 (SMD LED)

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2- COB LED: COB stands for Chip on Board which are another new generation of LED
technology and it provides an amount of light compared to SMD, It provides a better
lumen to watt ratio which means that they have a highly efficient as shown in figure6.

Figure6 (COB LED)

3- Graphene Light: The BBC reported recently the development of a light that has a
filament shaped LED which is coated with graphene; it is probably going to be cheaper
than existing LED bulbs as shown in figure7.

Figure7 (Graphene light)

Applications of led:

1. It is used as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations.

2. It is used in large-area such as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays.
3. It is used in street lights and architectural lightning.
4. It is used to transmit data and analog signals. For example to guide people to know the
emergency doors.

Reference: https://www.renewableenergyhub.co.uk/

5
Transistor: it is a semiconductor device that it used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electric powers.

Types of transistors:
1- Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): are transistors which are built up of 3 regions,
the base, the collector, and the emitter, it is different than FET transistors, have
current-controlled in devices and small current entering in the base region of the
transistor causes a much larger current flow from the emitter to the collector region.
Bipolar junction transistors come in two major types, NPN and PNP as shown in
figure8.

Figure8 (pnp and npn transistor)

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2- Junction FET transistor: The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET)
has no PN-junctions but in its place has a narrow part of high resistivity
semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-type or P-type silicon for the
majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic electrical connections as shown in
figure9.

Figure9

Applications of transistor:

1. It is used in regulators
2. In the controllers.
3. In the microprocessor
4. In the inductors
5. In the computers and almost electronic applications.

Reference: https://www.elprocus.com/

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Triac: it is a thyristor has analogues to a relay in that a small voltage and current and can
control in the value of them as shown in figure10.

Figure10

Application of triac:
1. It is used to control in the fan and electrical motors.
2. Used in future applications such as house appliances.

MOSFET: this word it means (metal-oxide-semiconductor-effect-transistor) it is the

most common transistor in digital circuits, it is most commonly fabricated by
the controlled oxidation of silicon, and it has an insulated gate, whose voltage determines
the conductivity of the device as shown in figure11.

Types of MOSFET:
1- Depletion-mode MOSFET:
It means that the n-channel depletion mode MOSFET has more electrons and more
current. While a p-channel means less electrons and less current, then the depletion
mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-closed” switch as shown in figure12.

8
2- Enhancement-mode MOSFET:
it is the reverse of the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor, the device is “OFF”
and the channel is open, the application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage to the p-type
eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it “ON”, then for an p-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “OFF”, while -VGS turns
the transistor “ON” as shown in figure12.

Figure11 Figure12

Thyristors: it is a four layered and has three terminal semiconductor devices and each
layer consisting of p.type and n.type on the p-n junction and its application used to
control the AC current as shown in figure13 and figure14.

Figure13 Figure14

9
 Types of thyristor:

1- Silicon controlled thyristor or SCRs: A silicon controlled rectifier is also known as

thyristor rectifier. It is a four layered current controlling solid state device, SCRs can
conduct current in only one direction
2- Gate turn off thyristors or GTOs: One of the special types of high power semiconductor
devices is GTO (gate turn-off thyristor). The gate terminal controls the switches to be
turned ON and OFF.
3- Emitter turn off thyristors or ETOs: There are two main reasons for adjustable speed
drive is process energy conversation and control. And it provides smoother operation.
High frequency reverse conducting GTO is available in this application.
4- Reverse conducting thyristors or RCTs
5- Bidirectional Triode Thyristors or TRIACs
6- MOS turn off thyristors or MTOs
7- Bidirectional phase controlled thyristors or BCTs
8- Fast switching thyristors or SCRs
9- Light activated silicon controlled rectifiers or LASCRs
10- FET controlled thyristors or FET-CTHs
11- Integrated gate commutated Thyristors or IGCTs

Reference: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/thyristor.html
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/

Demonstrate the action of a range of semiconductor devices by sketching

network diagrams showing how diodes may be connected to the secondary
winding of suitable transformer in order to obtain unsmoothed:
I. Half wave rectification: it is a type of rectifier which converts half of the AC input
signal to DC output signal and the rest of the wave is blocked or lost, it is a simple
circuit, we use only single diode, transformer step down, resistor, capacitor and
alternator.

TR1 (+) D1 (+)

V=0.0123492 V=17.7879

DIODE
C1
+220 +13.9 1000u R1 +17.8
AC Volts AC Volts 200 Volts

TRAN-2P2S

10
 II. Full wave rectification with 2 diodes: it is a type of rectifier which converts full of the
AC input signal to DC output signal, it is a simple circuit, and we use two single
diode, transformer step down, resistor, capacitor and alternator.

TR3 D2
D2(A)
V=-12.5646

DIODE
A3 (+)
+124 +11.1 V=-0.00157226
AC Volts AC Volts

D3 C3 R3
10uF 200 -11.8
Volts
TRAN-2P3S DIODE

III. Full wave rectification with 4 diodes: it is a type of rectifier which converts full of the
AC input signal to DC output signal, it is a simple circuit, and we use bridge diode,
transformer step down, resistor, capacitor and alternator.

TR2 (+) BR1 (+)

V=-9.86326 V=8.9717

C2
+222 +14.1 1000u R2 +17.9
AC Volts AC Volts 200 Volts

BRIDGE

TRAN-2P2S

Design and test a linear power supply to meet the following specification, the
input voltage 220V AC and output voltage 5V, -5V, 12V and -12V.
U1
7805

1 3
VI VO
GND

+5.02
2

C1 Volts
2200uF

TR1
BR1
U2
7812
V1
VSINE 1 3
VI VO
+23.5
GND

AC Volts
+12.0
C2 Volts
2

BRIDGE 2200uF
TRAN-2P2S +50.2
Volts

U3
7905

2 3
VI VO
GND

-5.03
C3 Volts
1

2200uF

U4
7912

2 3
VI VO
GND

-12.0
1

C4 Volts
2200uF

11
Task 2 (LO4):

Explain the difference between digital and analogue electronics signals, and
then Describe and critically evaluate the relative applications and benefits of
analogue and digital electronics in terms of their relative advantages,
explaining with examples where each might be applied.

Analogue signals Digital signals

Definition It is a continuous wave denoted by a It is a way of transmitting data that converts the
sine wave and varies in signal or data to discrete values, usually based on
frequency. the binary code that computer systems work
upon.
Representat The sine wave amplitude can be seen A waveform that switches representing the two
ion as higher and lower point of the wave, states of a Boolean value (0 and 1or false and
while the frequency in the length of the true) is referred to as a digital signal or logic
sine wave from left to right. signal or binary signal when it is interpreted in
terms of only two possible digits.
Working The analogue signals are based on the The working of digital signals is more reliable
fluctuation. and accurate because they use digital media or
other numeric method.
Description Describe the amplitude, frequency and Describe the bit rate and bit intervals in the
phase angle produce from the wave machines.
form.
Transmit Transmission of data in analog form is Digital data transmission is the transmission of
done in the form of continuous discrete data using two distinct electric states. A
waveforms. An analog signal '1' for "on" and '0' for "off" represents these two
resembles the one. states.
Advantage It has an infinite amount of data, the The data can travel faster in over digital lines and
density is much higher and it is easy to has more ability than analogue signals to transfer
make more processing information more data.
Disadvantag Has noise in recording, if more data The greater bandwidth is essential and the system
e transmitted it will take more and processing is more complex than analogue
distribution. signal.
Examples Thermometer, photocopiers, old line It is used in audio signal processing, audio
telephone, audio tapes and old compression, digital image processing, video
televisions (intensity and color compression, speech processing and mobile
information line. phone.

12
 Figure15 (Analogue signals) figure16 (digital signals)

Reference: https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-digital-signal.htm

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-digital-and-analog-signals-definition-lesson-quiz.html

Explain amplifier characteristics and:

(i) Identify the pin-out of the operational amplifier (LM741) and relate
it to the schematic diagram
(ii) Draw the (inverting, non-inverting, summing, Differential, and
Comparator) amplifier applications of an operational amplifier,
noting the effect of resistor values on the voltage gain.
Characteristics of operational amplifier:

 it has infinite bandwidth due to the ideal gain inside of the op-amp
 has Infinite open-loop gain A
 Infinite or zero common-mode gain
 Input impedance of an infinite value
 Output impedance of zero

13
 Pin out of operational amplifier LM741

Figure17 (LM741)

Inverting amplifier: It is called Inverting because the op-amp changes the phase angle of the
output signal exactly 180 degrees out of phase with respect to input signal. Same as like before,
we use two external resistors to create feedback circuit and make a closed loop circuit across the
amplifier.

BAT1
10v

U1
7
1

RV1
3
6
R1 2
10k RF
4
5

LM741 10k
10k +88.8
Volts

+88.8
Volts
BAT2
5v

𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = ( ) ∗ 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅1

14
Non inverting amplifier: The non-inverting amplifier configuration is one of the most popular
and widely used forms of operational amplifier circuit.

The op amp non-inverting amplifier circuit provides high input impedance along with all the
advantages gained from using an operational amplifier.

BAT1
10v

U1

7
1
RV1
3
6
2
RF

4
5
LM741 10k
1k +88.8
Volts
R1
10k

+88.8
Volts

BAT2
5v

𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 1 + ( ) ∗ 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅1

15
Summing amplifier: it is a type of operational amplifier circuit configuration that is used to
combine and sum the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single output voltage.

An audio mixer for adding or mixing together individual waveforms (sounds) from different
source channels (vocals, instruments, guitars) before sending them combined to an audio
amplifier.

R RF
BAT1
10V 5K 10k

RV1 U1
R1

7
1
3
RV2 100
6
2
R2 RV3
1k

4
5
10k R3 LM741

10k
BAT2 3k
5V V1 V2 1k V3 VOUT
+88.8 +88.8
Volts Volts +88.8 +88.8
Volts Volts

𝑹𝑭 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 𝟏 + ( ) ∗ ( ) + ( )/( ) + ( )
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

16
Differential amplifier: is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between
two input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to the two inputs.

BAT1
10v

R1
10k
RV1 U1

7
1
R3 3
RV210k 6
2

1k
R4

4
5
10k LM741
R2
1k 10k
V1 V2
VOUT
+2.47 +4.91
Volts Volts -2.44
Volts

BAT2
5v

𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 = ( ) ∗ (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐)
𝑹𝟏

17
Comparator amplifier: it is used to compare two voltages or two currents which are given at
the two inputs of the comparator and that means it takes two input voltages, then compares them
and gives a differential output voltage either high or low-level signal.

The comparator is used to sense when an arbitrary varying input signal reaches reference level or
a defined threshold level.

RV1 U1

7
1
3
RV2 6
2

1k

4
5
LM741

3k
V1 V2
VOUT
+2.50 +2.50
Volts Volts +3.93
Volts

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 𝑨(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐)

18
Explain the operation of a simple circuit made of logic gates and
design the following combinational circuit.

U1
1
NOT U4:A
U2
1
2 9
0 8
NOT
4073
U3
1
NOT

U4:B U5:A
3 1
4 6 2 9
5 8

4073 4075

D1
LED-BIBY

U4:C
11
12 10
13

4073

3-

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