start

1
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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 33, the reader should
be able to:
• Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems
(A6) certification test content area “A” (General
Electrical/Electronic System Diagnosis).
• Identify a series circuit.
• State Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• Calculate voltage drops in a series circuit.
• Explain series and parallel circuit laws.

Continued 2
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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 33, the reader should
be able to:
• State Kirchhoff’s current law.
• Identify where faults in a series-parallel
circuit can be detected or determined.

3
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KEY TERMS:
branches • combination circuit • compound circuit

Kirchhoff’s current law • Kirchhoff’s voltage law

leg • parallel circuit

series circuit • series-parallel circuits • shunt

total circuit resistance • voltage drop

4
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 OHM’S LAW AND SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a complete circuit that has more than one
electrical load where all of the current has only one path to flow
through all of the loads.

Electrical components such as fuses and switches are generally not

considered to be included in the determination of a series circuit.
The circuit must be continuous or have continuity in order for
current to flow through the circuit.

NOTE: An electrical load needs power and a ground to operate. A break

(open) in a series circuit will cause the current in the circuit to stop.

Ohm’s law can be used to calculate the value of one unknown

(voltage, resistance, or amperes) if the other values are known.
5
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Because all current flows through all resistances, total resistance is
the sum (addition) of all resistances.
Total resistance of the circuit
shown here is 6 ohms
(1Ω = 2Ω + 3Ω).

The formula for total resistance

(RT) for a series circuit is:

Using Ohm’s law to find Figure 33–1 A series circuit with three bulbs. All
current flows through all resistances (bulbs). The
current flow: total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the
total resistance of the bulbs, and the bulbs will
light dimly because of the increased resistance
and the reduction of current flow (amperes)
through the circuit.
Continued 6
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With a total resistance of 6 ohms using a 12-volt battery in the
series circuit shown, 2 amperes of current will flow through the
entire circuit. If resistance is reduced, more current will flow.
Here, one resistance has been
eliminated and now the total resistance
is 3 ohms (1Ω + 2Ω).

Using Ohm’s law to calculate current

flow yields 4 amperes.

Notice current flow was doubled (4 amps

instead of 2 amps) when the resistance
Figure 33–2
was cut in half (from 6 ohms to 3 ohms).
A series circuit with two bulbs.
Continued 7
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 Farsighted Quality of Electricity
Electricity almost seems to act as if it “knows” what resistances are ahead
on the long trip through a circuit. If the trip through the circuit has many
high-resistance components, very few electrons (amperes) will choose to
attempt to make the trip.

If a circuit has little or no resistance (for example, a short circuit), then as

many electrons (amperes) as possible attempt to flow through the
complete circuit. If flow exceeds the capacity of the fuse or the circuit
breaker, then the circuit is opened and all current flow stops.

8
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KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Voltage applied through a series circuit drops with each resistor.
The greater the resistance, the greater the drop in voltage.

German physicist, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887),

developed laws about electrical circuits. His second law,
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, concerns voltage drops.

It states:

The voltage around any closed circuit is equal to the sum

(total) of the voltage drops across the resistances.

Continued 9
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Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff states in his

second law that voltage
drops in proportion to
resistance and the total
of voltage drops will
equal the applied
voltage.

Figure 33–3 As current flows through a circuit, the voltage drops in proportion to the amount
of resistance in the circuit. Most, if not all, of the resistance should occur across the load such
as the bulb in this circuit. All of the other components and wiring should produce little, if any,
voltage drop. If a wire or connection did cause a voltage drop, less voltage would be available
to light the bulb and the bulb would be dimmer than normal.circuit with two bulbs.
10
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Total resistance of the circuit can be determined by adding the
individual resistances (2Ω + 4Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω).
The current through the circuit is determined by using Ohm’s law,
I = E/R = 12V/12Ω = 1A.

In the circuit shown, the

following values are known:

Resistance = 12Ω
Voltage = 12V
Current = 1A

Figure 33–4 In a series circuit the voltage is

dropped or lowered by each resistance in the
circuit. The higher the resistance, the greater the
drop in voltage.
Continued 11
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Everything is known except the voltage drop caused by resistance.
This can be determined by using Ohm’s law and calculating for
voltage (E) using the value of each resistance individually:

According to Kirchhoff, the sum (addition) of the voltage drops

should equal the applied voltage (battery voltage):
Total of voltage drops = 2V + 4V + 6V = 12V = Battery voltage 12
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NOTE: Notice that the voltage drop is proportional to the resistance.
Higher resistance means greater voltage drop. A 6-ohm resistance dropped
the voltage three times as much as the drop created by 2-ohm resistance.

Another example of Kirchhoff’s

second (voltage) law.

Figure 33–5
A voltmeter reads the differences of voltage
between the test leads. The voltage read
across a resistance is the voltage drop
that occurs when current flows through
a resistance.

A voltage drop is also called an “IR” drop

because it is calculated by multiplying the
current (I) through the resistance (electrical
load) by the value of the resistance ( R).

Continued 13
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Use of Voltage Drops Due to built-in resistance, voltage drops are used in
automotive electrical systems to drop the voltage in the following
examples:

1. The Dash lights Most vehicles are equipped with a method

of dimming the brightness of the dash lights by turning a
variable resistor. This type of resistor can be changed and
therefore varies the voltage to the dash light bulbs. A high
voltage to the bulbs causes them to be bright, and a low
voltage results in a dim light.
2. The Blower motor (heater or air-conditioning fan). Speeds
are usually controlled by a fan switch sending current
through high-, medium-, or low-resistance wire resistors.
Highest resistance will drop voltage the most, causing the
motor to run at the lowest speed. Highest speed of the motor
will occur when no resistance is in the circuit.
Continued 14
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Why Check Voltage Drop Instead of Resistance?
Imagine a wire with all strands cut except for one. An ohmmeter can be
used to check resistance of this wire and the resistance would be low,
indicating the wire was okay. But one strand cannot properly carry the
current (amps) in the circuit. A voltage drop test is better for two reasons:
• An ohmmeter can only test a wire or component that has been
disconnected from the circuit and is not carrying current. The resistance
can, and does, change when current flows.
• A voltage drop test is a dynamic test because as the current flows
through a component, the conductor increases in temperature, which in
turn increases resistance. This means that a voltage drop test is testing
the circuit during normal operation and is therefore the most accurate
way of determining circuit conditions.
A voltage drop test is also easier to perform because the resistance
does not have to be known, only that unwanted loss of voltage in a
circuit should be less than 3% or, about 0.14 volts for any 12-volt circuit.
15
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SERIES CIRCUIT LAWS
Law 1 Total resistance in a series circuit is the sum total of the
individual resistances. The resistance values of each electrical load are
simply added together.

Law 2 The current is constant throughout the entire circuit. If 2 amperes

of current leave the battery, 2 amperes of current return to the battery.

Figure 33–6 In this series circuit with a 2-ohm resistor and a 4-ohm resistor, current (2
amperes) is the same throughout even though the voltage drops across each resistor.

Continued 16
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Law 3 Although current (in amps) is constant, voltage drops across
each resistance in the circuit. The voltage drop across each load is
proportional to the value of the resistance compared to the total
resistance.

For example, if the resistance is one-half of the total resistance, the

voltage drop across that resistance will be one-half of the applied
voltage.

The sum total of all individual voltage drops equals the applied
source voltage.

Continued 17
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SERIES CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
Each of the four examples includes solving for the following:
Total resistance in the circuit
Current flow (amperes) through the circuit
Voltage drop across each resistance

Continued 18
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The unknown in this problem is the value of R2. The total
resistance, however, can be calculated using Ohm’s law.
RTotal = E/I = 12 volts/3A = 4Ω

Because R1 is 3 ohms
and the total resistance
is 4 ohms, the value
of R2 is 1 ohm.

Figure 33–7 Example 1.

Continued 19
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The unknown in this problem is the value of R3. The total
resistance, however, can be calculated using Ohm’s law.
RTotal = E/I = 12 volts/2 A = 6Ω

Total resistance of R1
(3 ohms) and R2 (1 ohm)
equals 4 ohms so the
value of R3 is the
difference between the
total resistance (6 ohms)
and the value of known
resistance (4 ohms).
6 – 4 = 2 ohms = R3
Figure 33–8 Example 2.
Continued 20
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The unknown in this problem is voltage of the battery. To solve for
voltage, use Ohm’s law (E = I × R). The “R” in this problem refers
to the total resistance (RT). The total resistance of a series circuit is
determined by adding the values of the individual resistors.
RT = 1Ω + 1Ω + 1Ω
RT = 3Ω

Placing total resistance

(3Ω) into the equation
results in battery
voltage of 12 volts.
E = 4A × 3Ω
E = 12 volts
Figure 33–9 Example 3.
Continued 21
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The unknown in this example is the current (amperes) in the circuit.
To solve for current, use Ohm’s law.
I = E/R = 12 volts/6 ohms = 2A

Notice that the total

resistance in the circuit
(6 ohms) was used in
this example, which is
the total of the three
individual resistors:
(2Ω + 2Ω + 2Ω = 6Ω)

The current through the

circuit is two amperes.

Figure 33–10 Example 4.

22
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PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A parallel circuit is a complete circuit that has more than one path
for the current.

The separate paths which split and meet at junction points are called
branches, legs, or shunts.

The current flow through each branch or leg varies depending on

the resistance in that branch.

A break or open in one leg or section of a parallel circuit does not

stop current flow through the remaining legs of the circuit.

23
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KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW
Kirchhoff’s current law (first law) states:
The current flowing into any junction of
an electrical circuit is equal to the
current flowing out of that junction.
Illustrated using Ohm’s law, seen here:
The 6-ohm leg requires 2 amps and the
3-ohm resistance leg requires 4 amps.
The wire from the battery to junction A
must be capable of handling 6 amps.
The sum of current flowing out is equal Figure 33–11 The amount of current
flowing into junction point A equals
to current flowing into the junction, the total amount of current flowing
out of the junction.
proving Kirchhoff’s current law. 24
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 PARALLEL CIRCUIT LAWS
Law 1 Total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than that
of the smallest-resistance leg. This occurs because not all current
flows through each leg or branch. With many branches, more
current can flow from the battery.

Law 2 The voltage is the same for each leg of a parallel circuit.

NOTE: A parallel circuit drops the voltage from source voltage to zero
(ground) across the resistance in each leg of the circuit.

Continued 25
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Law 3 The sum of the individual currents in each leg will equal the
total current. The amount of current flow through a parallel circuit
may vary for each leg depending on the resistance of that leg. The
current flowing through each leg results in the same voltage drop
(from the power side to the ground side) as for every other leg of
the circuit.
Figure 33–12
The current in a parallel circuit splits (divides) according to the resistance in each branch.

Continued 26
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 The Path of Least Resistance
There is an old saying that electricity will always take the path of least
resistance. This is true, especially if there is a fault such as in the
secondary (high-voltage) section of the ignition system.

If there is a path to ground that is lower than the path to the spark plug, the
high-voltage spark will take the path of least resistance. In a parallel circuit
where there is more than one path for the current to flow, most of the
current will flow through the branch with the lower resistance.

This does not mean that all of the current will flow through the lowest
resistance, because the other path does provide a path to ground, and the
amount of current flow through the other branches is determined by the
resistance and the applied voltage according to Ohm’s law.

Therefore, the only place where electricity takes the path of least
resistance is in a series circuit where there are not other paths for the
current to flow.
27
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 DETERMINING TOTAL RESISTANCE IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Five common methods used to determine total resistance in a parallel
circuit:

Method 1 The total current (in amperes) can be calculated first by

treating each leg of the parallel circuit as a simple circuit. Each leg
has its own power and ground (–), and therefore, the current through
each leg is independent of the current through any other leg.

NOTE: Determining the total resistance of a parallel circuit is very

important in automotive service. Electronic fuel-injector and diesel engine
glow plug circuits are two of the most commonly tested circuits where
parallel circuit knowledge is required. Also, when installing extra lighting,
the tech must determine the proper gauge wire and protection device.
Continued 28
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Total current is the sum total of the individual currents for each leg.
Total current from the battery is 9 amps: (4A +3A + 2A = 9A)
If total circuit resistance (RT ) is needed, Ohm’s law can be used to
calculate it because voltage (E ) and current (I) are now known.

Figure 33–13 In a typical parallel

circuit, each resistance has power
and ground and each leg operates
independently of the other legs
of the circuit.

Continued 29
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Total resistance (1.33Ω) is smaller than the smallest-resistance leg
of the circuit. This characteristic of a parallel circuit holds true as
not all current flows through all resistances as in a series circuit.

Because the current has alternative paths to ground through the

various legs of a parallel circuit, as additional resistances (legs) are
added to a parallel circuit, the total current from the battery (power
source) increases.

Additional current can flow when resistances are added in parallel,

because each leg of a parallel circuit has its own power and ground
and the current flowing through each leg is strictly dependent on the
resistance of that leg.

Continued 30
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Method 2 If only two resistors are connected in parallel, the total
resistance (RT) can be found using RT = (R1 × R2) / (R1 + R2)

Using this circuit, substituting 3 ohms for R1 and 4 amperes for R2,
RT = (3 × 4)/(3 × 4) = 12/7 = 1.7Ω

Note that the total resistance (1.7Ω) is smaller than that of the
smallest-resistance leg of the circuit.

Figure 33–14 A schematic

showing two resistors in
parallel connected to a
12-volt battery.

Continued 31
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 This formula can be used for more than two resistances in parallel,
but only two resistances can be calculated at a time.

After solving for RT for two resistors, use the value of RT as R1 and
the additional resistance in parallel as R2. Then solve for another RT.
Continue the process for all resistance legs of the parallel circuit.

Note that it might be easier to solve for RT when there are more than
two resistances in parallel by using Method 3 or 4.

NOTE: Which resistor is R1 and which is R2 is not important. Position in

the formula makes no difference in multiplication and addition of values.

Continued 32
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Method 3 A formula to find total resistance for any number of
resistances in parallel is:

To solve for RT for the three resistance legs shown, substitute the
values of the resistances for R1, R2, and R3: 1/RT = 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/6

Figure 33–15 A parallel circuit

with three resistors connected
to a 12-volt battery.

Continued 33
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The fractions cannot be added together unless they all have the
same denominator. The lowest common denominator here is 12.

1/3 becomes 4/12, 1/4 becomes 3/12, and 1/6 becomes 2/12.

1/RT = 4/12 + 3/12 + 2/12 or 9/12

Cross multiplying RT = 12/9 = 1.33Ω

Note the result (1.33Ω) is the same regardless of method used.

(see Method 1).

The most difficult part is determining lowest common denominator,

especially for circuits containing a wide range of ohmic values for
various legs. For an easier method using a calculator, see Method 4.
Continued 34
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Method 4 This method uses an electronic calculator, available at
very low cost. Instead of determining the lowest common
denominator as in Method 3, one can use the calculator to convert
the fractions to decimal equivalents.
Memory buttons on most
calculators can be used to
keep a running total of the
fractional values.

Calculate the total resistance

(RT) by pushing the indicated
buttons on the calculator.
See also Figure 33-17
Figure 33–16 Using an electronic
calculator to determine the total
resistance of a parallel circuit.
Continued 35
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The memory recall (MRC) and equals (=) buttons invert the answer
to give the correct value for total resistance (1.33Ω). The inverse
(1/X or X-1) button can be used with the sum (SUM) button on
scientific calculators without using the memory button.

This method can be used to

find the total of any number
of resistances in parallel.

Figure 33–17 Another example of how to use an

electronic calculator to determine the total resistance
of a parallel circuit. The answer is 13.45 ohms. Notice
that the effective resistance of this circuit is less than
the resistance of the lowest branch (20 ohms).
36
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 Method 5 Used when two or more resistances connected in parallel
are the same value. Total resistance (RT) of equal-value resistors:
divide the number of equal resistors into value of resistance.
RT = Value equal resistance/Number equal resistances = 12W/4 = 3W
Figure 33–18 A parallel circuit containing four 12-ohm resistors. When a circuit has more than
one resistor of equal value, total resistance can be determined by simply dividing the value of
resistance (12 ohms here) by the
number of equal-value resistors
(4 in this example), to get 3 ohms.

NOTE: As most automotive and light-truck electrical circuits involve

multiple use of the same resistance, this method is most useful. If six
additional 12-ohm lights were added to a vehicle, the additional lights
would represent just 2 ohms of resistance (12Ω/6 lights = 2). 6 amperes of
additional current would be drawn (I = E/R = 12V/2Ω = 6A).
37
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PARALLEL CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
Each of the four examples includes solving for the following:
Total resistance
Current flow (amperes) through each branch as well as
total current flow
Voltage drop across each resistance

Continued 38
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In this example, the voltage of the battery is unknown and the
equation to be used is E = I × R — where R represents the total
resistance of the circuit. Using the equation for two resistors in
parallel, the total resistance is 6 ohms.

Placing total value of resistors

in the equation results in a
value for the battery voltage
of 12 volts.
E=I×R
E = 2A × 6Ω
E = 12 volts
Figure 33–19 Example 1.
Continued 39
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R3 is unknown. Because voltage (12 volts) and current (12 A) are
known, it is easier to solve for the unknown resistance by treating
each branch or leg as a separate circuit. Using Kirchhoff’s law, total
current equals total current flow through each branch.
The current flow through R1 is 3A (I = E/R = 12 V/4Ω = 3A) and
the current flow through R2 is 6A (I = E/R = 12V/2Ω = 6A)
Current through the two known branches: 9A (3A + 6A = 9A)
Because there are 12A leaving
and returning to the battery,
the current flow through R3
must be 3A (12A – 9A = 3A)
Resistance must be
4Ω (I = E/R = 12V/4Ω = 3A)
Figure 33–20 Example 2.
Continued 40
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In this example, the voltage of the battery is unknown. The equation
to solve for voltage according to Ohm’s law is:
E=I×R
The R refers to the total resistance. As there are four resistors of
equal value, the total can be determined by the equation:
RTotal = Value Resistors/Number Equal Resistors = 12Ω/4 = 3Ω
Inserting value of total
resistors of the parallel
circuit (3Ω) into Ohm’s
law results in a battery
voltage of 12V.
E = 4A × 3Ω
E = 12 V
Figure 33–21 Example 3.
Continued 41
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The unknown is the amount of current in the circuit. The Ohm’s law
equation for determining current is:
I = E/R
R represents total resistance. Because there are two equal
resistances (8Ω), they can be replaced by one resistance of 4Ω
(RTotal= Value/Number = 8Ω/2 = 4Ω)

Total resistance of circuit

containing two 8-ohm and
one 4-ohm resistor is 2 ohms.
Battery current flow is then
calculated to be 6A.

I = E/R = 12V/2Ω = 6A
Figure 33–22 Example 4.
Continued 42
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SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Series-parallel circuits are a combination of series and parallel
segments in one complex circuit.

A series-parallel circuit is called a compound or a combination

circuit. Many automotive circuits include sections that are in
parallel and in series.

A series-parallel circuit includes both parallel loads or resistances,

plus additional loads or resistances that are electrically connected in
series.

There are two basic types of series-parallel circuits.

Continued 43
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 A circuit where the load is in series with other loads is parallel. An
example of this type of circuit is a dash light dimming circuit.

The variable resistor is used to limit current flow to the dash light
bulbs, which are wired in parallel.

Figure 33–23 A series-parallel circuit.

Continued 44
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 A circuit where a parallel circuit contains resistors or loads is in series in one
or more branches. A headlight and starter circuit is an example of this type.

A headlight switch is usually

connected in series with a
dimmer switch and in parallel
with the dash light dimmer
resistors.

The headlights are also

connected in parallel along
with the taillights and side
marker lights.
Figure 33–24 This complete headlight
circuit with all bulbs and switches is a
series- parallel circuit.
45
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Series-Parallel Circuit Faults If a conventional parallel circuit,
such as a taillight circuit, had a fault that increased the resistance in
one branch of the circuit, the current flow through that one branch
will be reduced.

Added resistance, due to corrosion or similar cause, would create a

voltage drop. As a result of this drop, a lower voltage would be
applied and the bulb in the taillight would be dimmer than normal.

Because brightness of the bulb depends on voltage and current

applied, lower voltage and current would cause the bulb to be
dimmer. If added resistance occurred in part of the circuit that fed
both taillights, then both taillights would be dimmer than normal.

In this case, the added resistance created a series-parallel circuit that

was originally just a simple parallel circuit.
Continued 46
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SOLVING SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
PROBLEMS
The key to solving series-parallel circuit problems is to combine or
simplify as much as possible.
If there are two loads or
resistances in series in
a parallel branch or leg,
then the circuit can be
made simpler if the two
are first added together
before attempting to
solve the parallel section.

Figure 33–25
Solving a series-parallel circuit problem.
47
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SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
Each of the four examples includes solving for the following:
Total resistance
Current flow (amperes) through each branch, as well as
total current flow
Voltage drop across each resistance

Continued 48
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The unknown resistor is in series with the other two resistances,
which are connected in parallel. The Ohm’s law equation to
determine resistance is: R = E/I = 12V/3A = 4Ω
The total resistance of the circuit is 4 ohms, and the value of the
unknown can be determined by subtracting the value of the two
resistors that are connected in parallel. The parallel branch
resistance is 2Ω.

The value of the unknown

resistance is 2Ω

Total R = 4Ω – 2Ω = 2Ω
Figure 33–26 Example 1.
Continued 49
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The unknown unit in this circuit is the voltage of the battery. The
Ohm’s law equation is: E = I × R
Because each branch contains two 4-ohm resistors in series, values
in each can be added to help simplify the circuit. By adding the
resistors in together, the circuit now consists of two 8-ohm resistors.

Inserting the value for total

resistance into the Ohm’s law
equation results in a value of 12
volts for the battery voltage.
E=I×R
E = 3A × 4Ω E = 12 volts
Figure 33–27 Example 2.
Continued 50
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In this example, the total current through the circuit is unknown.
The Ohm’s law equation to solve for it is: I = E/R
To solve for total resistance, the circuit can be simplified by adding
R3 and R4 together because these two resistors are in series in the
same branch of the parallel circuit, similar to Example 2.
With the branches reduced to just one 4-ohm resistor, this can be
added to the 2-ohm (R1) resistor
because it is in series, creating
a total circuit resistance of
6 ohms.
Current flow can now be
determined from Ohm’s law:
I = E/R = 12V/6Ω = 2A
Figure 33–28 Example 3.
Continued 51
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In this example, the value of resistor R1 is unknown. Total resistance
of the circuit is 3 ohms: R = E/I = 12V/4A = 3Ω
Knowing total resistance is not enough to determine value of R1. To
simplify, R2 and R5 combine to create a parallel branch resistance
value of 8 ohms because they are in series.
With the circuit simplified to one resistor in series (R1) with 4 ohm
branches with 4 ohms, the branches can be reduced to the equal of
one 2-ohm resistor.
The circuit includes one 2-
ohm resistor plus unknown
R1. Total resistance is 3
ohms, so R1 must be 1 ohm.
3Ω – 2Ω = 1Ω
Figure 33–29 Example 4.
Continued 52
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SUMMARY
1. Series circuits:
a. In a simple series circuit, the current remains constant
throughout, but the voltage drops as current flows
through the resistances of the circuit.
b. The voltage drop across each resistance or load is directly
proportional to the value of the resistance compared to the
total resistance in the circuit.
c. The sum (total) of the voltage drops equals the applied
voltage (Kirchhoff’s voltage law).
d. An open or a break anywhere in a series circuit stops all
current from flowing.

Continued 53
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SUMMARY (cont.)
2. Parallel circuits:
a. A parallel circuit, such as is used for all automotive lighting,
has the same voltage available to each resistance (bulb).
b. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lower than
the smallest resistance.
c. The separate paths that split and meet at junction points are
called branches, legs, or shunts.
d. Kirchhoff’s current law states: “The current flowing into a
junction of an electrical circuit is equal to current flowing
out of that junction.”

Continued 54
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SUMMARY (cont.)
3. Series-Parallel circuits:
a. A series-parallel circuit is also called a compound circuit
or a combination circuit.
b. A series-parallel circuit is a combination of a series and a
parallel circuit, which does not include fuses or switches.
c. A fault in a series portion of the circuit would affect the
operation if the series part was in the power or the ground
side of the parallel portion of the circuit.
d. A fault in one leg of a series-parallel circuit will affect just
the component(s) in that one leg.

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 end

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