Unit Objectives

1 Research Methods
To demonstrate the various steps involved in

the development of a research proposal:

Know the contents of a research proposal
Unit 3
How to identify a research topic and formulate a
research question/hypothesis
Process in Research Proposal

Set the objectives/aims
Development

Develop a research design and methods

Prepare literature review and Cite references

Prepare work plan, and Identify resources

Produce a complete research proposal

Lesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? Lesson 1: What is the Research Proposal?
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Identifying a research topic:
The research proposal is the detailed plan of

The first step and one of the most difficult in research study
undertaking
The objective in writing a proposal is to describe

Criteria for selecting a research topic: what you will do, why it should be done, how

Relevance/Significance you will do it and what you expect will result

Avoidance of duplication
A good research proposal hinges on a good idea,

Urgency of data needed (timeliness) familiarity with the topic, longer preparatory

Feasibility of study period of reading, observation, discussion, and

Applicability of results incubation

Interest to the researcher

Ethical acceptability
 Lesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? Lesson 1: What is the Research Proposal?
5 6

The written proposal:
A proposal can be judged according to three

helps to clarify thoughts and to think about all aspects of main criteria:
the study;

is a necessary guide if its a team research;
Is it adequate to answer the research question(s),

is essential if the study involves research on human and achieve the study objective?
subjects or on experimental animals, in order to get the
institution’s ethical approval;
Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the

is an essential component submitted for funding. study?

Note: once a proposal for a study has been developed, approved,
Does it provide enough detail that can allow
and in progress, it should be adhered to strictly and should not be
changed (not always /controversial/ Justifiable revision). another investigator to do the study and arrive at
Violations of the proposal can discredit the whole study. comparable results?

Lesson 2: Components of a Research Lesson 2: Components of a Research

Proposal Proposal
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1. Title page Eligibility Criteria (if any)

2. Summary/Abstract


2.1 Title page:

Sample size
Should have the title, name of author, name of
3. Introduction/Background
Sampling methods department/faculty/college, name of advisor(s) and date of
4. Statement of the problem
Method of data collection delivery; no page number
5. Literature review
Description of variables

Title should have the fewest possible words that adequately
describe the contents of the study; Avoid abbreviations
6. Hypotheses /Questions
Data quality assurance
7. Conceptual framework
Operational definitions
2.2 Summary/Abstract:

One page brief summary of the thesis proposal
8. Objective/Aim of the study
Plan of data analysis

Show relevance of the research to what is already known
9. Research methods, materials 10. Work plan about the topic and what new contribution will be made
and procedures 11. Budget
Based only on information in main text of proposal

Study area 12. References
No references, figures, or tables

Study design
13. Appendices/Annexes
Written last

Study subjects
 Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2.3 Introduction/background:

Establish a framework for the research and relation to other research

Should be able to motivate the reader

Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand
the context and significance of the question

Proper acknowledgement of previous work

Relevant references that show the significance of the question

Should be focused on the research question(s)

Show scope of the work (what will and will not be covered)

Verbal “table of contents”

Obvious transition between the introduction and planned contribution

Basically, it should have to convince people that the researcher knows
what they are talking about and that the research is important.
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2.5 Literature review:

Description of the literature relevant to a
particular field or topic

Is not in itself primary research, but rather it
reports on other findings

Seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify
and/or integrate the content of primary reports
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
2.4 Statement of the Problem:

A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the
literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study.

Are there questions about this problem to which answers
have not been found up to the present?

The statement should answer the question: “Why does this
research need to be conducted?”

Establishes the foundation for everything to follow in the
proposal

Should indicate at least implicitly all the categories,
questions, variables or data sources in the the proposal
PURPOSES OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
12
• To demonstrate your knowledge of the subject.
• To provide an outline of the relevant theories and concepts.
• To focus the research question.
• To determine the extent of past research into the subject.
• To develop a hypothesis.
• To identify methodologies and methods that have been
successfully utilised in the past.
• To help ensure all relevant variables are identified.
• To allow comparison of your findings with those of others.
 Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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The stages of a literature review :

Define the problem: narrow the scope of what to look out

Search for relevant materials:
 books (monographs, text books, reference books);
 peer reviewed journal articles;
 newspaper articles;
 historical records;
 commercial reports and statistical information;
 government reports and statistical information;
 theses and dissertations;
 other information relevant to particular discipline.
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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The stages of a literature review :

Appraisal based on content analysis:
 Is the writer addressing a scholarly audience?
 Do the authors review the relevant literature?
 Do the authors write from an objective viewpoint?
 If the author uses research, is the research design sound?
 Is it primary or secondary material?
 Do the authors have a particular theoretical viewpoint?
 Is the author's argument logically organized and clear to
follow?
 If the author is writing from a practice-based perspective,
what are the implications for practice?
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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The stages of a literature review :

Initial appraisal from raw bibliographical data:
 Authors’ credentials? are they experts in the field?
are they affiliated with a reputable organization?
 What is the date of publication, is it sufficiently
current?
 If a book, is it the latest edition?
 Is the publisher a reputable, scholarly publisher?
 If it is a journal, is it a scholarly journal peer
reviewed?
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Proposal
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How to organize a literature review:

Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for
selecting the topic

Body: discuss the sources in one of the following ways:

Chronologically: if writers' views have changed over time.

Thematically: take particular themes in the literature;

Methodologically: focus on the methods of the researcher

Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluate the
current position, and point out flaws in methodology, gaps in
the research, contradictions, and areas for further study.
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Proposal
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2.6 Questions and/or Hypotheses :

Question: interrogative statement that can be answered by data

poses a relationship between two or more variables but
phrases the relationship as a question

most often used in qualitative inquiry

Hypotheses: tentative statements that should either be
acknowledged or rejected by means of research

a declarative statement of the relations between variables

typically used only in quantitative inquiry

may be stated in a directional (expected direction of results) or
non-directional form (no difference or no relationship)

There may be more than one hypothesis in a given research
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2.8 Objective/aim of the study :

Summarize what is to be achieved by the study

Should be closely related to the statement of the problem

Simple (not complex), specific (not vague), stated in advance (not
after the research is done), and stated using “action verbs” that
are specific enough to be measured

Objectives are useful to :

Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);

Avoid collection of data (irrelevant to solving) the problem

Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

Anticipated results of the study will be compared to the objectives
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2.7 Conceptual framework:
 Every research activity is conceptualized and will be
carried out within some contextual framework
 A set of broad ideas and principles taken from
relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a
subsequent presentation
 A tool to scaffold research and, therefore, to assist
a researcher to make meaning of subsequent
findings
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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General objective

General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the
proposed project

Closely related to the statement of the problem
Specific objectives

Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and
outcomes and their assessment in measurable terms

Identifies in detail the specific aims of the research project

Should systematically address the various aspects of the
problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the
key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
 Summary
on
LESSON 2 – Components of a Research proposal Statement of the problem, research questions,
Hypothesis, and objectives

• Formulation of research question/hypothesis

Statement Research Research
Hypotheses
of the problem Questions Objectives

Intent Overall Raise questions Make predictions State Goals

Direction to be answered about expectations

Form One or more One or more One or more One or More

sentences questions statements Objectives

End of
Placement End of the introduction, after the End of the
Introduction
literature review, or in a separate introduction
section of the study

Lesson 2: Components of a Research Lesson 2: Components of a Research

Proposal Proposal
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The "methods" section should contain

2.9 Methods, material and procedures

the heart of the research proposal

decide exactly how you are going to achieve your
stated objectives

Indicate the methodological steps you will take to
answer every question, to test every hypothesis
illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or
address the objectives you set

Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of
your approach.

Information needed by another researcher to replicate your
experiment.

Description of your materials, procedure, theory.

Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and
calibration plots.

Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.

Description of your analytical methods, including reference to

any specialized statistical software.

 Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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The proposal should describe in detail the general research
plan:

Study area

Study design

Study participants

Eligibility criteria ( if any)

Determination of sample size (if any)

Description of selection process (sampling method)

Methods of data collection

Description of the expected outcome and explanatory variable
(if any)

How data quality is ensured

Operational definition

Presentation of the data analysis methods
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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Experimental or intervention studies:

the investigators test the effect of an intervention on the
events taking place in the study

may be controlled or non-controlled

Controlled studies can be randomized or non-randomized
 Randomized: Use a random method to assign subjects
into an experimental group and a control through
 Non- Randomized: allocation to experimental or
control groups not based on randomization, possible
biases in study
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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Components of the materials and methods section :
1. Study design: two main categories

Observational studies:

Exploratory study: small-scale studies carried out when little is
known about a situation or a problem

Descriptive study: describes the distribution of a characteristic

Analytical study (correlation): study that describes associations
and analyses them for possible cause and effect
An observational study may be cross-sectional or longitudinal

Cross-sectional study: measurements made on a single
occasion

Longitudinal study: measurements made over a period of time.
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2. Sampling
Sampling for quantitative studies

the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined
study population

Things to consider:

What is the study population? “Define clearly”

How many subjects do you need in your sample?

How will these subjects be selected?

External validity—the extent to which findings of a study can
be generalized from the sample to the population

Probability sampling: probability of inclusion in the sample of
any element in the population must be given a priori. (Random
sampling)
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Proposal Proposal
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Internal validity - the extent to which the outcomes of a study

result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or

Systematic sampling: begins with selecting one element at
random in the sampling frame as the starting point; and selecting
selected rather than from other variables not systematically
treated. the rest of the sample by applying a predetermined interval (k).

Representative sample: has all the important characteristics of
K = ratio of population to sample size

the population from which it is drawn
Not recommended if there is a cyclic repetition in sampling

Examples of probability sampling frame

Simple random sampling:
Stratified sampling: Two steps:

Each element must have an equal & nonzero chance of selection
Dividing the population based on a confounder variable

Use of random numbers or drawing from a container
Applying simple random or systematic sampling to each strata

Random selection does not always produce a sample that is
Samples from each strata should be taken proportionately
representative of the population (See example of altitude in textbook}

Lesson 2: Components of a Research Lesson 2: Components of a Research

Proposal Proposal
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Cluster sampling: Used when simple random sampling is difficult

due to logistical problems or a complete sampling frame does not Purposeful sampling strategies for qualitative
exist studies:

Clustered study units are randomly selected

Focusing on a limited number of informants

Study units in all selected clusters are combined and used
selected strategically so that their in-depth

Multistage sampling: used when an appropriate sampling frame
does not exist or cannot be obtained information will give optimal insight into an issue

First a sample of clusters are selected at random from the list of little is known about
all known clusters

a random sample from each cluster

Reduced sampling precision due to multiple sampling (bias)

 Lesson 2: Components of a Research
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3. Sample Size:
Sample size in quantitative studies:

An unnecessarily large sample size may adversely affect
the quality of the measurement or data collection

It is better to make extra effort to get a representative
sample rather than to get a very large sample

The actual sample size of a study is a compromise
between the level of precision to be achieved, the
research budget and any other operational constraints,
such as time
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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Statistical power of the study:

Probability that a difference or an association that exists in the
population was missed, but was not found in the sample.

Depends also on the size of the sample

For calculating sample size before the study begins, most studies
set a power of 80%.

The effect size:

The actual size of the difference observed between groups or
the strength of relationships between variables.

In designing a study, the researcher chooses the size of effect
that is considered important

Large sample sizes are needed to detect small differences
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Proposal
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To achieve a certain level of precision, the sample size
will depend on the following factors:

The variability of the characteristics being observed

The population size:

To some extent, the bigger the population, the bigger the
sample needed

After a certain level, an increase in population no longer
affects the sample size

Efficiency of the sampling and estimation methods (You
will need a bigger sample if your method is not the most efficient)
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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Sample size in qualitative studies:

no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research

sample size depends on what you try to find out, and from
what different informants/perspectives you try to find that
out.

start with two or four Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

If the different data sets reconfirm each other you may stop;
otherwise conduct one or two FGDs more till you reach the point
of redundancy

Richness of the data and analytical capability of the researcher
determine the validity and meaningfulness of qualitative data
more than sample size
 Lesson 2: Components of a Research Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal Proposal
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2.10 Work plan:

4. Analysis Plan:

Specify the analysis procedures you will use, and label them

The timeline that shows when specific tasks will have
accurately been accomplished
 Coding procedures
State different components/phases/stages of the study
 The type of statistical tests (if necessary)
Describe activities in each phase

 Identify and describe the variables in the analyses
Indicate time required to accomplish the various aspects of the
(dependent & independent) study
 Decision making criteria (Example: Critical alpha level)
The GANTT Chart: a graphical planning tool that indicates:
 Computer software used (if any)
the tasks to be performed;

who is responsible for each task; and

the time each task is expected to take.

Lesson 2: Components of a Research Lesson 2: Components of a Research

Proposal Proposal
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2.11 Budget and funding: Budget Justification:

 shows how much it will cost to answer the question  an explanatory note justifying briefly, why the

 Do not be too frugal or too expensive various items in the budget are required
 Direct costs:  discuss how complicated expenses have been
 Personnel, Consumable supplies, Equipments, Travel, calculated
Communications, Publication, and others
Obtaining funding for research projects:
 Indirect costs:
 Support and management costs such as overhead costs for
(Read the different strategies in the text book)
institutions, operational and maintenance, depreciation and
use allowance
 Lesson 2: Components of a Research
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2.12 References:
 references must be given to all the information that obtain from
books, papers in journals, and other sources
 In the main text: two options
 Index numbers in brackets (Vancouver style)
 Authors name (Harvard style)
 List of references, numbered as in the main text (or alphabetically
ordered), should be placed at the end of the research proposal
 Formats vary from one discipline to another (Different for journal
papers, books, and internet references)
 Websites must be reputable and reliable
Lesson 2: Components of a Research
Proposal
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2.13 Appendices/Annexes:
 Additional information that might be helpful to a proposal
reviewer. For example:

Questionnaire & other collection forms

Dummy tables

Biographical data on the principal investigator

The consent form (if any) for research subjects, etc
 Also include signature page (Name, signature & date for
Researcher, Advisor (s), department graduate committee,
Faculty/Institute’s graduate committee)
 Note: In our case, proposals are submitted in three copies!!!