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Acknowledgements
Environment Committee
Disclaimer
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Revision history
Contents
Abbreviations 6
1. Scope 7
Methodology 8
2. Waste types 9
Drill cuttings 9
Drilling fluids 10
Waste cuttings 16
Cement 18
Interfacial mixtures 18
Spacer and completion fluids 19
3. Regulatory considerations 20
General 20
United States 21
Onshore 21
Offshore 21
Norway 24
United Kingdom 26
4. General considerations 27
Objectives of drilling waste management 27
Factors influencing choice of management routes 28
General 28
Reliability and throughput capacity 28
Performance 29
Cost 29
Environmental impacts 30
Portability 31
Secondary treatment 50
Mechanical cuttings dryers 50
Thermal treatment 53
Biological treatment 58
Physical and chemical treatment 62
Disposal 67
Offshore discharge 67
Re-injection 68
Onshore landfill 71
Salt cavern disposal 74
Application to land 75
Management of salt contaminated cuttings 78
Beneficial reuse 78
Construction materials 78
Fuel 79
Wetland restoration 80
Summary 80
References 93
Drilling waste management technology review 6
Abbreviations
NF Nanofiltration
1. Scope
This report provides a review of the drilling-specific wastes that are generated
during well construction activities, both onshore and offshore. This includes the
following main types of waste:
• drill cuttings and associated fluids, and
• interfacial mixtures.
The review focuses on waste types that are specific to drilling operations, or
which present significant challenges due to the quantities produced or potential
environmental impacts of these wastes.
Waste types which are not included within the scope of this review include:
• water that is generated to the surface as a by-product along with the oil and
gas production (‘produced water’), and injection fluids returned to the surface
after fracture stimulation activities (‘flowback water’)
• general wastes (such as those generated by day-to-day activities of the
workforce), and
• potentially hazardous wastes likely to be generated in small quantities (such
as fluorescent light bulbs/tubes, batteries, and small-volume chemicals).
For each of those wastes, there is already a large amount of information in the
public domain about suitable technologies; the wastes in question are not unique
to drilling activities, and they are not generated in large quantities.
Drilling waste management technology review 8
Methodology
The methodology for the review is based on:
• Literature review of published sources of information. This takes into
account published papers in peer-reviewed journals, as well as conference
proceedings, presentations, technical reports and manufacturer’s literature.
• Stakeholder consultation. Telephone and face-to-face discussions were held
with a wide range of companies active in the drilling waste management
market, particularly technology vendors and oil field services companies,
as well as relevant departments in selected universities. IOGP member
organizations (representing operators) provided comments on initial drafts of
this report.
Information from these sources has been compiled into this report. The main body
of the report includes general descriptions of the types of technology, methods,
and processes that are applicable, with information about the constraints and
developments within each subject area.
Table 5 and Figure 39, located at the end of this report, provide summary
information for each technique:
• portability
• relative cost
• degree of commercialization
• qualitative environmental impacts
• advantages
• constraints
• achievable performance.
Drilling waste management technology review 9
2. Waste types
This section describes the waste types that are generated by drilling activities
within the scope of the review, and outlines their general characteristics and
the challenges these pose for waste management technologies.
Drill cuttings
The majority of wastes generated during drilling operations are spent drilling
fluids and drill cuttings. Drill cuttings are particles of crushed rock produced by
the action of the rotary drill bit as it penetrates into the earth. The drilling fluid is
pumped from the mud tanks on the rig, down the drill pipe, exiting through holes
in the drill bit, and returns to the surface via the annulus, which is the space
between the drill pipe and the drill casing or rock wall of the drilled hole (Figure 1).
Rotation of the drill bit at the bottom of the hole breaks off small chips of rock, called
cuttings, deepening the hole. The cuttings must be removed from the hole to the
surface in order to allow the drill bit to proceed. As the drilling fluid exits the drill bit,
it suspends the cuttings and carries them up the annulus to the surface where they
are separated from the drilling fluid by the solids control equipment on the drill rig.
drilling rig
mud pump
solids control
mud pits equipment
casing and
cement
open hole
drill pipe
annulus
Figure 1: Drilling fluids circulating system of a drilling rig and well (From IPIECA/IOGP, 2009)
Drilling waste management technology review 10
Drilling fluids are normally reused until their properties become unsuitable for
the particular phase of the drilling operation. Drilling fluids used in offshore
operations may then be returned to shore for reprocessing or disposal by one of
the methods that are also used for disposal of fluids from onshore operations,
re-injected into an offshore well, or (in the case of water-based drilling fluids)
discharged to the sea if permitted by local regulations.
The physical and chemical characteristics of the drill cuttings will depend on the
formations drilled, and the type and quantity of any retained fluid. Drill cuttings
range in size from clay-sized particles (~0.002 mm) to coarse gravel (>30 mm)
and are irregular and angular. The chemical and mineral composition of cuttings
reflects that of the rock layers being penetrated by the drill. Cuttings from certain
formations (e.g. halite and other salts) can pose particular challenges for waste
management due to their chemical characteristics (Filippov, et al., 2009).
Drilling fluids
Drilling fluids, also referred to as ‘muds’, and are mixtures of fine-grained solids,
inorganic salts, and organic compounds dissolved or dispersed/suspended in
in a ‘continuous phase’ (the base fluid) which may be water or an organic liquid
continuous phase.
The two primary types of drilling fluid systems are: (IPIECA/IOGP, 2009)
• water-based systems (freshwater and saltwater systems). Water-based
drilling fluids (WBDFs) are the most widely used, and are generally less
expensive than other systems
• oil- or synthetic-based systems, collectively referred to as non-aqueous
drilling fluids (NADFs). NADFs have an oil or synthetic base fluid as the
continuous phase, and brine as the dispersed phase.
Water-based fluids
WBDFs are formulated mixtures of clays, natural and synthetic organic polymers,
mineral weighting agents, and other additives dissolved or suspended in fresh
water, seawater, brine, saturated brine, or a formate brine. The type of fluid
selected depends on anticipated well conditions or on the specific interval of the
well being drilled.
Drilling waste management technology review 11
WBDFs fall into two broad categories: non-dispersed and dispersed. They include
additives such as bentonite, polymers (including biodegradable polymers),
dispersants (e.g. lignosulfonates, lignitic additives, and tannins) and a variety of
other materials.
Modern WBDFs rarely contain more than about ten of these additives, and most
are added in small amounts. The composition of the WBDFs may vary during
drilling of a single well because different additives may be required to drill different
well sections through varying geologic formations. Thus, the total inventory of
drilling fluid additives to drill all sections of a typical offshore well usually includes
about twenty additives, although the rig may also carry additional contingency
chemicals and additives.
Category Example
Weighting materials Barite, calcium carbonate, ilmenite or hematite
Viscosifiers Clay, organic polymers
Filtrate reducers Starch, clay, lignite, polymers
pH control Inorganic acids and bases, most often caustic soda
Shale control Soluble salts such as potassium chloride (KCl), amines, glycols)
Lost circulation materials Inert insoluble solids such as calcium carbonate, ground nut shells,
graphite, mica and cellulose fibres
Lubricants Water-based lubricants, glycols and beads
Emulsifiers, surfactants detergents, soaps, organic fatty acids
Thinners lignite, lignosulfonates, polymers
Flocculants Inorganic salts, acrylamide polymers
Bactericides glutaraldehyde, triazine disinfectants
Pipe-freeing agents Water-based lubricants, enzymes, surfactants
Defoamers alcohols, silicones, aluminum stearate, alkyl phosphates
Calcium reducers Sodium carbonate, bicarbonate, polyphosphates
Corrosion inhibitors Amines, phosphates
Temperature stability acrylic or sulfonated polymers, lignite, lignosulfonate
Drilling waste management technology review 12
other 4% gellants/other 1%
clay/polymer 6% brine 18%
non-aqueous
barite 14% fluid 46%
barite 33%
brine/water 76%
emulsifiers 2%
Figure 2: Composition in weight percent of typical WBDFs and NADFs (IPIECA/IOGP, 2009).
Depending on the conditions at different depths in the well, special additives (often
different natural or synthetic polymers) in some of the categories listed in Table 1
can be added to the WBDF, for example to stabilize reactive shales, inhibit clay
swelling/sloughing, stabilize cuttings, increase the rate of penetration (ROP),
lubricate the drill string and bit, and stabilize mud viscosity at high temperatures
and pressures. However, despite great advances in HPWBM, NADFs still provides
superior technical performance in many cases, especially in providing chemical
shale stability, high rate-of-penetration, temperature stability and high lubricity.
Drilling waste management technology review 13
NADFs can be formulated with diesel, mineral oil, or low-toxicity linear olefins,
paraffins, and esters. The olefins, paraffins and esters are often referred to as
‘synthetics’.
The ratio of the non-aqueous percentage to the water percentage in the liquid
phase of a non-aqueous based system is called its oil/water ratio. Non-aqueous
based systems generally function well with an oil/water ratio in the range of 65/35
to 95/5, but the most commonly observed range is from 70/30 to 80/20.
As with WBDFs, chemicals are added to the NADF; many of these additives provide
the same or similar functions to WBDF additives. Water, containing inorganic salt
and oil-soluble or oil dispersible additives, is dispersed into the non-aqueous
continuous phase and the resulting emulsion is stabilized with emulsifiers. NADF
viscosity is controlled by varying the amount of water dispersed into the non-
aqueous phase or by adding organophilic clays.
NADFs also contain thinners and weighting agents. A typical modern NADF
contains about 20–50% w/w NABF, 10–20% w/w brine, 0–50% w/w weighting agent
(e.g. barite), and <5% w/w other additives (Figure 2).
The environmental performance of a NADF is dictated by the base fluid used, and
the IOGP has grouped NABFs according to aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations
(a component that contributes to drilling fluid toxicity) as shown in Table 2.
Drilling waste management technology review 14
Category Properties
Group I: Non-aqueous These were the first NABFs used and include crude oil, diesel
fluids (high aromatic and conventional mineral oils. Diesel and mineral oils are refined
content) from crude oil and are complex mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons,
including paraffins, aromatic hydrocarbons, and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Group I NABFs are defined as containing more
than 5% by weight aromatic hydrocarbons, with PAH concentrations
greater than 0.35% w/w.
Whilst foam and mist systems are mainly water-based, non-aqueous foam
systems are also available, using foaming agents such as silicone and
fluoraliphatic polymeric esters (Weatherford, 2012).
Drilling waste management technology review 16
Specialty products
Drilling-fluid service companies provide a wide range of additives that are
designed to prevent or mitigate costly well construction delays.
Waste cuttings
The drilling fluid circulates through the hole and returns to the surface as a
mixture of fluid and cuttings. Fluid is separated from the cuttings and recycled,
being recirculated back down the wellbore or being transferred/stored for use in
different holes. The cuttings are separated from the fluid by various means, and
become waste.
The fraction of solids removed will depend on the size of the particle, the efficiency
of the solids control equipment and the type of equipment (Figure 3).
Complete separation of the drilling fluid from the drilled solids is difficult to
achieve with conventional solids control equipment and a proportion of the fluid
is usually retained on the cuttings after the initial stage of separation (Figure
4). Removal of this fluid requires additional processing or cuttings cleaning
equipment.
Drilling waste management technology review 17
4” Hydrocyclone (desilter)
removes >25 μm
% Solids Concentration
10” Hydrocyclone
(desander) removes >50 μm
Shale Shakers remove >74 μm
The waste cuttings are therefore a mixture of the natural rock and soil material,
and the base fluid (which may be aqueous or non-aqueous), plus any associated
materials in the fluid, such as emulsifiers and brine salts, barite or calcium
carbonate and lost circulation materials (LCM). In some cases, there may also be
some reservoir fluids mixed with the cuttings.
This mixture of cuttings and fluids has the potential to cause impacts on the
surrounding environment and its disposal is therefore regulated.
Cement
Cement is used to hold casing in place and to prevent fluid migration from
subsurface formations.
Cementing is the process of mixing a slurry of cement, cement additives and water
and pumping it down through casing to critical points in the annulus around the
casing or in the open hole below the casing string.
In addition to isolating oil, gas, and water-producing zones, cement also aids in:
• protecting the casing from corrosion
• preventing blowouts by quickly forming a seal
• protecting the casing from shock loads in deeper drilling
• sealing off zones of lost circulation or thief zones.
Interfacial mixtures
Interfacial mixtures are more commonly referred to as ‘slops’. Slop water or
slop mud is a waste stream which is produced when the drilling fluid becomes
contaminated with water (Ivan & Dixit, 2006); or an aqueous fluid (such as a
completion brine) becomes contaminated with NADF or reservoir hydrocarbons.
These waste streams arise from displacement interfaces (see below) and
operations such as cleaning the drill floor, shaker room, pump room, fluid tanks
and other areas where spillage can occur. Contamination of NADF by water affects
mud properties: it lowers the oil/water ratio (OWR), increasing viscosity, decreasing
emulsion stability and ultimately forming an unusable drilling fluid.
The composition of slops can be highly variable, and can include both oil-in-water
and water-in-oil emulsions.
Drilling waste management technology review 19
Spacer fluid that is displaced to the surface will become waste if it cannot be
reused or if it is contaminated with cement or non-aqueous drilling fluid – in the
latter case, it will require being managed as slops, since it will be an interfacial
mixture of aqueous and non-aqueous liquids.
Completion fluid is placed in the well to facilitate final operations prior to initiation
of production, such as setting screens, production liners, packers, downhole
valves or shooting perforations into the producing zone. The fluid is used to control
a well, without damaging the producing formation or completion components,
should downhole hardware fail. Completion fluids are typically brines (chlorides,
bromides and formates), but in theory could be any fluid of proper density and
flow characteristics. The fluid should be chemically compatible with the reservoir
formation and fluids, and is typically filtered to a high degree to avoid introducing
solids to the near-wellbore area.
Drilling waste management technology review 20
3. Regulatory considerations
General
The choice of drilling waste management techniques and the development
of technologies are tied closely to the regulatory environment, and hence the
following sections provide a limited discussion of relevant regulations in a small
selection of jurisdictions. The regulations applying to drilling waste management
vary greatly throughout the world and this section is not intended to present a
comprehensive overview of all applicable regulations.
In contrast, OSPAR decision 2000/3 prohibited discharge of NADF fluids and NADF
cuttings containing >1% BFROC (Freidheim & Candler, 2008) in the North Sea.
The 1% BFROC limit was intended to prevent the discharge of any NADF adhering
to cuttings. Under the OSPAR system, discharges of WBDF, WBDF cuttings, and
other drilling wastes used offshore are regulated primarily by controls on chemical
substances used in the drilling process.
Drilling waste management technology review 21
United States
Onshore
Management of drilling wastes varies from one jurisdiction to another, ranging
from limited controls, to mandated, dedicated landfills. For example, California
allows, through CCR Title 27 §20090, “discharges of drilling mud and cuttings
from well-drilling operations, provided that such discharges are to on-site sumps1,
do not contain halogenated solvents, and at the end of drilling operations, the
discharger accomplishes either of the following tasks: (1) removes all wastes from
the sump; or (2) removes all free liquid from the sump and covers residual solid
and semisolid wastes, provided that representative sampling of the sump contents
after liquid removal shows residual solid wastes to be non-hazardous.”
Offshore
SBFs may not be discharged, except for small amounts adhering to cuttings and
certain small volume discharges. SBF cuttings discharges are allowed, subject to
several limitations. They must meet the same limits as WBDFs and cuttings for
free oil, cadmium and mercury in barite used to make up drilling fluids, and toxicity
of the suspended particulate phase. The base fluid used for drilling fluids must
meet limits for polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content, sediment toxicity,
and biodegradation rate. In addition, the discharged material is subject to limits
on sediment and aquatic toxicity, base fluid retention on cuttings (6.9% for internal
olefins and 9.4% for esters), and formation oil.
1
Sumps are earthen excavations used to store drilling waste, including drill cuttings and cement returns.
Drilling waste management technology review 22
Effluent limits for drilling fluids and cuttings discharges on the U.S. Gulf of Mexico
Outer Continental Shelf based on USEPA permits GMG290000 (central and western
Gulf of Mexico) and GMG460000 (eastern Gulf of Mexico) are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Summary of effluent limits for drilling fluids and cuttings discharges on the
US Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf, based on USEPA permits GMG290000
(central and western Gulf of Mexico) and GMG460000 (eastern Gulf of Mexico)
The limits for drilling fluid retention on cuttings are 6.9% for internal olefins and
9.4% for esters. These are averages over all SBM well sections. Operators are
required to monitor the retained oil on cuttings (BFROC), by taking grab samples at
the solids control equipment once per day, or one sample for every 500 feet drilled
(up to three per day). When seafloor discharges are made during dual gradient
drilling, BFROC cannot be monitored and the USEPA specifies default values of
14% of base fluid retained on cuttings and 15% as the mass fraction of cuttings
discharged at the seafloor. The default values are to be averaged with results from
daily monitoring to determine compliance.
The BFROC limits were developed by the USEPA based on a statistical analysis
of data from 65 wells and representing four cuttings dryer technologies (vertical
and horizontal centrifuges, squeeze presses, and high-g-force linear shakers).
The upper 95th percentile of the BFROC data was used to set the BFROC limits.
(USEPA, 2000).
Drilling waste management technology review 24
Norway
Oil exploration in Norway occurs primarily along the Norwegian Continental Shelf.
This includes the areas where Norway exercises rights for economic development
under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and includes the North
Sea, the Norwegian Sea and a portion of the Barents Sea.
The key legislation that pertains to the disposal of drill fluids and cuttings in
Norway includes the following:
• Offshore Chemical Regulations, 2002
• Offshore Petroleum Activities Regulations, 2005
• Food and Environment Protection Act, 1985
• Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East
Atlantic (OSPAR)
• OSPAR Decision 2000/3 on the use of Organic Phase Drilling Fluids (OPF) and
the Discharge of OPF-Contaminated Cuttings.
The Norway Climate and Pollution Agency regulates petroleum industry use of
drilling fluids, produced water, and chemicals, with water discharge permits. To
further protect marine waters, Norway first introduced a ‘zero discharge’ goal for
petroleum activities (Storting White Paper No. 58, 1996-1997). This goal was later
refined to mean zero discharge of environmentally hazardous substances, using
Best Available Techniques, and follows the precautionary principle (Storting White
Paper No. 25, 2002-2003). An advisory cooperative group composed of government
and industry representatives developed a common definition that identified
relevant technologies to achieve zero discharge, and created a standard manner to
report discharges. This advisory group found that a literal interpretation of the zero
discharge goal was not economically feasible or environmentally beneficial.
Table 4: Summary of Norwegian Drilling Fluid Regulations North and South of the
86th Parallel
United Kingdom
The Offshore Chemical Notification Scheme (OCNS) manages chemical use and
discharge by the UK and Netherlands offshore petroleum industries. The OCNS
was originally introduced by the UK in 1979.
The OCNS uses the OSPAR Harmonized Mandatory Control Scheme (HMCS),
developed through the OSPAR Decision 2000/2, on a system for the use and
discharge of offshore chemicals (as amended by OSPAR Decision 2005/1) and
its supporting recommendations. This ranks chemical products according to
Hazard Quotient (HQ), calculated using the CHARM (Chemical Hazard and Risk
Management) model.
With respect specifically to drilling waste, the main driver for reductions in oily
discharges into the North Sea is the OSPAR Convention, which serves as the basis
for national laws governing discharge of drilling wastes in offshore waters of the
oil producing coastal states of Western Europe.
The OSPAR Decision 2000/3 virtually eliminated the discharge of NADF or cuttings
contaminated with these fluids unless the BFROC is <1%.
2
OSPAR terminology for non-aqueous fluids
Drilling waste management technology review 27
4. General considerations
In addition, many operators and regulators are also looking for drilling waste
management techniques that offer environmental benefits and are consistent with
the principles expressed in the waste hierarchy (Figure 5), but these considerations
can only be addressed providing the main objectives of regulatory compliance and
reliability/capacity are met.
RECYCLING
RECOVERY
DISPOSAL
General
There is a wide range of techniques and technologies available. No single option is
preferable in all cases. The development of a drilling waste management strategy
needs to take into account a range of factors in addition to the performance
characteristics of the technology itself.
Drilling operations are extremely costly, and any slow-down or cessation of drilling
due to an inability to manage wastes will be prohibitively expensive, and as such it
is critical that the throughput capacity of the drilling waste management system
does not constrain the rate of penetration (ROP), which is a metric for the progress
of the drilling operation. This is a particular issue for offshore drilling: storage
space on a platform or mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) is very limited and
hence the waste management system needs to be able to treat the waste at the
same rate that it arises. If the rate of waste treatment falls behind the rate of
drilling waste generation, a backlog of waste will result; storage space will rapidly
run out and drilling operations must be paused.
Cuttings processing rates can be optimized by combining the use of bulk storage
with cuttings cleaning equipment so that cleaning may take place at the same time
as well operations that do not generate drill cuttings are being carried out. This
allows for more efficient use of the cuttings cleaning equipment but does increase
the footprint of the overall package.
Having a high throughput capacity is of little use if the system is not reliable
and prone to breakdown. As soon as a system goes out of operation, waste will
immediately build up and drilling will be constrained.
Performance
Where a particular discharge limit or intended end-use is in place, it is of course
essential that the chosen treatment system is capable of meeting these limits.
Treatment technologies vary in the end-points they are able to achieve. In theory, it
is possible to develop a system which can meet almost any required environmental
standard but the system’s usefulness may be compromised by its cost, reliability,
and energy use, and its space and weight requirements.
Cost
The cost of waste management is of course an important determining factor; but
cost considerations are not as straightforward as simply comparing the Capex
and Opex of alternative systems against the waste disposal costs for the resulting
outputs. NADFs are expensive, but their use may reduce the time taken to drill
the well and being able to recover a higher proportion of NADF back into the fluid
system can be a significant factor in deciding which treatment option to use.
Drilling waste management technology review 30
As well as routine costs, the operator should also consider the potential for
additional costs that may arise due to the unavailability of the chosen system. For
onshore operations, this may simply be additional transport costs to an alternative
temporary storage location. The additional costs associated with system failure
offshore can be significant.
Environmental impacts
Environmental impacts of a product or process are usually assessed by means of
an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) at the project level. Developed countries
generally have well-defined EIA regulations and methodologies. International
standards are also available, such as those promulgated by the International Finance
Corporation (IFC). The IFC publishes Performance Standards and Environmental,
Health and Safety Guidelines which define IFC clients’ responsibilities for managing
their environmental and social risks and applies to all investment and advisory
clients whose projects go through IFC’s initial credit review process.
Life Cycle Assessment (for a process or product) is another approach which may
also be used as a means of comparing different approaches to drilling waste
management in some cases. In a Life Cycle Assessment, the emissions and
resources consumed that can be attributed to a specific product are compiled and
documented in a Life Cycle Inventory. An impact assessment is then performed,
considering human health, the natural environment, and issues related to natural
resource use. Life Cycle environmental impacts of treatment processes can vary
considerably, and may be difficult to accurately determine (European Commission
Joint Research Centre, 2010).
Portability
The most significant distinction in the context of this report is between technologies
that can be used offshore, and those that are limited to onshore use. However,
even for onshore technologies there is a distinction between larger facilities, static
facilities, and smaller mobile facilities that can move between rig sites.
The installation of new offshore equipment may require structural rig modification
and/or upgrades such as increase of deck load capacity. This requires extensive
engineering studies which can delay the installation of such equipment as well as
adding significant costs on the project.
5. Management route –
Drill cuttings
This section describes the main technologies and methods used for
managing drill cuttings.
Re-Injection
Drilling
Mud System
Operation
Re-Injection
Slurrification
Well
Solids Control
Sea Disposal
Shale Shaker
Secondary
Land Disposal
Treatment
Desander /
desilter Landfill
Cuttings Dryer
Disposal
Construction
Centrifuge Thermal
Material / other
Treatment
Re-use
Biological Land
Treatment Spreading
Key
Cuttings + fluid
Fluid
Cuttings
Stabilization
Marine transport
Transportation of drilling wastes offshore can be particularly problematic due to
the need for intermodal transfer and the difficulties of materials handling on board
a congested offshore drilling rig. However, if regulations do not allow discharge of
cuttings or fluids at the drill site, and the drilling rig cannot accommodate on-site
re-injection, transfer either to an offshore site suitable for discharge or re-injection
or to an onshore treatment and disposal site will be necessary.
Drilling waste management technology review 34
Cuttings handling
On the rig itself, cuttings need to be transferred from the solids control equipment
to containers or skips. This is commonly done using gravity (slides and chutes
– Figure 7), by screw conveyors (augers – Figure 8 and Figure 9), and can also
be done pneumatically using vacuum collection systems (Figure 10) or positive
pressure pneumatic conveyance.
Screw conveyors are very efficient at transferring cuttings and are one of the
most economical methods of handling bulk materials. They may comprise single
or multiple units and are often the best choice over short distances, but are less
efficient over longer distances or for complex installations. For example, screw
conveyors cannot bend around obstructions or easily convey cuttings up or down
(Morris & Seaton, 2006). Screw conveyors also represent a significant safety
hazard if used incorrectly or without the correct guards (International Association
of Drilling Contractors, 2010).
Pneumatic conveyance uses differential air pressure to convey cuttings from the
shale shakers through pipes and hoses to cuttings storage boxes, bulk storage
tanks (silos) or processing equipment. Both screw conveyor and pneumatic
conveyance systems collect, store and move drilled cuttings within an enclosed
environment, minimizing spills and maximizing containment.
Figure 7: Onshore cuttings chute and Figure 8: Onshore auger based cuttings
collection trough (Photo – Chevron) collection and transfer system (Photo – Chevron)
Figure 9: Offshore Swivel auger based Figure 10: Dual vacuum cuttings transport
cuttings collection system (Photo – Chevron) system (Photo – M-I SWACO)
Drilling waste management technology review 35
Pneumatic conveyance
Pneumatic conveyance of drill cuttings is broadly split into two types: dilute/lean
phase conveyance; and dense phase conveyance (Morris & Seaton, 2005).
In dilute or lean phase conveying, particles are fully suspended in the conveying
air and transported at low pressure and high velocity. Examples of dilute
phase conveyance include blowing of cement and barite (dilute phase pressure
conveying) and dilute phase vacuum conveyance. Vacuum collection systems are
able to collect, store and move drilled cuttings within an enclosed environment,
minimizing spills and contamination.
Vendors state that vacuum collection systems are effective in minimizing safety
and environmental risks associated with cuttings collection and containment,
as well as being relatively simple to mobilize and demobilize. They can transfer
cuttings vertically as well as horizontally, which offers flexibility in space
requirements (MI-SWACO, 2014a). Vacuum collection systems are capable of
handling wet or dry cuttings (Scomi Oiltools, undated) but cannot convey drill
cuttings as far, or to the same vertical height as dense phase cuttings blowers
which are able to convey cuttings over a distance of 100 metres and to a vertical
height of 50 metres.
Dense phase conveying can also be used to ‘blow’ cuttings from the rig to storage
tank or boxes on a supply vessel for transportation and onshore treatment/
disposal. Dense phase conveying doesn’t suspend the particles in the conveying air
but transports them as slugs of material at high pressure and low velocity
Material conveyed by this method is loaded into a pressure vessel (also called
a blow pot) and when the vessel is full, the inlet and vent valves are closed and
compressed air is fed into the vessel. The compressed air extrudes the material
from the pressure vessel into the conveying line and to the destination (Figure 11).
Once the vessel and conveying line are empty, the compressed air is turned off and
the vessel is reloaded. This cycle continues until all of the materials required for
the process have been transferred (Nol-tec Systems, 2015).
Cuttings pumps
Positive displacement/hydraulic sludge pumps can also be used for the
bulk transfer of drill cuttings but some systems require additional fluid or
preconditioning of the cuttings for optimum performance. Correct design and
routing of pipework is essential for successful bulk transfer operations. Pipe runs
should be straight and either horizontal or vertical. Narrow radius pipe bends
should be avoided wherever possible.
Transport to shore
Transport of drilling waste to shore or to other offshore facilities can be carried
out either using individual cuttings boxes (skip-and-ship) as shown in Figure 12, or
by bulk transfer from rig-based storage tanks to a vessel fitted with bulk storage
tanks (Figure 13) and thence to an onshore treatment facility.
Figure 12: Lifting empty skips from a supply Figure 13: Low profile cuttings storage
vessel (Photo – Chevron) tanks and transfer hose used to convey
cuttings from the platform to the supply
vessel (Photo – NOV Brandt)
Drilling waste management technology review 37
Skip-and-ship
Skip-and-ship involves the filling of cuttings containers (generally referred to as
boxes or skips) with cuttings (Figure 14 and Figure 15), which are then transferred
to supply vessels by crane or transferring cuttings to vessels via a blower system.
Figure 14: Blowing Cuttings to Cuttings Figure 15: Pneumatic skip filling station
boxes (Photo – NOV Brandt) (Photo – Chevron)
Cuttings boxes (e.g. Figure 16) typically have a capacity of four to eight tonnes
(Morris & Seaton, 2006). Developments in cuttings boxes include:
• spring-assisted or lightweight aluminium lids for safer access
• sealed lids, reducing the risk of spillage
• high-capacity payloads, which provide a large capacity with a minimized
footprint
• stackable designs, which allow for increased capacity without requiring
increased deck space
• locking mechanisms offering improved security, and
• low height profile, reducing the danger of working at heights.
The use of skip and ship has the advantage of being relatively simple but poses
environmental and safety risks, particularly relating to increased crane operations.
As noted by (Morris & Seaton, 2006), a typical offshore well can generate in excess
of 1,000 tonnes of cuttings and require several hundred cuttings boxes. These
boxes have to be lifted onto a boat, transported to the rig, lifted onto the rig, and
then lifted to the filling station on the rig. Once filled with cuttings, the box is lifted
from the filling station, transferred down onto the boat, and finally lifted off the
boat when it returns to the shore base (Figure 17) (Gilbert, et al., 2010). This means
six or more crane lifts are required for each cuttings box filled, and at 200 boxes
per well, this amounts to 1,200 individual crane lifts per well. This represents a
significant safety risk to workers at the rig site, on boats, and at the shore base.
Larger boxes may be used but this can be constrained by the available handling
equipment (Morris & Seaton, 2006).
Figure 17: Typical cuttings box logistics and life cycle (Gilbert, et al., 2010)
Drilling waste management technology review 39
Bulk transfer
Bulk transfer offers an alternative to skip-and-ship. Bulk transfer systems
eliminate the need for separate cuttings boxes, with cuttings being transferred
from the rig directly to bulk tanks on a vessel and then transferred out of these
tanks at the supply base. There are also situations where cuttings may be
transported in bulk to avoid discharge at an environmentally sensitive location.
Cuttings can be conveyed to and from bulk transfer tanks pneumatically (Figure
18 and Figure 19). The consistency of drilling wastes may vary from a slurry or
liquid, to a dry sand-like material, depending on the processing it has undergone.
Transporting dry cuttings requires less pressure (approximately 1–3 bar) and
hence less energy via blowers than wet cuttings which require approximately 7 bar.
The heterogeneous nature of drill cuttings can cause problems when emptying the
bulk tanks so a variety of designs have been developed to facilitate emptying.
This includes:
• single centre discharge point – this is a simple system, with few moving
parts that relies on the tank having a specially designed, high angle conical
bottom that establishes a mass flow of the cuttings when pneumatic
pressure is applied to the of the tank
• use of a multiple discharge point arrangement and a ‘spiked’ tank bottom
arrangement (Morris & Seaton, 2006)
• mechanically assisted discharge – this uses mechanical agitation to break
up any cuttings at the base of the tank – whilst effective, such systems are
more complex and costly, and
• cutting slurry tanks – slurrification can minimize the risk of clogging, but
increases the volume and liquid content of the waste to be discharged.
Drilling waste management technology review 40
Figure 18: Pneumatic skip filling station showing contingency bulk storage
tanks which can be used to provide contingency storage if weather restricts
skip handling operations (M-I SWACO)
Figure 19: Pneumatic (blower) based cuttings collection and storage system
(Photo – Halliburton BSS)
Drilling waste management technology review 41
Land transport
Onshore transportation of cuttings should be carried out in accordance with the
relevant regulatory requirements of the host jurisdictions. These may include the
use of transfer notes or manifests, display of placards or notices if wastes are
deemed dangerous or hazardous, or the use of suitable containers, which prevent
uncontrolled releases to the environment.
Transport of cuttings by road can give rise to large numbers of vehicle movements,
which in turn can increase the risk of road traffic accidents.
Solids control
The goal of modern solids control systems is to reduce overall well costs by
prompt, efficient removal of drilled solids while minimizing the loss of liquids (NOV
Brandt, 6th Edition) Since the size of drilled solids and cuttings varies greatly –
from cuttings larger than one inch in diameter to sub-micron size – several types of
equipment may be used depending upon the specific situation. Most solids control
systems include several pieces of equipment connected in series (Figure 20).
The first piece of equipment used to separate the solids from the mud is usually a
vibrating screen or series of screens, the shale shakers. These use a combination
of mechanical energy and sized screens to separate the drill cuttings from the
drilling fluid. Particles that are larger than the mesh openings are removed
but will always carry an adhered film of mud. The amount of mud retained/lost
on the cuttings can have a significant impact on the overall volume of waste
produced, the impact of the cuttings on the receiving environment and well costs.
Correctly functioning, high efficiency shale shakers play the primary role in waste
minimization and the greater the mechanical energy or the longer the retention
time of the cuttings on the screen the drier the cuttings and the lower the
concentration of fluid that adheres to the cuttings (NOV Brandt, 6th Edition). The
recovered drilling fluid may then be processed using hydrocyclones or centrifuges
to remove the finer solids that were not removed by the shakers.
Decanting centrifuges are commonly used to deweight drilling fluids (i.e. to remove
barite and drill solids) but may also be used to remove the fine silt and ultrafine
clay-sized solids. Two centrifuges may be used in series to treat weighted mud
(i.e. one that contains barite): the first to remove and possibly recover barite, the
second to remove fine solids and reclaim the liquid phase.
Drilling waste management technology review 42
Drill cuttings may also need secondary processing or cleaning prior to disposal
and this is discussed separately below.
Figure 20: Simplified solids control equipment sequence (Redrawn by Chevron from NOV
solids control Handbook NOV Brandt)
Shale shakers
Shale shakers are the first step in the drilling waste management process. 100% of
the mixture of fluid and cuttings returning from the hole passes through the shale
shaker and is separated into two fractions: one predominantly containing fluid, and
another predominantly containing cuttings. Both fractions may then be subject to
further treatment, either (in the case of fluids) to facilitate their continued use, or
(in the case of cuttings) to facilitate recycling or disposal.
The motion of the screens separates the drilled solids from the drilling fluid (which
flows through the screens). The size of solids removed depends on the mesh of the
screens. The removed solids are retained on the screens discharged from the end
of the shakers to a holding area.
The shaking motion of shale shaker baskets falls into one of the following
categories:
• unbalanced elliptical
• circular
• linear, or
• balanced or progressive elliptical.
Unbalanced elliptical and circular motion shaker systems are the least
complicated, relatively inexpensive and easy to maintain, but have limited capacity
to remove finer particles, and hence are often used as scalping shakers (i.e. the
initial shaker used to remove the coarsest solids).
Drilling waste management technology review 44
Linear and balanced elliptical motion shakers can use finer screens, provide
improved solids conveyance, and more efficient solid/liquid separation by improved
transfer of kinetic energy to solids. The ability of linear and balanced elliptical
motion shakers to convey solids upslope allows for the use of finer screens, and
hence removal of smaller particulars from the fluid.
Screen decks within baskets may be mounted horizontally, sloping either away
from the discharge end (inclined) or towards the discharge end (declined). The
deck angle can be fixed or adjustable and multiple decks may be installed within
the same unit (Figure 22).
Shaker designs include cascade systems, in which scalping shaker with coarser
screens is mounted above a main shaker which has finer screens. These dual
systems can use either separate units, or separate screens within the same unit.
Cascade systems are particularly useful where solids loadings are high (e.g.
during rapid drilling of large diameter holes or where gumbo (a type of soft, sticky,
swelling clay) arrives at the surface) (ASME Shale Shaker Committee, 2005).
Recent advances in shaker design are driven by factors which include the need to
reduce space requirements, enhance the recovery rate of fluid from cuttings, and
improve automation.
The gravitational forces applied by shakers have increased from around 2 g’s, to
as high as 8–9 g’s in some cases. High g-force shakers are reported to provide the
capability to run finer screens, while producing drier solids from those screens
(Drilling Contractor, 2007). Recent developments also include enhanced capacity
with existing footprints, such as the use of multiple screens within the same unit.
Drilling waste management technology review 45
The test also noted the following key factors affecting shaker performance:
• screen wear and durability
• leakage rate
• ease of maintenance and operability
Trials of the system reported that advantages include: low noise level; no vapour
emissions; easy operation; and no direct contact of personnel with the fluid. The
elevated processing flow rate is reported to make the system attractive for offshore
use (Kroken, et al., 2013).
Other solutions offered by vendors include the use of a rotary brush and a vacuum
manifold which can be installed underneath a shaker screen or attached to the end
of a shaker box. The vendors state that use of the system results in a significant
decrease in BFROC and that the system has been successfully adopted in several
onshore locations in the US (Western Oilfield Equipment Ltd, 2013) (MI-SWACO, 2014).
Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones convert pressure generated by a centrifugal pump into centrifugal
force within the hydrocylcone cell, causing suspended solids to be separated from
the drilling fluid. In drilling operations, hydrocyclones use these centrifugal forces
to separate solids in the 15- to 80-micron range from the drilling fluid (ASME Shale
Shaker Committee, 2005). Solids-laden fluid is discharged from the lower apex of
the cone, and the cleaned drilling fluid is discharged as overflow (Figure 24).
Drilling waste management technology review 47
Desilter cones differ from desander cones only in dimensions and operate on
exactly the same principles. They are used to remove smaller particles than those
removed be desanders: drilled solids in the 12- to 40-micron range. They will also
separate barite particles in the 8- to 25-micron range.
Decanting centrifuges
Fine solids accumulate in drilling fluid either from drilling of softer sediments,
or as a result of coarse particles breaking up within the fluid as it circulates or
during the initial solids control processes. These fine particles can adversely affect
fluid properties and hence hole conditions: the only effective ways to reduce the
concentrations of these fine particles are dilution or centrifugation.
Decanting centrifuges are mechanical devices used for the separation of solids
from slurries by accelerated sedimentation. As the drilling fluid is passed through
a rapidly rotating bowl, centrifugal force moves the heavier particles to the bowl
wall, where they are scraped toward the underflow discharge ports by a concentric
auger, also called a screw, scroll or conveyor, which rotates at a slightly slower
rate than the bowl.
Drilling waste management technology review 49
The separation of the heavier particles divides the processed fluid into two
streams: the heavy phase, also called the underflow or cake; and the lighter
phase, which is called the overflow, light slurry, effluent, or centrate.
Tricanting centrifuges are also available, which can separate the inflow into three
separate streams, usually a solid and two liquid phases but these have limited
application in the treatment of drilling fluid wastes because of the high solids
content of drilling fluids.
Two different bowl designs are available: conical, in which the entire bowl is cone
shaped; and cylindrical/conical, in which the effluent (or light slurry) end of the
bowl is cylindrical (Figure 26). This configuration is preferred for drilling-fluids
applications because it offers greater capacity (ASME Shale Shaker Committee,
2005).
The elevated centrifugal forces created by the rotation of the bowl accelerate the
sedimentation process so that separation that might take hours or days under the
normal gravitational force of 1 g in an undisturbed container is achieved in seconds
at the 400–3000 g generated by the centrifuge.
Figure 26: Decanting Centrifuge with the bowl cover open (Derrick Equipment)
Secondary treatment
Secondary treatment technologies are employed primarily to reduce the amount of
drilling fluid left on cuttings and thus saving costs by increasing recovery of drilling
fluids and reducing environmental impacts by reducing the concentrations of base
fluids on cuttings.
Cuttings dryers are available with either vertical (Figure 27) or horizontal baskets
(Figure 28). Both configurations use a rapidly rotating cone within a wire basket
screen to exert a high g-force (400 g or more) on the cuttings, thereby separating
solids from liquids.
Vertical cuttings dryers (VCD) were developed from those originally used in the coal
mining industry, are designed to process large volumes of materials while being
able to withstand abrasive materials (Cannon & Martin, 2001). VCDs are available
in capacities of up to 60 tonnes/hour (Halliburton, 2014). The effectiveness of VCDs
in reducing the BFROC of cuttings depends on a number of factors, including
composition, viscosity, and temperature of the drilling fluid; the nature of the
formation being drilled; and the particle size of the cuttings. Reductions of BFROC
from 11.47% to 3.99% are reported (Cannon & Martin, 2001).
Drilling waste management technology review 51
Suppliers of VCD systems quote in their product literature that they are
typically able to achieve BFROC levels of <5% (Halliburton, 2014), and in some
circumstances as low as 1% for salt cuttings. (Weatherford, 2014). Suppliers also
highlight the economic benefits of increased recovery of drilling fluids. However,
fluids recovered using a dryer are likely to contain high levels of low gravity solids
and might therefore require further treatment (e.g. by high-speed centrifuge)
before reuse. VCDs are commercially proven in both onshore and offshore
applications.
Figure 29: Vertical cuttings dryer and decanting centrifuge installation (M-I SWACO)
Mobile cuttings dryers are available. They typically comprise a VCD and a high
capacity, decanting centrifuge positioned alongside a cuttings container (Figure 29).
Dried cuttings are collected in a cuttings bin where they are mixed with discarded
solids from the centrifuge. The dried cuttings are then available for transport and
final disposal. Effluent recovered by the dryer is collected in a holding tank before
being processed through the high speed centrifuge in order to be cleaned and
returned to the rig pit or active fluid system.
The advantages claimed for this system are: reduced stand-by time, a trailer-
mounted configuration offering reduced set-up time and costs; self-contained
power source eliminating reliance on rig power; low footprint and average BFROC
of 3–6.9%, reducing the total waste volume to be transported and disposed
(Halliburton, 2014).
Vacuum dryers
Other systems have been developed which use various combinations of pressure
differentials and high velocity air to enhance the separation of fluid from cuttings.
The Rotovac® rotary vacuum dryer (RVD) system, which is attached to the
discharge end of shale shakers, is reported by the supplier to be able to achieve
4% BFROC, and is most effective on larger size cuttings. The supplier also states
that the RVD, being installed adjacent to the shale shakers, reduces the need for
transfer of cuttings to a separate VCD (Halliburton, 2007).
Drilling waste management technology review 53
Thermal treatment
Thermal treatment can be used for managing certain types of drilling waste which
are contaminated by hydrocarbons: both to separate hydrocarbons from the matrix
material, but also for the destruction of hydrocarbons or other organic materials.
Thermal treatment is most commonly used for treating either oily sludges or drill
cuttings. These applications are quite distinct, in that oily sludges will contain a
high proportion of hydrocarbons and have a high calorific value, whereas cuttings
will usually have much lower hydrocarbon content (e.g. less than 10%). In some
circumstances the hydrocarbons may be desorbed and then used as a fuel or be
re-refined or be separately incinerated/thermally oxidized. However, either process
can be used independently. In many cases, thermal desorption is used to recover a
valuable hydrocarbon component of the waste stream and it is therefore important
to avoid combustion or degradation of the hydrocarbon fraction.
Incineration
Incineration is a widely adopted technique for managing many different types of
hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. Incinerators can be stand-alone facilities,
dedicated for burning waste; or co-combustion facilities which use waste as one of
their feed-stocks. A common form of co-combustion is the use of cement kilns for
waste incineration.
Waste incinerators have the potential to impact air quality and require careful
control of combustion conditions, often including the use of air pollution control
equipment such as filters and scrubbers. The outputs from an incinerator are air
pollution control residues (sometimes referred to as ‘fly ash’) and bottom ash or
clinker.
Waste water from the flue gas cleaning system can be treated in a separate
wastewater treatment plant if there is no direct access to a municipal waste water
treatment plant.
Thermal desorption
Thermal desorption is primarily used to separate hydrocarbons from cuttings
drilled with NADF, thereby achieving the twin objectives of recovering valuable
hydrocarbons and lowering the BFROC value of the cuttings.
Reducing the BFROC of cuttings in turn allows them to be managed with much
greater flexibility and at lower cost. Provided the BFROC can be sufficiently
reduced, it may be possible to reuse cuttings (for example as construction fill) or
dispose of cuttings by marine discharge.
The factors to be taken into account when selecting and using a thermal
desorption process include (Stephenson, et al., 2004):
Drilling waste management technology review 55
Several types of thermal desorption have been developed over the years, with their
initial application being in the field of contaminated soil treatment.
Thermal desorption can be direct (where combustion is used to generate heat in the
same chamber as the desorption) or indirect (where heat is generated separately from
the desorption chamber) (Environment Agency, n.d.) or based on mechanical friction.
Most thermal desorption systems used in the oil and gas sector are indirect or friction
based systems. The use of direct units entails destruction of the recovered oil.
The main types of technology used for onshore thermal desorption are:
• Drum-type indirect thermal desorption units. These use a rotating drum
that is externally heated by burners and sealed to prevent the formation of
explosive mixtures. The drum is tilted; the cuttings are fed into the highest
end for treatment, and then discharged at the lower end. The vapour is fed
through a two-stage condenser to produce separate oil and water streams.
• Screw-type desorption units. These use a hollow screw or auger which
rotates and transfers cuttings from a feed hopper into a desorption chamber.
Heated oil is circulated through the screw, and/or through a jacket which
surrounds the desorption chamber, and the heat transferred to the cuttings.
Vapours are condensed in the same way as for a drum-type unit (Stephenson,
et al., 2004).
• Friction based thermomechanical desorption units. This is a thermal
desorption system which generates heat by friction, between the drill cuttings
and rotating arms within the desorption chamber.
Drilling waste management technology review 56
One such example is the ‘Thermomechanical Cuttings Cleaner’ (TCC®) which has
been licensed to a number of firms (Figure 32). This is a thermal desorption system
which generates heat by friction, generated by the rotation of weighted arms within
the desorption chamber. The rotating arms pulverize the cuttings and the resulting
friction heats them to a high temperature (240 – 300 °C) which volatilizes the water
and hydrocarbons and leaves a clean dry powder (d90 <30 µm) for disposal. The
resulting system is compact enough to be installed on some offshore rigs.
After BFROC, the other key performance consideration is the quality of the
recovered drilling fluid. Limiting the temperature and heating period can help
avoid degradation of fluids (Aquateam COWI, 2014).
The ability to recover fluids (and hence reduce the expenditure on fluids) is an
important part of the cost–benefit analysis when considering the use of thermal
desorption. Fluid degradation can occur through thermal cracking. Longer-
chain molecules undergo thermal cracking at lower temperatures than smaller
molecules (cracking can occur as low as 343ºC for C20 to C30 molecules). Thermal
cracking can create aromatics and other hydrocarbons which may adversely affect
the toxicity of the fluid and affect fluid performance (Seaton, et al., 2006).
Research has been carried out into the use of microwaves for thermal desorption,
and studies carried out on a pilot scale (Pereira, et al., 2013), (Robinson, et al.,
2010). The technology is based on using microwaves to selectively transfer heat
to the aqueous fraction of the cuttings; as the water is heated and evaporates, it
also strips out the hydrocarbon phase from the solid cuttings matrix. These pilot
studies have indicated that a BFROC of 0.1% can be achieved (Robinson, et al.,
2010). Although academic-service company collaborations are working towards
commercialization of microwave desorption systems, as of mid-2015 such systems
are not commercially available.
Biological treatment
Composting is a controlled biological treatment process whereby organic
substances are converted by microorganisms to innocuous, stabilized by-products
(Paton & Fletcher, 2008). These by-products will typically be humus and microbial
biomass (McCosh & Getliff, 2004). It differs from land-farming in that composting
takes place under controlled conditions, either in the open air or within a vessel;
rather than by spreading directly onto the land surface and typically has a smaller
footprint than land farming (Figure 33).
Drilling waste management technology review 59
The composting process generates metabolic heat, and the rate of composting is
temperature-dependent: cooling or insulation may be required in order to control
the temperature of the waste (McCosh & Getliff, 2004). The heat generated within
the composting process enhances the rates of biodegradation and volatilization
when compared to land-spreading or land-farming, making it particularly suitable
in cold climates.
Drilling waste management technology review 60
Organic materials used for blending with cuttings include sawdust, wood chips,
straw and chicken manure (McCosh & Getliff, 2004). Experiments carried out to
determine the effect of base fluid type on composting rates suggested that (in
order of ease of degradation), linear paraffin degrades fastest, followed by linear
alpha olefin, then enhanced/low-toxicity mineral oil, followed lastly by diesel. In all
cases, it was possible to achieve total extractable hydrocarbon concentrations of
less than 0.1% after 112 days (McCosh & Getliff, 2004). Some fluid suppliers offer
fluids which are optimized for subsequent bioremediation or composting of the
cuttings.
The carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio is a critical parameter and a ratio of around 30:1 is
recommended for successful composting; other critical parameters are moisture
content (50% is reported as being optimum) and the ratio of cuttings to organic
matter (1:1 reported as being optimum) (McCosh & Getliff, 2004).
Drilling waste management technology review 61
Figure 35: Lined concrete pits Figure 36: Mixing/blending unit Figure 37: Treated and
to receive the untreated cuttings (Photo by Chevron) Stabilized Cuttings
(Photo by Chevron) (Photo by Chevron)
The drilling fluid used affects options for disposal or use of cuttings, which retain
some drilling fluid (Freidheim & Candler, 2008). Academic research addresses
the efficacy of using the drill cutting solidified/stabilized products using differing
combinations of reagents (Al-Ansary & Al-Tabbaa, 2007) (Burnett, 2014) (Barnes
& Hartley, 2005) (Energy Pipeline, 2015). Additionally, vendors have reported that
drill cuttings arising from water-, oil-, or synthetic-based fluid operations can be
stabilized (Halliburton, 2007).
Portland cement is a common reagent and other additives such as power plant
fly ash, blast furnace stabilization/solidification slag, cement kiln dust, calcium
oxide, bentonite and other binding agents are widely used alone or in conjunction
with cement (Leonard & Stegemann, 2010a) (Ball, et al., 2011). Additionally, a study
has shown improved immobilization of organic contaminants where cuttings from
synthetic based fluid operations are mixed with high carbon fly ash as an additive
to Portland cement mixtures (Leonard & Stegemann, 2010).
Research has identified that differing ratios of dry binder-to-water can be used in
stabilization/solidification mixes. Drill cuttings mixes with varying oil content have
been researched with 0.4:1 to 0.6:1 water to binder ratio, with a greater content of
dry binder proving most effective in stabilizing drill cuttings from synthetic based
fluid operations (Al-Ansary & Al-Tabbaa, 2004) (Al-Ansary & Al-Tabbaa, 2007).
The use of stabilized drill cuttings for road construction and well pad material
has been demonstrated in Venezuela (Halliburton, 2007) and Texas, USA (Burnett,
2014), amongst other sites, with success. In Colorado, USA, stabilized cuttings
which met the Colorado Department of Transportation’s classification for road
base were produced from water-based drill cuttings (Energy Pipeline, 2015).
Studies have demonstrated the use of solidified/stabilized drill cuttings in road
base materials and spine roads, highlighting that sampling at the beginning of
the project and thirteen months into the project yielded similar concentrations of
metals (Burnett, 2014).
Brick and building materials are noted as an attractive cuttings disposal route
when using Portland cement as a conventional binder (Ogechi Opete, et al., 2010)
(El-Mahllawy & Osman, 2010). Furthermore, leaching decreased with increasing
amounts of dry-binding material, allowing the drill cutting waste to be classified as
non-reactive and non-hazardous (Ogechi Opete, et al., 2010).
Contaminants contained in drill cuttings are dependent on the drilling fluid used
and the formation geology (Leonard & Stegemann, 2010a) and stabilization and/
or solidification relies on the correct mixture of immobilizing reagents (Al-Ansary
& Al-Tabbaa, 2007) (Ball, et al., 2011). Studies have highlighted that the correct
selection of reagents has a direct impact on the engineering properties of the end-
product (Amiry, et al., 2008) (El-Mahllawy & Osman, 2010) (Burnett, 2014); hence,
strength and suitable pH, metal, chloride, and hydrocarbon leaching testing needs
to be carried out to ensure product stability, with continued monitoring of products
for two years proposed in some cases (Barnes & Hartley, 2005).
Though there are many potential uses for recycled drill cuttings waste, long-term
leaching effects are noted in some matrices which have been shown to break down
in real environments (Khodja, et al., 2007). Cement fixation is considered to be best
suited for inorganic waste (Ifeadi, 2004), and the composition of the drill cuttings
Drilling waste management technology review 66
Difficulties with the use of cement or lime alone in the treatment of organic
contaminants have been reported as organic compounds can interfere with the
hydration of cement/lime, resulting in retardation of the hydration process and a
reduction in material strength.
Cavitation scrubbing
Cavitation scrubbing works on the basis of subjecting a waste stream to rapid
changes of pressure. Vapour bubbles form in lower pressure regions, which on
collapse release significant amounts of energy and high-velocity micro-jets of
liquid which are reported to separate hydrocarbons and fine particulates from
larger solids. Information is provided by suppliers in a technical data sheet (Global
Advantech, 2012) but no published literature or case studies were identified which
describe this system in use.
Research into the use of supercritical carbon dioxide for the treatment of OBM
cuttings has been carried out by the University of Alberta (Street & Guigard,
2009). The process is carried out at temperatures which minimize the potential
for cracking of the recovered drilling fluid (40 – 50ºC in trials) and these trials
have reduced oil content from 17 – 19% to 0.3 – 0.6% (Street & Guigard, 2009). The
University of Alberta is currently collaborating with an oil field services company to
commercialize this technology.
Other processes
A variety of other processes have been trialed or are under development. These
include an Australian vendor which has developed a continuous flow process, which
uses a multi-stage physical processing system to dewater drill cuttings, fluids and
other liquid wastes. The vendor has carried out trials and states that the system
has potential applicability to a wide range of wastes, but the precise techniques
used in this system are not in the public domain (CPM Engineering, 2014).
Disposal
Offshore discharge
Offshore discharge of drill cuttings from offshore drilling operations may be
permissible provided the cuttings comply with the relevant discharge criteria (see
section 3 for a brief overview for selected jurisdictions).
For these reasons, offshore discharge is usually preferred where permitted, where
no major environmental impacts are expected, and where the necessary treatment
standards can be achieved cost-effectively.
Drilling waste management technology review 68
Re-injection
Cuttings reinjection (CRI) is a commonly used treatment method for both economic
and environmental reasons (Svenson & Taugbol, 2011).
Cuttings are slurrified at the surface to reduce particle size and produce an
injectable mixture (Figure 38).
The cuttings slurry is then hydraulically injected into a subsurface formation that
is receptive and permanently isolated at a safe depth to prevent propagation to
ground water resources or to the surface (Alba Rodriguez, et al., 2007).
Slurrified cuttings can be injected either in a dedicated injection well, or via the
annulus of an existing production or water injection well (Gumarov, et al., 2014).
The CRI system includes the following components (Alba Rodriguez, et al., 2007):
• cuttings transport system
• slurrification system
• slurry storage tanks, and
• re-injection system.
Slurrification is carried out by first mixing the cuttings with water in a coarse
tank, and then circulating using centrifugal degradation pumps to degrade the
solids. The slurry is then pumped to a classification shaker and grinder where the
remaining particles are reduced in size by a grinder. The slurry is conditioned by
adjusting the solids to liquid ratio and adding any necessary chemicals, and then
transferred to a holding tank for reinjection. It is reported that normal practice
is to grind particles to a size of <300 µm, and to form a slurry with 20% or less of
solids by volume, although larger particle size and higher solids concentrations
may be feasible depending on the actual properties of both the slurry and receiving
formation (Ji, et al., 2010).
Cuttings are then re-injected into the chosen formation using a high pressure
injection pump, which creates fractures in the formation accepting the cuttings
slurry.
It is reported that the majority of complications during CRI are a result of wellbore
plugging (Gumarov, et al., 2014). Both corrosion and erosion can cause damage
in dedicated injection wells used for long-term injection projects (Gumarov,
et al., 2014). Erosion can be mitigated by selection and design of tubulars and
corrosion by the use of oxygen scavengers and displacement to suspension fluid if
injection stops for a prolonged period of time (Gumarov, et al., 2014). Good quality
cementing is also important to prevent loss of containment by channeling of fluids
behind the casing as a result of poor cement bond quality in dedicated injection
wells (Gumarov, et al., 2014).
CRI has the potential to deal with very large volumes of waste. For example, CRI
was selected as the preferred disposal method for 1.5 million bbl of drilling waste
expected to arise from the Karachaganak field in Khazakstan; and 3.5 million bbls
is reported to have been injected into a single well in the Ekofisk field in the North
Drilling waste management technology review 71
Sea (Nagel, 2005). Elsewhere, CRI is used in the US, China, North Sea, South
America, West Africa, Russia and Central Asia (Gumarov, et al., 2012). Injection
rates are reported to be typically in the range of 4 – 5 bbl/min, which is sufficient
for propagating hydraulic fractures, safely emplacing the waste, and avoiding
excessive erosion of the well and equipment (Gumarov, et al., 2012).
Potential risks in CRI fall into two categories: those related to subsurface
conditions; and those related to the surface operations of slurry processing and
pumping. Failures in either can stop the drilling operation, and hence it can be
beneficial to allow for cuttings storage within the operation so as to allow drilling
to continue even if there are temporary problems with slurrification or injection
(Guo & Nagel, 2009). Injectivity tests can be performed on the well to determine
the actual properties and validate modelled parameters. Injection pressure
monitoring and performance assessment during injection is then used to identify
any developing risks (Guo & Nagel, 2009).
The impacts of CRI failures can be significant. In 2009, problems were encountered
with several reinjection wells in the Norwegian Coastal Shelf, resulting in fractures
extending up to the seabed, some wells being closed, and others operating with
limitations on injection rates and volumes. This resulted in a considerable increase
in volumes needing to be shipped to shore (Svenson & Taugbol, 2011).
Onshore landfill
Disposal of waste by means of burial onshore is generally referred to as landfilling,
which is widely used throughout the world for the final disposal of a wide range of
wastes.
The European Union (EU) Directive on the Landfilling of Waste defines landfill as “a
waste disposal site for the deposit of the waste onto or into land (i.e. underground),
including internal waste disposal sites (i.e. landfill where a producer of waste is
carrying out its own waste disposal at the place of production), and a permanent
site (i.e. more than one year) which is used for temporary storage of waste”. The
EU definition of landfill, however, excludes “the use of inert waste which is suitable,
in redevelopment/restoration and filling-in work, or for construction purposes,
in landfills…[and] the deposit of unpolluted soil or of non-hazardous inert waste
Drilling waste management technology review 72
The EU Landfill Directive classifies landfills into one of the following categories:
• landfill for hazardous waste
• landfill for non-hazardous waste, and
• landfill for inert waste.
In the United States, non-hazardous waste landfills are regulated by the individual
states, but in compliance with Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
258: Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (commonly referred to as ‘Subtitle
D’). While many E&P wastes are exempt from regulation as hazardous waste under
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Subtitle C, these wastes are
generally subject to non-hazardous waste regulation under RCRA Subtitle D and
applicable state regulations (USEPA, 2014).
Some jurisdictions have permitted drilling waste to be disposed of in situ at the rig
site, by burial of the drilling pit which contains the cuttings. The extent to which
this approach is permitted and the necessary conditions (e.g. use of impermeable
liners) will vary between jurisdictions. For example, in the United States, individual
States publish guidelines on acceptable drilling pit management methods
(Colorado Oil & Gas Conservation Commission, 2014) (Railroad Commission of
Texas, 2015).
Wastes are brought to the cavern site in trucks and unloaded into mixing tanks
where they are blended with water or brine to make a slurry. Many exploration and
production wastes are suitable for disposal in caverns, including drilling fluids,
drill cuttings, produced sands, tank bottoms, contaminated soil, and completion
and stimulation wastes. Grinding equipment may be used to reduce particle size.
The waste slurry is then pumped into the caverns. The incoming waste displaces
the brine, which is brought to the surface and either sold or injected into a
disposal well. Inside the cavern, the solids, oils, and other liquids separate into
distinct layers: solids sink to the bottom, the oily and other hydrocarbons float to
the top, and brine and other watery fluids remain in the middle (Drilling Waste
Management Information System, undated).
Salt cavern disposal is also used in United States, with a company operating in
Texas, Louisiana and New Mexico servicing the Eagle Ford Shale, the Permian
Basin, the Barnett Shale and the Haynesville Shale areas and interest has grown
for siting new commercial disposal caverns near the coast that can receive wastes
from offshore operations. Non-hazardous oilfield waste is pumped from unloading
facilities into the bottom of the salt cavern.
The operator states that the benefits of this disposal route are:
• salt caverns are located well below groundwater and separated from
freshwater sands by cap rock formation;
• salt domes are extremely stable geologically; and
• salt is virtually impermeable and behaves as a plastic rather than brittle
material (Trinity Environmental Services, 2015).
Drilling waste management technology review 75
Application to land
Land application in the context of this review is defined as directly applying drill
cuttings to land in a controlled manner, where the drill cuttings are intended to
be incorporated into the natural soil structure. This definition excludes landfilling
(where waste is placed in a designated area that is isolated from the surrounding
environment) and dumping (uncontrolled disposal of waste).
The terminology used for the different forms of application to land varies between
different jurisdictions.
Application to land can prove very cost-effective since the equipment requirements
are relatively small. The main constraints are regulatory: the feasibility of
application to land varies greatly depending on the regulatory structure and
requirements of the country in question, sometimes with considerable variation
between jurisdictions within the same country.
Drilling waste management technology review 76
The three main determinants which influence the suitability of this technique and
the application rate are:
• salt content – increasing the salt content of land can be harmful to plant
growth and the productivity of agricultural land, as well as affecting
groundwater
• heavy metal content – although barium (from barite) has limited
bioavailability, more problematic heavy metals such as lead and mercury may
be present in the waste
• oil content – either entrained formation hydrocarbons or residual NADF.
Land-spray
The land-spray disposal method involves spraying fluid or total waste onto topsoil
and might or might not involve incorporating the waste into the soil. Incorporation
is typically done when the drilling waste has been land-sprayed on cultivated
land. It is accomplished by mechanically combining the drilling waste into a
homogeneous soil/waste mix. Drilling waste that has been land-sprayed on
vegetated land is typically not incorporated. A calculated loading rate or maximum
application rate is used to determine the area required for land-spraying.
The land-spray and LWD disposal requirements are similar, but as the LWD
method is limited to only nontoxic fluid systems, the testing requirements have
been reduced, and disposal is allowed to proceed without first storing the drilling
waste (e.g., by sumpless drilling). The controlled application is normally conducted
during the drilling operation. Spraying techniques may include the use of vacuum
trucks or similar equipment.
Pump-off
The pump-off disposal method involves pumping the clear liquid portion of drilling
wastes onto land (usually vegetated land) using irrigation equipment, such as a big
gun, sprinkler, gated pipe, or perforated hose, or using water/vacuum trucks.
Drilling waste management technology review 77
Mix-bury-cover
The mix-bury-cover (MBC) disposal method involves mixing non-hydrocarbon-
based drilling waste solids or total waste with sub-soils to form a stabilized waste/
soil mass that resides below the major rooting zone.
Land-spreading
The land-spreading method involves spreading water-based drilling waste on the
shallow subsoil and incorporating it into the shallow subsoil.
Land Treatment/Land-farming
Land Treatment involves applying the drilling waste to a dedicated parcel of land
and cultivating it into the receiving subsoil, where the inherent soil processes
biodegrade, transform, and assimilate the waste constituents. As a technique,
application to land may be particularly applicable to remote on-shore locations,
where alternative management techniques are limited and where there is plenty of
available land which can be used for application, and the rates of application can
be carefully controlled and monitored.
Drilling waste managed by land treatment becomes assimilated within the soil in
which it was mixed. To maximize the success of land treatment and to minimize
soil and environmental impacts, the application rate and incorporation depth of the
drilling waste are limited. The method requires tillage and application of nutrients
to break down the petroleum hydrocarbon in the drilling waste. Small amounts of
amendments (e.g. nutrient, organic) may be added to enhance the biodegradation
process. Sampling and analyses are necessary to monitor the progress of
biodegradation. This process is very similar to composting except that it is carried
out in natural soils, rather than in a contained windrow, pile or vessel.
Drilling waste management technology review 78
Several approaches are available for removing salts from drill cuttings:
• mechanical washing, using freshwater to wash out the salt content as part of
the solids control process. This, however, results in a stream of saline water
which then requires treatment itself
• leaching pad, where cuttings are placed on a lined leach pad and salts are
leached out with freshwater. The resulting salty water can be re-injected or
incorporated back into the fluid system, and/or
• addition of calcium ions – it is reported that adding calcium acetate or
gypsum to wash solution can enhance sodium chloride recovery during
washing or leaching by promoting ion exchange between calcium and sodium
ions (Clements, et al., 2008).
Beneficial reuse
Construction materials
Treated drill cuttings have been proposed or used for a variety of construction-
related purposes, including as:
• fill material
• road material
• daily cover material at landfills
• aggregate or filler in concrete, brick, or block manufacturing.
This application is closely linked to the techniques referred to in previous sections for
solidification and stabilization, as the cuttings often require stabilizing prior to use.
Drilling waste management technology review 79
Research has also been carried out on the vitrification of drill cuttings, using a
process involving mixing with sodium and calcium oxides and heating at 1300ºC
for 5 hours, followed by further treatment at 750 – 800ºC. The resulting glass
ceramics were shown to exhibit high hardness and fracture strength and almost
zero porosity, making them potentially suitable for reuse in building applications,
e.g. as tiling (Abbe, et al., 2009).
A study in Taiwan assessed the potential for using drill cuttings in the manufacture
of building bricks and as a partial cement substitute in concrete. The researchers
reported that the resulting bricks were of sufficient compressive strength and
permeability for building purposes, and the concrete showed variable results and
was sensitive to the substitution ratio (Chen, et al., 2007).
Fuel
The use of drilling waste as a feedstock for cement kilns is mentioned frequently in
the general literature (National Petroleum Council, 2011) although there is limited
information available on practical implementation. Some oil and gas companies
refer to the use of significant quantities of hazardous waste in cement kilns
(Petrobras, 2012a).
There is reference in the literature to the use of drill cuttings as fuel, referring
to trials conducted in the United Kingdom using oily cuttings as a fuel at a power
plant. Cuttings were reported to be blended in at a low rate with coal, the primary
fuel source. The resulting ash was much the same as the ash from burning just
the coal (Drilling Waste Management Information System, undated).
Wetland restoration
Studies have been carried out into the potential use of drill cuttings as a source
of sediment for wetland restoration in Louisiana (Willis, et al., 2005), with positive
results. Despite the promising results of these trials, there is no indication in the
literature that they have been successfully implemented in the US or elsewhere.
Summary
The following table (Table 5) summarizes the applicability of the main technologies
and techniques for managing drill cuttings, and Figure 39 illustrates the indicative
range of BFROC achievable by the main forms of treatment (although it should be
noted that actual performance is very dependent on cuttings and fluid properties
may in some cases lie outside the ranges indicated).
Shale Shaker
Vacuum-assisted shaker
Dryers
Vacuum dryers
Thermal treatment
Thermo-mechanical
desorption
Incineration
Biological treatment
Windrow/static pile
composting
In-vessel composting
6. Management routes –
Interfacial mixtures and slops
This section describes the main technologies and methods used for managing
slops and interfacial mixtures.
General
‘Slops’ is a general term describing liquid mixtures of oil and water. Slops are
formed when drilling or displacement fluids, wash water from routine cleaning
operations, or rain water runoff become contaminated with drilling fluid
components. The slops are captured, either in surface pits or through the rig drain
system and collected in storage tanks (Mueller, et al., 2013).
The composition of slop can vary, but is reported to be generally in the range of
50–90% water and 10–50% oil (Ivan & Dixit, 2006), and may also contain up to 10%
solids (Mueller, et al., 2013).
Steps taken to reduce the volume of slops, including good housekeeping practices
(Mueller, et al., 2013) and technology to reduce mixing during fluid displacement
(Herigstad, et al., 2010) are consistent with the principles of good waste
management and can lead to reduced treatment and disposal costs.
The technologies used for treating slops are developed from those used for
treating other industrial wastewaters, often optimized to make them more rugged
and portable to meet the operational challenges of the drilling environment.
Slops treatment typically involves a two or more stage process. The degree of
treatment will depend on the discharge criteria for the treated water: for example,
the recommended limit on oil content set by OSPAR for discharges in the North
Sea is 40 parts per million (i.e. 40 mg/L) (Mueller, et al., 2013). In Brazil, the limit
on oil content for wastewater discharges is 20 mg/L (Cupelo, et al., 2014).
Various companies offer packaged slops treatment plants which are suitable
for use offshore or at onshore rig sites. There are also a number of land-based
treatment centers which are located to service established oil and gas operations.
Technologies used for treatment of slops can be split into two main types:
• chemical (e.g. flocculation)
• physical (e.g. dissolved air flotation and filtration).
on the market (e.g. using membrane bioreactors), but are likely to be less robust
than physical/chemical treatment systems, particularly for wastewater where the
total organic content is relatively low – they are more typically used for treatment
of sewage or wastewater from food processing.
Chemical treatment
The two main objectives of chemical treatment are to:
• de-emulsify the oil/water mixture into separate oil and water phases, and
• cause the small colloidal (<2 micron) particulates to clump together
(flocculate) and hence allow for separation.
The types of emulsifiers and flocculants used will depend on a number of factors,
including whether the emulsion comprises water as the dispersed phase and oil
as the continuous phase, or the reverse (Mueller, et al., 2013). The presence of
fine colloidal particles can make the emulsion particularly hard to break. Oil field
services and specialty chemicals companies offer a wide range of proprietary
chemicals for this purpose.
Gravity separation
Gravity separation relies on differences in density, viscosity and particle size to
separate the different phases, and is the principle behind the common ‘API separator’
that is widely used for treating oily water throughout the industry. Separation
efficiency can be improved by using baffles and plates within the separator. A
coalescing separator enhances separation by use of a coalescing medium, a
porous matrix such as fiberglass, mesh or wire wool (Mueller, et al., 2013).
Decanting centrifuge
A decanting centrifuge can perform either two-phase (solid/liquid) or three phase
(solid/oil/water) separation of the slop. In a two-phase centrifuge, the solids are
discharged at the ‘beach’ end of the centrifuge, with the liquid phase discharged
at the other end. In a three-phase centrifuge, the immiscible oil and water phases
are separated by density at the liquid end into two different discharge streams
(GEA Group, undated).
Drilling waste management technology review 89
Disc separator
A disc separator (or disc stack centrifuge) comprises a rotating bowl with special
plates (the ‘disc stack’), providing additional surface settling area, which contributes
to speeding up the separation process. The particular configuration, shape and design
of these plates make it possible for a disc stack separator to undertake the continuous
separation of a wide range of different solids from either one or two liquid phases.
Whereas decanter centrifuges are generally used for greater solids concentrations
with larger particle sizes, disc stack separators are used for separating lower
solids concentrations (e.g. <10% solids) and smaller particle and droplet sizes
(e.g. <100 microns) (Alfa Laval, undated).
Filtration
Filtration involves separating solids from liquids by passing through a medium
which retains the solid fraction. The effectiveness of the filter depends on the pore
size of the filter and the size of the particles. Several types of filter can be used in
slops treatment. Oil-absorbing filters used modified cellulose or organo-clay to
absorb oil; filter presses use mechanical pressure and filter plates; and activated
carbon filters adsorb contaminants (MI-SWACO, 2013).
Membrane separation
Membrane separation works on the basis of providing a physical barrier (in the
form of a membrane) that permits the passage of materials only up to a certain
size, shape or character.
Ozone treatment
In a trial reported in the literature, a synthetic-based drilling fluid contaminated
with water was separated with a biodegradable demulsifier, resulting in separation
of the mixture into drilling fluid and water phases, but the separated water phase
was found to have an oil-in-water content of 4,000 mg/L which is unacceptable
for discharge. The separated water was then treated with ozone, and the ozone-
treated water was allowed to separate in two phases, i.e., clarified water phase
and organic rich phase. The oil-in-water content of the clarified ozone-treated
water phase was found to be 30 mg/L, thus reducing the oil-in-water content by
99% (Dixit & Patel, 2010).
Microwave treatment
Research has been carried out into the use of microwaves for demulsification of
oily sludges, but its application at an industrial scale is very limited (Hu, et al.,
2013). As of the time of reporting, there are not believed to be any commercial
applications of microwaves for slops treatment.
Electrocoagulation
Electrocoagulation is a process utilizing sacrificial anodes to form active
coagulants which are used to remove pollutants by precipitation and flotation in
situ. When contaminated water passes through the electrocoagulation cells, the
anodic process releases positively charged ions, which bind onto the negatively
charged colloidal particles in water resulting in coagulation. At the same time, gas
bubbles, produced at the cathode, attach to the coagulated matter causing it to
float to the surface where it is removed by a surface skimmer. Heavier coagulants
sink to the bottom, leaving clear water, suitable for use in drilling and production
operations.
7. Management routes –
Other wastes
This section briefly describes the technologies and methods used for
managing other types of drilling wastes.
Drilling fluids
NADF
NADFs, because of their specialist nature and high cost, are typically returned to
the supplier once they are no longer usable for reconditioning and reuse.
WBDF
For WBDFs, various methods are available for managing fluids that are no longer
reusable. These include:
• direct discharge to sea
• application to land
• re-injection
• on-site dewatering
• treatment in an offsite wastewater treatment facility.
In a dewatering project, the drilling fluid will be processed; the resulting solids can
be managed in a similar manner to cuttings, with the clean liquid reused on site or
disposed to ground, if allowed.
Drilling waste management technology review 92
Research has been carried out into the use of forward osmosis (FO) for the
treatment of aqueous oil and gas wastes, including drilling fluids. In forward
osmosis, a synthetic polymeric membrane separates a concentrated ‘draw
solution’ from a feed stream. The osmotic pressure difference across the
membrane facilitates diffusion of water across the membrane from the feed to
the draw solutions, with dissolved and suspended constituents being rejected.
The draw solution can then be subject to further treatment (including distillation
or reverse osmosis) to produce a clean water stream and a reconstituted draw
solution; the volume of feed solution requiring disposal is significantly reduced.
The claimed advantages of FO are the low energy requirements and capital costs,
and reduced membrane fouling when compared to pressure-driven membrane
systems such as ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis. A development of this
system, referred to as a ‘membrane brine concentrator’, is reported to have been
commercially demonstrated in the Marcellus Shale and Permian Basin in the
United States (Coday, et al., 2014).
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