ENDORSED BY sOreU US UL Second Edition Paul Guinness Garrett Nagle COMPANION, “> 6! HODDER CD ( é © EDUCATIONENDORSED BY Geography Second Edition Paul Guinness Garrett Nagle Gy HODDER ) EDUCATION ‘AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY@ IGCSH is the registered trademark of Cambridge International Examinations. The questions example answers, matks awarded and/or comments that appear inthis book/CD were written by the authors. Ln examisation the way marks ‘Would be awarded to annwers like ches aay be diffrent. _Alshough every’ effors ls been made to ensure that website addreses are correcr a ime of going to pres, Hodder Education cannor be held responsible for che content of any webste meatoned inthis book. Irs sometimes possible x0 ‘ind a relocated Web page by yping in the addres oF the home page fora webs in the URL window of your browser “Hachette UK's poligy i o use papets cat are natural, renewable ant fecyelable products and made from woo cm in sustainable foress. The loging and manufacturing processes ae expected to conform tothe environmental regulations ‘of te country of origin, ‘Orders: pease contact Bookpoint Le 130 Milton Park, Abingsdon, Oxon OX14 ASB. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (14) 01238 400454, Lines sre open 9.00-5.00, Monday to Satordsy, with a 24-hour messige answering sevice, ‘Visi our website ar wwe hodderedction.com © Paul Guinness and Garrett Nagle 2009 Fis published in 2009 by Halder Education ‘An Hacherwe UK Company London NWI 3BE ‘This second edition published 2014 Impression number $4 3.2.1 Year 2016 2015 2014 All ghts reserved. par from any use permitted under UK copyright law no par of this publication may be reproduced ‘or sanamited in any form or by any means electronic o¢ mechani, inciding photocopying and recording, of held ‘thin any information storage and teres stem, withous permisin in writing ftom the publisher or under ience fiom the Copsrighe Licensing Agency Limited. Further deal of uch licences (fr reprographic reproduc) may be ‘bane fom the Copyright Lisasing Agency Lived, Sulfton House, 6-10 Kuby Steet, London ECIN STS. ‘Cover photo © anquiplay77 - Fotolia lusaions by Are Construction, Barking Dog Art, Integra Software Services Pv Led. and Philip Allan updates. “Typeserin 11/13pe FTC Galland Sed and produced by Integra Sofware Services Pv Led, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in Ialy ‘A catalogue record fortis is anslable Som she Bris Library ISBN 978 1471 807 275Contents Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4 World Map v ‘Acknowledgements Introduction an ix Population and Settlement 1.1 Population dynamics 1.2 Migration 19) 1.3 Population structure 7 1.4 Population density and distribution 1.5 Settlements and service provision 35 1.6 Urban settlements 43 1.7 Urbanisation 62 The Natural Environment 2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes 80 2.2 Rivers 96 2.3 Coasts us 2.4 Weather 140 2.5 Climate and natural vegetation 147 Economic Development 3.1 Development 162 3.2 Food production 182 3.3 Industry 193 3.4 Tourism 198 3.5 Energy 207 3.6 Water 216 3.7 Environmental risks of economic development 225 Geographical Skills and Investigations 4.1 Geographical skills 248 4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative to coursework 266 Glossary 282 Index 290This page intentionally left blankWORLD MAP Tropic or Capiicorn | Copyright© 2014 werw.mapsotwortd.com wii em NOTES can sete weaaett seo esAcknowledgements Garrete Nagle would like to dedicate this book to Angela, Rosie, Patrick land Bethany —for their help and patience inthe prodiction ofthe Book, Paul Guinness would like ro dedicate tis book Mary ‘The Publisher would like wo chank de following for permision to reproduce copyright materi: Photo credits Andrew Davis: p 155 {Chris Guinness p.10,p 185s, .216, p.225,p.234 stand on p.239 ‘Paul Guinness: ps 9.2, 9.6 alh 8, p2, p13, p17, 9.19. p.21,p.22, 24, p27.p2 alt pt, 6h, p.L62 & p.166,p.167,p.170 ke, ATL p73 qeerbh 175 p.177 al RD, p83 all 184, 185 &, PL190'2 9191; 9193, 9196, p 198 7p 200, 9.201 ahh 202, p.208 tip 207 al, 208, .212, p 213 ander, p21, p.219 al, .220, p.222, 1.228, p.230, 231 ail p.237, p.238, p.240, p.260, p.267,p.278, p298 / ‘Garrete Nagle 35 sik p.26 af p.38,.39, p40 ah pd, p50 al pal al 5, p58, pb, p62, 9.65, p60 sth p73, 74,879, p80, 81, paB all p86. p88 alk 89, p90, 7.92, p93 alk p96, p04, P10}, 111 wip 14 oi AS, 121, 7123 ap 124 ap 127, 128 ait p.129 ap 132, p.136 al p.138 af p.140 al p-143 al, 148 ale p.147, oSL 107, p82, p54 all 9.186, 247, 0.248, 1.240, p 285 my ercir p.287, 9264, 9.268 | Pall Oli Gogolin~ Fool pls © stipaudio/Gey lages/ SSrockphoto/Thinksock, 26.6 Zama/ Rex Festre,p-30 © Antony SOUTER / Alam, p34 © Hemera Technolopss/ Gets Inge’ “Thinkstock, p48 HO Laura Weng; p.49 © Dan Kiwood/Gery Images; p89 Oliey Carupbell/acp//osckr com pooros/ steyeamphell/4844687638/; p11 © Cheong Gy Chcon Muscim, 1468 © David R FrarerPhotolibrary, Inc/Alamy; p.71 © TonyYs0/ sy InagesSeockphoea/Thinksock, p72 © Pere Sein hnip://commons wikimeda. ore /FleShanghai_- Pudong. Lupine, te /ereatvecoramonsong/lenses/Py/3.0, deen (2l-Jan-2014); p38 © Luis Marden /Netonal Geographic/Gexy Images; p-139°© Maris Sefer Rees /Corbis pel 44 © Michael Steden Gerry Ima /iSeockphot /Thiakstocks p33 7 Wayne Tynchy/All Canada Photos Corbis; p-153 © Hage Brkovich~ For, 1-162 © Ralens Alarcon /Getyimages/Hemery/ Thinkstock, P-173 br Egor Kalama ~ Fovalis;p.181 © Japvar Land Rowe Lady .l87 © Frédéric Soltn/Sypna/Corbis;p.190 6 Anrony Njuguna// Reucer Corbis; p.206 6 AA WorkTavel Library/Alamy: p218 © Pel Mosicndesgn & Forograe/Genty Images /Seaxipbor /Thiksrok, 1.222 0 James Randhlew/Coris .224 © Any Perick/USBR; P.234 dr James P. Blit/Navonsl Geographic /Gety Images; p-235 2 George ai /Revrers/Corbis p.272 © Chih Geyniewiz Exon Potopb= boron, = lee = sgh = cenze Acknowledgements pv world map: ©2014 maprofivorld.com p.2 Figure 2: World population growth by each billion, World Population Presper ‘The 2004 Revision, 2005 (United Nations Population Reterence ‘Bureau 2005/2000), Table 1: Woeld population lock, 2012, World Population Daa Sherr 2012 (United Nations Population Reference Bureau p.3 Faure 3: Populaion growth in more and less developed ountics, 1950-2050, Wii Papalacion Dav Seer 2012 (United Nasions/Population Reference Hurea), pt Table 2:‘The words fen largest counties in terme of population, 2012 and 2050, World Popniaion Data Sheet 2012 (Unie Naions/ Population Reference Bureau), Table 3: Bird and death rates 2013, Word Papulacion Dasa ‘Sheet 2012(Unized Nations Population Reference Bureau); p.5. Figure 46: The demographic transition medel, A Palmer and W. Yaten, Edexsed (A) Advanced Gragrain (Php Allan, 2005), .7 Table 4: Counties ‘With the highese and lowest eelicy rates, 2013, World Pasion Dav ‘Shee: 2012 (United Nacons Population Reference Bureau) p.8 Figure 10: A comparison between female secondary education and toa fetty rates (Earth Policy Intute, 2001}, reproduced by permission ofthe publisher, Figre LL Toca fertty rates in indusral, ss developed and Tens descloned countries, 1950-2010 (Earsh Policy insite, 2011), Feprouced by permission of the publisher, Table 8: Life expectancy arbirth, 2012, World Popularion Dasa Sheet 2012 (United Nations/ Population Reference Bureau); p.9 Figure 14: Projected population ‘change by region, 2005-50, Papulason Bulletin, Vol 60 No.4 (Population Reference Bureau, 2005); p-11. Figure 17: The growth in Kenya's population between 1969 and 2080, Kenya Poputaion Dasa She 201(United Nations/ Population Reference Bureau), Figure 18; Population pyramid for Kenya from Keny Poputaion Dara Sheer 2011(Uniged Nations Population Reference Bureau); p12. Figure 20; Russia's population, 1950-2013, fps//enaikipsia.na/wii? Demagrapli of Rusia; p.13 Figure 21: Opsimuim population, over ‘population and under-population, G. Nagle and K. Spencer, Advances Ceaprapy: Revision Hasudések (Osford Universicy Press, 1996), reprinted by permission of Oxford Univenty Pres; p18 Figure 25 Population demsty map of Austra, Regional Poputation Growth, “Ausinaia (3218.0), Acettalian Breau of Seater, © Commensel:s ‘of Auseraliy p16. Table 7: Comparing Bangdesh ant Australia, World Population Daca Shest 2012 United Nasions Population Reference Bureau); p-18 Figure 28: Populaon groweh in France, 2004-13, wo. tradingeconsmiecoms p19 Figure 1: Push sod pull factors, @. Nagle land K Spencer, Advanved Geography Revision Handinek (Oxtord Unversity ress, 1090), reprinted by pemission of Oxford Universiey Dress, Figure 2: Types of migration and barviers wo migration, G. Nagle and K Spencer, Adrmnced Groaraplar Revision Handdvek (Oxford Univesiey Press, 1096), reprinted by penmission of Oxford Univers Press, p.20_ Figure 3: Refugees and dspace people inthe Mile Eat, ‘The Sunday Telegraph, Septendber, 2013, p21 Figure 4: Interoational tmigran stick by origin and desinaion, 2010 (United Nasions/ Department of Economic and Social Afitirs, Population Divison, 2012), igure & Inernational migrant sock inthe North and South 1990-2010, (United NationsDepartment of Economic and Social Affi, Population Division, 2012); p.25 Figure 11: The costs and reums of migration (Pew Resear) Center) Figure 12: Therease in the “Mexican-born population in che USA (Pew Research Centers p.27 Figure 1: Four population pyramids for 2013 ~ Niger, Bangladesh, ik, Japan, CIA World Faciook p28 Table 1: Population and ecomontic daa force four counties, selected data from World Population Daw ‘Sect 2012 United Nations Population Reference Brea). p29 Figure 2: An annotated population pyramid, M-Harcoure and S.Warren, Toworn's Geagrapiy (Hodder Murray, 2012); p31 Figure 1 Dor map showing word population densi, P. Guinness and G, Nagle, AS Geena: Conceps at Cass (Hodder Musray, 2000); p32 Table 1; Varian in word population densi, World Population Dara Sheet 2012 United Nations Topultion Reference Bureau); p-33 Figure Population density of North America, P. Guinness and C.Nagle, AS Gexgrapiy: Consepes and Cans (Hloder Murray, 2000); p36 Figure 3: Vilge Shapes, G. Nagle, Admnced Grappa (Oxtord Universi Press, 2000), copyright © Garret Nagle 2000, reprinted! by pevmision ‘of Oxiord University Pres p.38 Figure 6: The relationship beeween population size and number of services, P. Guinness and G. Nagle, (AS Getarapiy: Concept and Cas (der Muray, 2000), Figure 7 Seriement sites in the nord-esse of te USA, G. Nagle, Gnarly ‘Homevork Pck for Key Siage 3 (Heinemann, 2000), repreduced by permission of Pearson Education; p-39 Figute 10: Cloke's model oF tural change and accesibiiry to large urban centre, G, Nagle, ORG ‘GCSE Geagrapiy Dren Diagrans) (Oxford Univesity Press, 1998), copyright © Garrere Nagle 1998, reprined by permission of Oxtont Univesiy Press; poll Figure 15! Key 9 150000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica (Government of Jamaics/Nasional Land Deparemest/ Survey Department), p42 Figure 4: Map of Montepo Bay, Jamaica (Government of Jamalca/National Land Agency /Survey Department); _pp.t4 Figure I: Bid rent theory and urban land use movel, G. Nagk, ‘inking Cragraply (Hodder Murray, 2000); p46 Figure 3: The core fame mode, S. Warn, Managing Change is Haman Enriransenes (Philip Allan Updates 2001 p47 Figire 4: Location of Wondstock and Bilekiesdorp, Cape Town CO-BY-SA'S 0, hep//em wiped. on/wibi/Ple2009Ritbendorp TPC. Released under dhe GNU Free Documentation License; p48 Figure 5 Road necwork in Woodstock, Juar Genet Schl Aras juta Gaiep) pp-54, 85, 56. Figure 12- Land use in New York, wegen hem? ‘p/h andes landwefacemapcbemi (New York Gy/ Department ‘of City Planning), p87 Figure 13 Land tse in Sol, Young. Han Park cal Arta of Soo (Sung, Fi Mun Fiva Co. Le 2000); .89 Figure 16 Populaion change i Dest, Tir Enoynis, 27 July, 2013; p.60 Figure 17: “Manuficusing Employment in Deol, Federal Reserve econme database, ‘sp facbrefats epoca th/2010/03/lca-conrebemi, © 2009) CChareics,waru.chartacts coms p.64 Figure 2 Slums in Rio de Jancito,Gece, 121, repose by pemision of Cutan Press rrcarclunrpres cok; p09 igure 7: Transport systems a Rio Ss Fano, GeoFatsecs 121 repented By permision of Cure rss, un. sreiclumpees.coas p78 Figure 1 Popliion by world region 2013 and 2080, Ca Haub and Tsk Kanela, 2023 Popnarion ‘Bao Set (United Natios /Poplation Reference Busca), Fur 2 ‘Main nteratonal migration conrdom, i/em nora umearation/ salar2013.m, Figure 3: Change in US Poplstion (in ousands) by Age Group, 2012 nid Fpudaion Dara Sher (Cited Sees ess Bureas Population Ecimaes rogram): p.76 Figure 4: Population dy ad ssa in Bangladesh, 2000, ‘nine ic column. dniond opr grag r/gramp (NASA), Figure 4b: Tncrewe in populstion deny Banglades ‘niyo cof bge depopulation deny, 1.77 Figure 6: Map HMSOCT.- Hong Kong Special Admiisratve Regn (Map Pubkadons Cer, Hong Kong Survey & Mapping Offce/Lamh Department), © 2011; p.80 Figure I Two pes of volcano, Gece 12 reprinted by perminion of Ove Pees, “roncrciom pret cos, poe Figure 9: Diseibtion of plates and fesotc hazards he Carlbean, Pais Cerifcane Als rae Garitten, Ss dion (George Pailip Maps, 2003) 9.90 Figure 13 ings desig or erdguskes, Nap, Fas Craps Hazards (Nebon Thome, 1998), copyright © Gare Nagle 1996, ried by perminion of Oxoed nivesty Dress p92 gue 161-3500 map of Soutitre and Pymouth (Directorate of Ovenes Survess/Deparemene forlimerational Development, © Cron cupya .96 Fagus | Ganges ina ier downaean, Nagle, 8 © A2 Geary fr eae! B (Onion Univerty Press, 2003), copy © Gare Nagse 2003, reine by perio oF Ors Unveraky Pres; p99 Figure 8 Rares of acu and potential evapocanspiation for South Ac, ‘nian gone com, 101 Figure 9: Groundaet,P Guiness and Gr Nagle, a8 Cropp: Conceps and Cas (Hoviser Murry, 2000) 1.102 Figure 10: Typer of ransport ina ve, PGuinnes and C. Nag, ‘Advanced Geyyrapi: Cones and Cass (Huser & Stoughton, 2002), 03 igure 13 Formation ofa water, G-Naple,Riber and Water Management Hodder Arnold, 2008; p05 Figure 16; 125000 map of ‘ke Nagar Fall aes (Goverment of Canat/Canada Cea for ‘Mapping and Earth Obscresion/Natiral Resources Canada), © Crown copyriht p-107 Figure 20: Formation of «fess ad tere, GPNapl, ORG GCSE Geagraphy (Tara Daag) (Oxon Univesiy Dre, 1988), copyright © Garret Nel 1998, reprined by perminiom of Oxford Univer resp. 109 Fare 25:1:280,000 map Sract ofthe Rhine dea, IGN map Provence Aipe-Core Acar 2015, (SIGN France 2012, represtuced by permission of lnsicut Nasional de information Geogrphigue t Foreice; p20. Figure 4, Human activity an longa din West Acne Nope, AS C*A2 Gear far Ede! B(Oners Untersty Dees, 2008) copyright © Gare: Nagle 2008, reprint by permison af Oxford Unies Peep. 121 Figure 5 Fares of eons rosin, . Nagle, ORG GCSE Gegrapiy (Tira Diagrams) (Oxsord Unversity Pres, 1988) eopihe © Gare Nage 1908 reprinted by pectin of Oafrd Unieniy Deen p21 ge 6: ‘The Cape Penns, Suh Aftca Repvble of South Aes/Deparemene cf Land Afuin/Surey and Mapping), Fre 7: Formation of saree parton, Gs Nags, ORG GCSE Geeraply Trough Diagrams) {Oxford Caiversity Press, 1908), copyright © Gare Nagle 1998, {eprint by penniaion of Oxford Duvet Pres p.124 Figure 13 ‘The west cout of Angus, mons com reprodeed by permision of ITM Publishing, p-126 Figure 1S: Formation of and domes TGuinnes and 6. Nagle, AS Gore Conc and Cas Tier ‘Muara, 2000); p12? Figure 17: Formacon of orl rc adapted om 5am and ©: Rolres, Coral Refi Eee in Cru (Eel Sis Cove 2001) p-133 Figure 24 The path of Typhoon Hbayan, hannelnewsns fom; p14 Figure 2 Equipment in wether aon, G: Nagle, Wessinfle GCSE (Nelzon Thornes, 2000), copyeght © Garrate Nagle 2000, reprint by permission of Oxford Uriversiy Press puldS Figure 9: Cloud eyes, G: Nagle, Wenterfle GCSE (Nebo ‘itomns, 2000), copie © Garete Nagle 2000, epi by permision of Oxford Uniersty Dress p11 igure: Conditions Fuel forthe prom of minor ad hot descr, C. Nase, ORG {GCSE Geagraghy (Taronah Diagrams) (Onsord Unversity Pres, 1998), coppriit © Cate Nagle 1098, epic by pease of Oxon ‘hiversiy Pres, p59 Figure 2 crract own -38 OOD nap of Ares Tre, New Zeal, me nena. na Apa, 2013, New Topo, ‘printed by petmion of Geof Aiken p13 Figure 2 Worl tp Showing GNP per api in 2013, CIA Wir Feo: p.163 Table ‘Top Land botwom 12 counties in GNP per capa ($).3013, CLA ‘Writ Furbo p.164 Figure 3 The cooponers ofthe Hanan Development Ines, ep//drnndpana/en/eais/ hi p64 Table 2 Tofane morale ate by world region, 2012, World Population Data Shee, 2012( United Navions Population Reference Bureau); p.166 Figure 6 Stages of Development, Paul Guinness, Geaarapy forte 18 Diploma arrras and Change Cambridge Univenity Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted wich permission: pL67 Figure 7: Fast and slow development in developing couneies, Paul Guinness, Geggraply {ir she IB Diploma: Paitrns end Change (Cambridge University Pres, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permissions .168 Figure 9: World map showing variations in Gini coefcens 2008, Daspe//commons wikimedinng/ wil PilcCini_Coeficient World. CLA Report 2000-1 png, p-169 Figre 10: Sinplied model of curmulatve ‘usation, Paul Guinness, Geeprpin forthe 1B Diploma Pattrns and (Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010}, © Cambeidge Universiey Press 2010, reprinted with permision, Figure 11- Regional economic divergence and convergence, Paul Guinness, Geepraply fr te TB ‘Diploma: Paracrs and Change (Cambridge Universi Press, 2010), ‘© Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permiaion; p.A7I Bigure 15: Southease Brazil, Paul Guinness, Gearmply for se 1B [Diplomas Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Pres, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permision; p.172 Bigure 16: Core/perphery diagrams, Pal Guinness, Ceagraply for {he TB Diploma: Pasrerasand Change (Cambridge University res, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; p.l74 Table 5: Employment sructre of «developed country, an NIC {nd a developing counery, CTA World Factbook: p-176 Table 8: The potential advantages and disadvanages of TINCS- Nike co die USA and Vietnam, Paul Gusnness, Geypaphy for ae 18 Diploma: Glabad Insertions (Cambridge University Pres, 2011), © Cambridge Univesity Press 2011, reprinted with permission, p.177 Figure 25: Influences onthe globalisation of exonomie active, G. Nagle and Paul Guinness, Cambridge International A and AS Level Geagrapiy (Philip Allan Updates, 2011}; p-178 Figure 27: The global share of GDP, Paul Guinaes, Geagraply for she IB Diplo: Global Inseracions (Cambridge Univesity Press, 2011), © Cambie University Pres 2011, reprinted ‘with permission, p.179 Figure 28: Aspects of pobal urban unormity, Paul Guinness, Gagraply for te TB Diploma: Global Ineraccons (Cambridge University Press, 2011), © Cambidge Universiey Pres 2011, repented with permission; p-180 Figure 29: The shift of power {om nation states, Patil Gusiness, Geygrapy forthe IB Diploma Globat Inverations (Cambridge University Press, 2011), © Cambridge University Press 2011 reprinted wth permission, Table 10: The costs and benefits oF plballaion to the UK, Pan Guinness, Geeghapn forthe TR Diploma: Global Inreracrons (Cambridge Universey Press, 2011), {© Cambridge University Press 2011, reprinted with permission: p.l83 Figure 3: Farming types ad levels of development, D.Waugh, Geqgraply An Inegrased Approach, Edition (Nelson Thornes, 1990); pllB5 able 1: Types of iigation, “The Water Crs A Mater of Life and Death’, Underaanding Global Esucs p.187 Figure 8: The Lower Ganges valley, D. Waugh, The Niw Wider Worl, 34 Falvion (Nelo ‘Thornes, 2003), Figure 9: Climate gaps for Kellar, D. Waugh, The [New Wider World, $4 Eiion (Nelson Thornes, 2003); p.189 Figure 12: Summary of 2uses of famine inthe Sudan, Geakactsheer, 185, reprinted by permission of Curriculum Pres, wrweeumicalum-presco uk; p.193 Figure I: Industral gsrems diagram, D.Waugh, The New Wider Uiori, 38 Edision (Nelson Thornes, 2003) p.197 Figure 3: Location of Bangalore (CE Inf Systems}, © 2008; p.198 Figure T= Growsh in global our, buy /vr:colgengrapy natt/ GCSE/AQAY Tonio “Tourism grows Tourism '20Grow in; p-199 Fie 3 International wourisearivals and inremarionsl tourism resepns, buspe//mtennre og /weformeoncace-ieurioncarentcand-marketing= “erateieraswno (ON Woe Tourism Organization; Tourism Highligh, 2013 Falion) p.200 Figure 4: Inbound tourism by purpose of ist, 2012 (UN/World Tourism Organization, UNWTO), Figure 6: The irect and initeceezonomic impact oF the tourist industry, (Global Insight: Tourism Saree Accounting; Figure 15: Ecoroursm in Ecuador's rainforest rom GeoBicmhe201, reprinted by permission of ‘Curriculum Press, wwwcurrculum-pres.0.uk; p205 Ragure 16 Jamaica's National Parks, Jane Dove etal, OCRAS Geagraply (Heinemann Eucatinal, 2008), eroded by permission oF Pearson Education; p.207 Figure 1; Charges in word energy consumption by ‘ype, 1987-2012, BP Stassca! Review of Word Bnevgy, une 2013;, L208 Figure 3: Regional energy consumpiion passers: 2012, BP Saavisea! Review of World Energy, June 2013; p.209 Figure 8: Enecsy ‘onminpion per capita, 2012, AP Staicical Review of World Ener, June 2013; p.210 Figure 7: Biecericty access dee, 2010, Emily Badger, “Weare a bilion prope live wihonr eeevciey, wwmabeadanticiercom, p.212 Figure 8: Renewable encrgy consumption by weld eon, 1992-2012, BP Seaitical Resim of Word Enea, June 2018,217 Figure 1: Alkcmative water supply and management methods, “Altematine Waser Supply and Management Merods (Government of “Albers Environment and Sustainable Resource Development); 218 Figure 3: How cloud seeding works, Aleernarive Waser Supply and Management Mesiads(Goverament of Alberta /Environment and ‘Sustainable Resource Development) p.219 Figute 4: Water used for agriculture, industry and domestic forthe developed and developing ‘Worlds, Paul Guinness, Gegsrply fr the IB Diploma: Pasters and ‘Change Cambridge Gniverity Dress, 2010), © Cambridge Universicy Prews 2010, repringed with permission, p.220 Figute 8: Plyicel watet scaciy and economic water sarcy worldwide, Paul Guinness, Geagraphy for the IB Diploma: Psivers and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge Universey Pres 2010, reprinted swith permission, 222 Table I; Water investment need by ae, 2008-80, Paul Guinness, Geyorapl fr he TB Diploma: Pacers and ‘Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprineed with permission; p.225 Figute I How exposure to polluson can affect human health, P. lyme etal Bee! 2 Geagraply (Philip lan Updates); pp.226-7 Table 2: Major air pollute, aad (Environmental Proteeion Agency) p.228 Figure 4: Heathrow airport ‘with surrounding noe levels ( DEFRA), © Crown Copyriht, 1.230 Figure 5: The greenhouse effect, M. Raw OCR A2 Guagraply (Philip Allan Updates, 2009), p.232 Figure 9: Causes of and degradation, Panl Guinness, Geagraply fr eke IB Diploma Pastras and ‘Change (Cambridge Univeriey Press, 2010), © Cambridge Universey Press 2020, reprinted with permission; p.283 Figure 10:"The causes and [process oF local sil degradation, Paul Guinness, Geagraply fr he 8 Diploma: Pasteras and Change (Cambridge University Pres, 2010), (© Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted wth permission; 1.285 Figure 14; The Grea Bari Reef, Austral, wom grear barrier ‘ef. be/Trnges/100050gif p.237 Figure 17: The role of ecotourism in ‘intbrese conservason, J. Hil, W. Woodland, R- Hil, Geagraply Review, ‘May, 2007, p-281 Figure 22: The Peal ver delea, Financ Tacs February, 2003, p.242 Emily Bader, Wher a lalion people sill re withon lectin p/w lance com be and conaey/2013/00/ wherein: peopleelelive-wishoneelecrciny/8807/ p243 Table 1 Adverse inluences on global food production and ‘sribution, Paul Guinness and Brenda Walpole, Bxrironmental Stems tan Socieves forthe IB Diploma (Carbide University Press, 2012), (© Cambridge University Press 2012, repineed with permission; (p24 Figure 4: Tourism key ro development, prospericy and well-being (ON World Towsism Organization, Tourism Highlights, 2013 Ealiion), 1p.245 Figure 5: Global Nuclear Electricity Producion, bep//mwm. ‘word-actearang/info/Carenrast-Pranre-Generation/Naclesr-Power iivthe- Worl Today; p243 Figure 6: Billions daly afeced by water sis, /faterena/water-esixfon-billon-affeted/,p.246 Figure 7: ‘Comparing the eflcency of energy conversion in arable sn pastoral farming, Paul Guinness snd Brenda Walpole, Environmental Seme and Seco or she TB Diploma (Cambridge Universty Pres, 2012), © Cambridge University ess 2012, epeinted with permision,Figuee 8 Environmental irapac of the inereaing demand for meat, Pal Guinness and Brenda Walpole, Enstronmencal Some an Sates for he 1B Diplema (Cambridge University Press, 2012), © Cambridge University Press 2012, reprince with permission, p.248 Figure I Dart of the 1:50,000 map oF Jamaica (Direcorate of Overseas Surveys/Department for Internacional Development), © Crown copyright p.250 Figure 4 Pare oF the 125,000 map of Marmaloda Giieie and Lago ci Fala, Tabasco sheet 06, s3mmbwceoedizie.cvm; p.281 Figure 8: Par ofthe 128,000 Ordnance Survey map of northern Momtsera, © Crown ‘Copyright; p.252 Figure 6: Drawing a crowesecrion, 125,000 section ‘of French IGN Top 75 Tourism e¢ Randonnce map Chaine des Puss [Masai dt Saney, winmigm fr. reprodiced by pissin of Inst [National de [/infoematson Geographighe et Foresite; p.253 Figae 8: Feacutes associated wih different sages of aver, G. Nagle and K. Spencer, Ghonmpbical Enguiric (Stanley Ternes, 1997); 1.254 Figure 8: Par of the Wese Coase Trail in Bash Columbia, Canada, wnemitoib.cens, reproduced by permission of [TMB Publishing: [p85 Figure 10: Exerae fom the 1-85,000 map of Antigts, wwe fom, reproduced by permission of TMB Publishing; p.288 Figure 14 Parr ofthe 150000 map of Tenerife, Canary sland, wmshrAd com/ ‘rave, © KOMPASS-Karten Gr p.260 Figure: 15:50000 map oF Se Catharines, Ontario, Canada (Government of Canada /Canada Centre for Mapping ana Eareh Observation /Natutl Resources Cana‘), © Crown copyright; p.261 Figure 16: Map of Hong Kong. Special Adiinintaive Region (Map Publisations Centre, Hong Kong/Survey & “Mapping Office lands Department), ©2011, Figute 17: Example ‘ofthe use ofp chars employment and rent repional domesce prodvct (GRDP) in South Kores, 2000, Koree Sinauieal Tarioak 2000, 1.270 Figure 5: Two questionnaires, one good and one bad, B.Lenon, And P.Cleves, Fed ork Techniques and Projesin Gougraply (Collis Educaional, 2001); p-278 Figure 13: Example of histogram, BiLenon and PCleves, Fieldwork Tecbnigues and Pree in Geograply (Collins Educational, 3001); p.276 Figure 18: Bnample ofa wind ose diagram, B-Lenon and Cleves, Fildvork Techniques and Profits in Geasraply (Collins Faveational, 2001); p.277 Figure 18: An isoine tap, Wideword, November 2003 (Pili Alan Updates, 2002); p79 Figure 19: Conducting a survey ofa sand due ccomstem, Wiidewori September 2002 (Pili Allan Updates, 2002), 281 Figure 20: Taking iver messoremenis, David Holmes and Sic Warn, Fildwork bnvsigntons wefstudy guide (Hodder Education, 2003), Figure 21: A river cross section, David Holmes and Sue Warn, Fietdyork Invsigaions alfa guide (Hodder Education, 2003) Permision for re-use of all © Crown copyright information is granted Lnder the terms ofthe Open Government Livence (OGL) Eery effort has besn mie to ace all copyright holdes, but if any have bbe indavertenty overlooked the Publishers willbe pleased to make the necessary arrangements a he first opporcunity.Introduction ‘This book has been written to help you while you study for your geography IGCSE. The examples and case studies in the book are from around the world. Geography is abour people and places and we hope that you will use your own home area as much as possible to add to the material in this book. We would encourage you also to keep up to date with geographical events — one way is through listening to the news or reading about events in newspapers or on the Internet. Geography is happening every day, everywhere and examiners love to read about new developments so think about your own geographical location and new geographical events. This book has been written to follow closely the IGCSE specification. It includes a number of activities to help you succeed with the written assessment and guidance for your coursework. Below are details of the exams and assessment that you will experience. Be prepared — knowing what to expect will help you succeed in your exams. Make sure you also use your teachers? experience — they are an excellent resource waiting to be tapped. Good luck and enjoy your geographical studies. @ Assessment Scheme of assessment All candidates will take Paper 1, Paper 2 and either Paper 3 or Paper 4. Papers 1, 2 and 4 will consist of combined question papers and answer booklets where candidates answer in the spaces provided. Paper 1 (1 hour 45 minutes) Candidates will be required to answer three questions (3 x 25 marks). ‘They will choose one question out of two on each theme. Questions will be structured with gradients of difficulty, will be resource-based and involve problem, solving and free response writing, This paper will mainly be concerned with Assessment Objectives; 1, 2, and 3, Knowledge with understanding, Skills and analysis, and Judgement and decision making. 45% of total marks, Paper 2 (1 hour 30 minutes) (60 marks) Candidates answer all the questions. The paper is based on testing the interpretation and analysis of geographical information, decision making and the application of graphical and other techniques as appropriate. The questions will not require specific information about places but will require the use of a 1:25 000 or 1:50000 topographical map and will include a full key. 27.5% of total marks. Bither Paper 3, Coursework (School-based assessment). Teachers set one school-based assignment of up to 2000 words. (60 marks) Or Paper 4, Alternative to Coursework (1 hour 30 minutes) (60 marks) Candidates answer two compulsory questions, completing a series of written tasks based on the three themes: 1 Population and Settlement 2 The Natural Environment 3 Economic Development ‘The questions involve an appreciation of a range of techniques used in fieldwork studies. 27.5% of total ‘marks. @ IGCSE Geography Revision CD Rom “The accompanying CD Rom provides invaluable revision materials and self-testing, ‘© Definitions of all key terms are provided. ummaries are provided, enabling quick jon of a topic. ‘© Multiple choice, mix and match and true or false nteractive questions are provided to test yourself, on key terms and geographic information. ‘© Images include selected artwork and photos to help you with your studies and project work. Paul Guinness Garrett NagleThis page intentionally left blankPopulation dynamics Migration Population structure Population density and distribution Settlements and service provision Urban settlements UrbanisationPeople from around the world watching the Olympic Games in London, 2012 Key questions ‘© How rapidly has the world’s population increased? ‘© What are the reasons for such 2 rapid increase in the world's population? ‘© What are the causes of a change in population size? ‘© What are the reasons for contrasting rates of natural population change? ‘© What are the causes and consequences of over- population and under-population? ‘© How effective are population policies in achieving their objectives? @ The rapid increase in the world’s population During most of the early period in which humankind first evolved, global population was very low, reaching perhaps some 125000 people a million years ago, ‘Ten thousand years ago, when people first began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops, world population was no more than 5 million. Known as the Neolithic Revolution, this period of economic change significantly altered the relationship between people and their environments. But even then the average annual growth rate was less than 0.1 per cent per year. as a result of technological advance ng capacity of the land improved and population increased. The carrying capacity is the largest population that the resources of a given environment can support. By 3500 BCE, global population reached 30 million and by 2000 years ago, this had risen to about 250 million (Figure 1), Population dynamics ‘8000 7000 ‘5000 5000 4000 3000 ‘World population (millions) 1000 ae) 1950 <¢7000-6000 cat 16501750 Year Figure 1 World population grow 1850 2050 Number of years to add each bilion (year) First bilion second (1800) 130 (1930) Third 301960) wast 131987) 12(1999) 12 (2011) 12 (2023)? Fourth Fitth Sheth Seventh Eighth Figure 2 World population growth by each tion Table 1 World population lock, 2012 ‘Natural |World [More [Less ess developed Increase developed |developed | countries (exc per countries _|countries | China) ‘Year 84303942 | 1752056 | 82571886 | 76103575 Day 230970 | _4745_| 226224 | 208503 ‘Miwa 160 3 157 45, Demogeaphers (people who study human imate that world population n by about 1650. From this time population grew at an increasing rate. By 1800 global population had doubled to reach one billion. igure 2 shows the time taken for each subsequent illion to be reached, with the global total reaching 7 billion in 2011. It had taken only 12 years for world population to increase from 6 t0 7 billion, theThe rapid increase in the world’s population same timespan required for the previous billion to be added. It has been estimated that world population will reach 8 billion in 2023 Table 1 shows population change in 2012, with a global population increase of 84.3 mi year. This is the result of 140.5 million births and 56.2 million deaths. The bulk of this population increase is in the developing countries. When the number of births exceeds the number of deaths, world population increases, The greater the gap between the number of births and deaths, the greater the population increase. The very rapid growth of the world’s population over the last 60 years or so, illustrated by Figures 1 and 2, is the result of the largest ever difference between the number of births and deaths in the world as a whole! Recent demographic change Figure 3 shows that both total population and the rate of population growth are much higher in the less developed world than in the more developed world. The fastest rate of growth is taking place in the least developed countries, which is the poorest sub-section of the less developed world. However, only since the Second World War has population growth in the poor countries overtaken that in the rich, The rich countries had their period of high population growth in the nineteenth and early ‘twentieth centuries, while for the less developed countries rapid population growth has occurred since about 1950. The highest ever global population growth rate was reached in the early to mid 1960s when population growth in the less developed world peaked at 2.4 per cent a year. At this time the term population explosion was widely used to describe this rapid population growth. But by the late 1990s the rate of global population growth was down to 1.8 per cent and by 2012 it had reduced further to 1.2 per cent. However, even though the rate of growth has been falling for three decades, demographic momentum means that the number of people added each year remains very high This is because there are so many women in the child-bearing age range. jon in that Least developed countrles 1970-1990 2010-2030 2050 Year Figure 3 Popttation growth in more and less develaped countries, 1950-2050 ‘The demographic transformation, which took a century to complete in the developed world, has occurred in a single generation in some less developed countries. Fertility has dropped further and faster than most demographers predicted 20 or 30 years ago. Except in Affica, where in around 25 countries families of at least five children are the average and population growth is still over 2.5 per cent per year, birth rates are now declining in virtually every country. According to the Population Reference Bureau: ‘Developed countries asa whole will experience little or no population growth in this century, and much of that growth will be from immigration from less developed countries.” Table 2 shows the ren largest countries in the world in population size in 2012, and thei population projections for 2050. In 2012, China and India together accounted for 37 per cent of the world’s population. The USA isa long way behind, in third place. While three developed countries were in the top ren in 2012, only one, the USA, is in the forecast for 2050. Interesting note The Population Reference Bureau estimates that throughout the history of human population about 108 billion people have lived on Earth. This means that about 6.5 per cent of all people ever born are alive today!1.1 POPULATION DYNAMICS Table 2. The word ten largest counties in tems of population, 2012 and 2050 2012 72050 Popuiation Population country —_|(miltions) _| country (eailions) china 1350___|Inaia 1681 naa 1260 | china 1311 usa 314 [usa 23 indonesia zat [Nigeria ‘a02 Braz 194 | Pakistan a1 Pakistan 180 | Indonesia 309 Nigeria 170__|Banoladesh 226 Bangladesh | 153 [Brazi 213 Russia 143 |Congo, Dem. Rep. | 194 Japan 128 [Ethiopia 165, Activities ‘1 With the help of Figures 1 and 2, briefly describe the growth of human population aver time. 2 Define the term carrying capacity. 3 Comment on the information shown in Table 1. 4 Look at Figure 3, Describe the differences in population growth and projected growth in more developed and less developed countries between 1950 and 2050, 5 Look at Table 2: = Show the data for 2012 on an outline map of the world. b Briefly describe the changes that are forecast to ‘occur by 2050, @ The causes of a change in population size The birth rate is defined as the number of births per thousand population ina year. If the birth rate of a country is 20/1000 (20 per 1000), this means that ‘on average for every 1000 people in this country 20 births will occur in a year. The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand population in a year. If the death rate for the same country is 8/1000, it means that on average for every 1000 people 8 deaths will occur. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the rate of natural change. If it is positive it is termed natural increase. If it is negative it is known as natural decrease. In the case given above there is a natural increase of 12/1000 (20/1000 — 8/1000). ‘This is the current rate of natural increase for the world as a whole — look at the birth and death rates given in Table 3. The rate of natural change may also be shown as a percentage, so in this example 12/1000 is equivalent to 1.2 per cent. Table 3 shows how much birth and death rates, vary by world region Table 3 Birth and death rates 2012 Region Birth rate [Death rate ‘World 20 8 Mote developed word 1 10 Less developed world 2 a ica 36 1 Asia 18 7 Ltn AmevieaCaribbean 19 6 North America 13 5 Oceania 18 7 Europe iT] i Population change in a country is affected by (a) the difference between births and deaths (natural change) and (b) the balance between immigration and emigration (net migration). On Figure 4 the dividing, line indicates that the relative contributions of natural change and net migration can vary over time, For ‘most countries natural change isa more important factor in population change than net migration. Births Immigrants Deaths Emigrants Figure 4 nput-output mode! of population change The immigration rate is the number of immigrants per thousand population entering a receiving country ina year. The emigration rate is the number of emigrants per thousand population leaving a country of origin in a year. The rate of net migration is the difference between the rates of immigration and emigration. Figure 5 shows some simple demographic calculations for the imaginary island of Pacifica.The demographic transition model Figure 5 Pacifica dlagram and eaeulations Activities 1 Define (a) the birth rate (b) the death rate (e)the rate cof natural change. 2 What is net migration? 43 Look at Table 3. Calculate the rate of natural change for each region, 4 Look at Figure 5. Imagine that the population of the island at the beginning of the year was 4000 rather ‘than 5000, Calculate the rates af change for this new starting population figure, @ The demographic transition model ‘The demographic transition model helps to explain the causes of a change in population size. Although the populations of no two countries have changed in exactly the same way, some broad generalisations can bbe made about population growth since the middle of the cighteenth century. These trends are illustrated by the demographic transition model (Figure 6). A model isa simplification of reality, helping us to understand the most important aspects of a process. Demographic transition is the historical shift of birth and death rates from high to low levels in a population. No country as a whole retains the characteristics of stage 1, which only applies to the most remote societies on Earth, such as isolated tribes in New Guinea and the Amazon basin. All the developed countries of the world are now in stage 4 or stage 5. The poorest of the developing countries are in stage 2. Most developing countries that have undergone significant social and economic advances are in stage 3, while some of the newly industrialised countries such as South Korea and Taiwan have entered stage 4. Stage 5, natural decrease, is mainly confined to eastern and southern Europe at present. stages 1 2 2 aos High aly ate low 3g stationary expanding expanding stationary 5 . 1 1 1 Bg g zg Birth rate 8 E i = Time Figure 6 The demographic transition model © The High Stationary Stage (stage 1): The birth rate is high and stable while the death rate is high and fluctuating due to famine, disease and war at particular times. Population growth is very slow and there may be periods of considerable decline. Infant mortality is high and life expectancy low. A high proportion of the population is under the age of 15. Society is pre-industrial with most people living in rural areas, dependent on subsistence agriculture. ‘© The Early Expanding Stage (stage 2): The death rate declines to levels never before experienced. The birth rate remains at its previous level because the social norms governing fertility take time to change. As the gap between the two vital rates widens, the rate of natural change increases to a peak at the end of this stage. The infant mortality rate falls and life expectancy increases. The proportion of the population under 15 increases. ‘The main reasons for the decline in the death rate are: better nutrition; improved public health particularly in terms of clean water supply and efficient sewerage systems; and medical advances. Considerable rural-to-urban migration occurs during this stage. © The Late Expanding Stage (stage 3): After a period of time social norms adjust to the lower level of mortality and the birth rate begins to1.1 POPULATION DYNAMICS decline. Urbanisation generally slows and the average age increases. Life expectancy continues to increase and infant mortality to decrease. Countries in this stage usually experience lower death rates than nations in the final stage due to their relatively young population structures. © The Low Stationary Stage (stage 4): Both birth and death rates are low. The former is generally slightly higher, fluctuating somewhat due to changing economic conditions. Population growth slow: Death rates rise slightly as the average age of the population increases. However, life expectancy still improves as age-specific mortality rates continue to fall. ‘© The Natural Decrease Stage (stage 5): In a limited bur increasing number of countries, mainly European, the birth rate has fallen below the death rate. In the absence of net migration inflows these populations are declining. Examples of natural decrease include Germany, Belarus, Bulgaria and Ukraine. Figure 7 Young people ata popular meeting place in Ulaanbaatar, -Mengolia, The county i i Stage 3 of demographic transition Contrasts in demographic transition ‘There are a number of important differences in the way that developing countries have undergone population change compared with the experiences, of | de ‘© birth rates in stages 1 and 2 were generally higher © the death rate fell much more steeply ‘© some countries had much larger base populations and thus the impact of high growth in stage 2 and the early part of stage 3 has been much greater ‘© for those countries in stage 3 the fall in fertility has also been steeper © the relationship between population cl economic development has been mu inge and weaker. Activities 1 What is a geographical model (such as the model of demographic transition)? 2 Explain the reasons for declining mortality in stage 2. 3 Why does it take some time before fertility follows the fallin mortality? 4 Suggest why the birth rate is lower than the death rate in some countries (stage 5)? 5 How has demographic transition differed in the more: developed world and the less developed world? @ Reasons for contrasting rates of population change Population change is governed by three factors: fertility, mortality and migration, This section examines the influences on fertility and mortality, while migration is covered in more detail in Topic 1.2. The factors affecting fertility Figure 8 A school graup visiing @ 2000-year-old Roman site in Turkey The most common measure of fertility is the birth rate, but other more detailed measures are used at a. more advanced level of study. One of these measures is the total fertility rate, which is illustrated in igures 10 and 11. The toral fertility race is the averageReasons for contrasting rates of population change number of children a women has during her lifetime. ‘Table 4 shows the countries with the highest and lowest toral fertility rates in 2012. Table 4 Countries withthe highest and lowest fertility rates, 2012 Total Total | Highest fertility rate | Lowest fertility rate Niger 7.1 [Taiwan i] Somalia 64 [Latvia 1a Burundi 64 __| Singapore 12 Mali 63_|Bosia-Herzegovina | 1.2 Angola 63 | South Korea 12 ‘Congo, Demiep. | 63 | Hungary 12 Zambia 63 | Moldova 13 [Afghanistan 62 [Foland 13 | Uganda 62__|Romania 13 Burkina Faso 6.0 [Portugal 13 The factors aflecting fertility can be grouped into four categories: ‘© Demographic: Other population factors, particularly mortality (death) rates, influence fertility. Where infant mortality is high, it is usual for many children to die before reaching adult life. In such societies, parents often have many children to compensate for these expected deaths. The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of | children under one year of age per thousand live births per year. In 2012, the infant mortality rate for the world as a whole was 41/1000, ranging from 5/1000 in Europe to 67/1000 in Affica. Tt is not just coincidence that the continent with the lowest fertility is Europe and the continent with the highest fertility is Africa. ‘The infant mortality rate is generally regarded as a prime indicator of socio-economic progress. Over the world as a whole infant mortality has declined sharply during the last half century. © Social /cultural: In some societies, particularly in Africa, tradition demands high rates of reproduction. Here the opinion of women in the reproductive years may have little influence weighed against intense cultural expectations. Education, especially female literacy, is the key to lower fertility (Figures 9 and 10). With education comes a knowledge of birth control, greater social awareness, more opportunity for employment and a wider choice of action generally. In some countries religion is an important factor. For example, the ‘Muslim and Roman Catholic religions oppose artificial birth control. Most countries that have population policies have been trying to reduce their fertility by investing in birth control programmes. ‘© Economie: Fertility rates tend to be highest in the world’s least developed countries (Figure 11). In many of the least developed countries children are seen as an economic asset because of the work they do, often on yery small farms, and also because of the support they are expected to give their parents, in old age. In many poor countries there is little or no government support for elderly people. In the developed world the general perception is reversed and the cost of the child dependency years is a major factor in the decision to begin or extend a family. Economic growth allows greater spending on health, housing, nutrition and education, which is important in lowering mortality and in turn reducing fertility. Government statistics published in the UK in 2010 showed that people were getting married five years later than a decade before, with couples in the UK now typically in their mid-30s when getting married. Many other countries have followed this trend. In general an increase in the average age of marriage leads to a fall in the birth rate © Political: There are many examples in the past century of governments attempting to change the rate of population growth for economic and strategic reasons. During the late 1930s Germany, Italy and Japan all offered inducements and concessions to those with large more recent years Malaysia has adopted policy, However, today, most governments that try to change fertility want to reduce population growth, although some countries such as Russia are concerned about their populations declining because the birth rate has fallen below the death rate Figure 9 Education and development