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EXTRA READING:
Papers:
• An interdisciplinary perspective on artificial immune systems J. Timmis, P. Andrews, N. Owens, E.
Clark (2008)
• The Evolution of Emergent Organization in Immune System Gene Libraries by Hightower, Forrest and
Perelson (1995)
• An Immunological Approach to Change Detection by D’haeseleer, Forrest and Helman (1995)
• The Baldwin effect in the immune system: learning by somatic hypermutation by Hightower, Forrest and
Perelson (1996)
• Artificial Immune Systems: Part 1 – Basic Theory and Applications by Leandro Nunes de Castro and
Fernando Von Zuben (1999)
• An Evolutionary Immune Network for Data Clustering by Leandro Nunes de Castro and Fernando Von
Zuben (2000)
Human Immune Systems
• Like our brains, the human immune system is one of the most
advanced in the animal kingdom.
• Without it, we would quickly die, for we come into contact with
hundreds of new pathogens every day.
• This is then presented like crumbs of its meal, to other cells, including
those of the adaptive immune system.
Adaptive Immune System
• Helper T cells “read” the chemical crumbs and trigger B cells to mature
in the lymph nodes.
• Mature B cells then produce antibodies that match the antigen. These
stick to all of the other copies of the pathogen.
• And then the macrophages (who like eating things with antibodies on
them, most of all) go around eating all of the pathogens.
Adaptive Immune System
T-cell
• That was the easy bit. In a little more detail, there are three or four
important processes in the immune system you need to know about.
• But the gene library is not able to contain genes that define antibodies
for every possible antigen.
Human Immune System
• Evolution is not able to produce DNA for every antibody that might be
needed in us.
• And these have to be so diverse, because new antigens appear all the
time – our immune system needs to be able to make the right kind of
antibody for antigens it has never encountered before.
Human Immune System
• This is common to all adaptive immune responses – they all have the
potential to attack self cells by mistake.
• This leaves only B cells that produce antibodies which are not harmful
to self.
• When they mature, these B cells will now produce a wide diversity of
antibodies that attack everything other than self. They only attack non-
self.
• Most B cells will make the wrong kind of antibody, but because there
are so many, there will usually be one that produces the right kind (or
nearly right kind) of antibody.
• So there will quickly be large numbers of the right kind of B cell in your
body, all producing the right antibody.
Human Immune System
• But it’s also cleverer that this: when B cells clone themselves they do
two things.
• First, they use somatic hypermutation to vary the gene libraries and
ensure that some of the new B cells produce slightly different versions
of the parent’s antibody. This allows evolution to fine-tune B cells: if
even better ones are created, they will make even more clones of
themselves. Worse B cells will make less clones.
• So our B cells evolve within us to ensure they make exactly the right
kind of antibody.
• There are also two other processes that we must also look at, even
though they are controversial:
and
• Although this may happen a little in other ways, the original theory is
now discredited and not recognised by immunologists as an accurate
model of our immune systems. (But this does not prevent its use in
Computer Science as we shall see.)
Human Immune System (danger theory)
• How does the immune system know what is self and what is non-self?
It’s a hard question when you remember all the bacteria that live in our
guts, and the growth of genetically-different babies in the womb.
• Dendritic cells are sensitive to such signals, which has led to other
artificial immune algorithms as we’ll see…
• See paper: The Evolution of Emergent Organization in Immune System Gene Libraries by Hightower,
Forrest and Perelson (1995)
• The genes in the gene libraries were evaluated very indirectly: not all
were expressed and tested.
• See paper: An Immunological Approach to Change Detection by D’haeseleer, Forrest and Helman
(1995)
• Again, Stephanie Forrest and her colleagues were the first to create an
algorithm based on negative selection.
• Random strings are generated, if they match self strings they are
deleted, otherwise they are added to the detector set.
Negative Selection Algorithm
• If any detectors match, then a “non self” pattern has been detected.
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• Where the false negative error, Pf , is fixed
• Number of self strings: N s
• Matching probability between a detector string and a randomly chosen
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self string: Pm
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Negative Selection Algorithm
• See paper: The Baldwin effect in the immune system: learning by somatic hypermutation by
Hightower, Forrest and Perelson (1996)
• Clonal selection works in our bodies to evolve better B cells, that make
antibodies tailored to new antigens.
• Such algorithms are very good at learning the difference between self
and non-self, even when the data is constantly changing.
Fugue
Immune Network Algorithm
• See paper: Artificial Immune Systems: Part 1 – Basic Theory and Applications by Leandro Nunes de
Castro and Fernando Von Zuben (1999).
• Example of a data set with three clusters and the resultant immune
network with their connection weights
aiNET algorithm:
In each iteration:
For each antigen (data item) i
Measure the affinity (distance) to all network cells
Select the best n%
Clone them (with better affinity = more copies)
Increase affinity of clones by moving them closer to i
Move best m% of highest affinity cells to Memory
Matrix and delete those with an affinity lower than a threshold
Calculate network cell-cell affinity in Memory Matrix and
delete cells with affinity lower than a threshold
Add cells from Memory Matrix to the full network
Calculate whole network cell-cell affinity and delete cells with affinity
lower than a threshold
Replace r% of the worst cells with random ones.
aiNET algorithm:
In more detail:
Dendritic cell algorithm:
• There have been several algorithms based on the danger theory of the
immune system. One that has become popular is known as the
dendritic cell algorithm (DCA)
• This introduces the notion of danger signals, safe signals and PAMP
signals which all contribute to the context of a data signal at any given
time.
• This removes the need to define what self is, but adds the necessity to
define the danger, safe and PAMP signals.
Dendritic cell algorithm:
End of lecture!