1a.

State how airworthiness can be defined in relation to aero-structures

Airworthiness in respect to aero structures relates to setting up of policies, procedures

and standards from the very beginning of manufacturing within safe and allowable
limits. This is to ensure safe operation of the structure under all operating conditions
including adverse conditions.

1b. what 2 principles set the severity of airworthiness standards?

Severity of airworthiness standards is based on safe and allowable limits for various
operating conditions. Any operations above these limits would lead to minor failure to
catastrophic failure depending on the conditions.

1C. what does continued airworthiness involve in relation to aero-structures

and systems?

Following maintenance manuals, airworthiness directives, service bulletins etc so as

to keep the aircraft airworthy. This includes scheduling inspections, testing within
allowable limits and also instructions prepared by applicant (MRO) in the format of a
type-specific maintenance manual

1d. How are the 4 aero-structure and aero-system failure conditions defined
within an airworthiness safety assessment philosophy?

Failure conditions may be classified according to their severity as follows:

1. Minor( probable): Failure conditions which would not significantly reduce
aircraft safety, and which involve crew actions that are well within their
capability.

2. Major(remote): Failure conditions which reduce the capability of the a/c or the
ability of the crew to cope with the adverse operating conditions to the extent
that there would be. for example, a significant reduction in safety margins or
functional capabilities, a significant increase in crew workload or in conditions
impairing crew efficiency, or discomfort to occupants, possibly including
injuries.

3. Hazardous( extremely remote): Failure conditions which would highly reduce

the safety margin of the aeroplane or very much limit the ability of the crew
to cope with adverse conditions to the extent that there would be severe or
fatal injury, high work load that may not be capable by the crew.

4. Catastrophic( extremely improbable) : Failure conditions that would prevent

continued safe flight and landing which might lead to loss of life.
2a. Explain the concepts of single load path structures and multiple loa$d p$ath
structures

Single Load Path structures: They are safe life structures where applied loads
are distributed through a single member, the failure of which would result in
the loss of the structural capability to carry the applied loads. They contain
low probability of damage.

Multiple Load Path Structures: They are fail safe structures with in built
damage tolerances. These structures have multiple load carrying paths which
act as redundant paths in which, during a failure of a load carrying path the
loads are carried by other member structures.

2b. Explain the role that the flight (maneuver) envelope plays in
airworthiness.

Flight manoeuvre has an important role in airworthines because aircrafts are designed
to operate within certain flight envelope taking into consideration of various structural
loads it can withstand. This leads to setting up of allowable and safe limits in
airworthiness standards.
Airspeed limits are calculated to keep the aircraft in safe limit. Pilots are made aware
of these limits through the flight and operations manual, or by markings and placards
displayed in the cockpit.

2c. Sketch a typical flight envelope and fully label all the features.

Axes – Load Factor; Airspeed

Envelope boundaries – positive stall; negative stall; max design load factor (n1); max
negative load factor (n3); max cruise speed; max design (diving) speed Ultimate Load
Factor; Proof Load Factor
 a. 3a.what are the prime loading categories that aircraft can be subjected to?
A. Air loads
B. Inertialmanoeuvre loads.
C. Atmospheric loads-Gust-Turbulence-pressurisation.
D. Fatigue Loads.
E. Ground Loads.
F. Propulsion Loads.
G. Impact Loads.

3B Briefly explain the possible modes of failure of aircraft structural

components
b. 1. Direct
c. 2. Cracking
d. 3. Corrosion
e. 4. Bending
f. 5. Shear
g. 6. Buckling.
h. 7. Bursting
i. 8.Torsion

3c. Sketch a typical load-distortion variation for each of the following

materials: steel, aluminium alloy and a polymer. Label the axes and salient
points on your sketches.

3d. What is meant by the term “abnormal load” in an aircraft context? What
common occurrences fall into the abnormal load category? What maintenance
implications do abnormal load occurrences have?
Loads that are not expected during the normal course of aircraft operation are deemed
to be abnormal occurrences which may produce loading effects that exceed allowable
limits.

Abnormal Loads are loads that exceed allowable limits during out of normal
course of the aircraft. They include heavy landing, bird strike, severe weather,
ground collision, lightning strike etc. Special inspections are caaried out for such
events laid down by the manufacturer or by MRO approved by the local
airworthiness authority.

4a. What is meant by each of the terms “Strength, Stiffness, Toughness and
Hardness” in relation to engineering materials?

a)Strength is defined as the applied force a material can withstand prior to fracture.
Strength is measured by the yield stress or proof stress of a material.
b)Stiffness: This is a measure of a materials ability not to deflect under an applied
load.
c)Toughness:This is the ability of a material to withstand shatter.If a material shatter,it
is britte(glass).Rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter,therefore they are
tough.Toughness should not be confused with strength.
d)Hardness:Ability of a material to withstand scratching(abrasion) or indentation by
another hard body.It is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.

4b. Contrast the material properties of steel, aluminium alloy and composite
materials in relation to aircraft structural applications.

Steel:Materials. they are used where high tensile strength, stiffness and mainly high
resistance to wear are necessary. They are of less weight to strength ratio than
aluminium. Major parts such as undercarriage and wing root attachmentare made
from high carbon steel.

Aluminium Alloy:Al.alloy has ben used extensively for airframe,skins and

other stressed components,the choice of alloy being influenced by factors such
as strength(proof and ultimate stress),ductility, ease of manufacture,resistance
to corrosion and amenability to protective treatment,fatigue strength,freedom
from liability to sudden cracking due to internal stresses and resistance to fast
crack propagation under load. Duralumin alloys posses a lower static strength
and are preferred in portions of structure where fatigue considerations are of
primary importance such as under surfaces of wings where tensile fatigue
loads predominate.
Composite materials: These materials consists of strong fibres such as glass or
carbon set in a matrix of plastic or epoxy resin which is mechanically and
chemically protective. Good strength to weight ratio and good structural
efficiency. Easily fabricated to the most complex shapes and do not corrode.
 Totally unaffected by atmospheric conditions and most solvents and
pollutants.
A composites material such as carbon fibre reinforced plastics has strength
three times than that of aluminium alloy. It is less prone to fatigue damage
than metals.It is estimated that replacing 40% Al. Alloy structure by CFRP
would result in a 12% saving in total structural weight.
It is used in wing,tailplane and forward fuselage .It is also use in fabrication of
helicopter blades which has led to significant increase in their service life
where fatigue resistance rather than stiffness is of primary concern.It is also
used in construction of primary airframe structure and estimates that 40% of
a/c str. Is of composite material.

.
4c. Complete the table below in respect of material selection for
particular aircraft structure applications

5a. Sketch the form of the spanwise shear-force distribution for this loading
configuration
5b. Sketch the form of the spanwise bending moment distribution for this
loading configuration

5c. Explain the application of the fundamental equation to calculate the

maximum bending stresses within the beam. Write down the relevant equation
and define all the terms within the equation.

Fundamental Bending Equation:-

M is Applied Bending Moment

I is Second Moment of Area
R is radius of curvature of deflected beam
E is Modulus of Elasticity
y is distance from Neutral Axis to surface of beam
σ is bending stress
 σ = My
I

6a. Explain, with the aid of a labelled diagram, the loading arrangement on a
helicopter rotor blade assembly with the aircraft in forward flight.

6b. Explain, with the aid of a labelled sketch, the loading arrangement on an
aircraft main landing gear during take-off ground roll.