Good day everyone!

Maybe you're one of those people who are currently preparing for the
Licensure Examination for Teacher. I'm glad that you're here because this article is for you.  I know
that you're trying your best reviewing those past lessons about your course so, I gathered some
information about the Coverage of the LET.

Elementary Level
General Education - 40%
Professional Education - 60 %

Secondary Level
General Education - 20%
Professional Education - 40%
Area of Specialization - 40%
Taken from the upcoming program of LET scheduled on March 2018, here are the detailed areas to
study. The list is courtesy of PRC Board of Professional Teachers.

GENERAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)

1. ENGLISH 

 Study and Thinking Skills 

 Writing in the Discipline 
 Speech and Oral Communication 
 Philippine Literature
 Master Works of the World
2. FILIPINO

 Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino

 Pagbasa at Pagsulat tungo sa Pananaliksik
 Masining na Pagpapahayag
3. MATHEMATICS

 Fundamentals of Math
 Plane Geometry
 Elementary Algebra
 Statistics and Probability
4. SCIENCE

 Biological Science - General Biology

 Physical Science - Earth Science
5. SOCIAL SCIENCES

 Philippine Government New Constitution with Human Rights

 Philippine History
 Basic Economics
 Taxation
 Agrarian Reform
 Society
 Culture with Family Planning
 Rizal and Other Heroes
 Philosophy of Man
 Arts
 General Psychology
 Information and Communication Technology

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)

1. Teaching Profession, Social Dimensions of Education

2. Principles of Teaching, Educational Technology, Curriculum Development
3. Facilitating Learning, Child and Adolescent Development
 4. Assessment of Student Learning, Developmental Reading
5. Field Study, Practice Teaching

FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION (Secondary)

1. ENGLISH

 Remedial Instruction in English

 English for Specific Purposes

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

 Introduction to Linguistics
 Structure of English
 Introduction of Stylistics
 Literary Criticism

LITERATURE

 Mythology and Folklore

 Afro-Asian Literature
 English and American Literature

METHODOLOGY

 The Teaching of Speaking

 Listening and Reading
 Teaching of Literature
 Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials
 Language and Literature Assessment
 Language Research
 Campus Journalism
 Translation and Editing of Text
 Speech and Stage Arts
 Creative Writing

2. FILIPINO

MGA BATAYANG TEORETIKAL

 Introduksyon sa Pag-aaral ng Wika

 Panimulang Linggwistika

NILALAMAN

 Wika
 Panitikan
 Metodolohiya
 Pagtataya at Ebalwasyon
 Kagamitang Pangturo

3. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

 Biological Science I
 Biological Science II
 Inorganic Chemistry
 Cell Biology
 Ecology
  Organic Chemistry
 Microbiology
 Genetic and Evolution
 Biochemistry and Anatomy
 Physiology

4. PHYSICAL SCIENCES

INTRODUCTION

 Nature of Science
 Chemistry
 Atomic and Molecular
 Chemical Bonds
 Conservation of Matter and Stoichichiometry
 Gases, Liquids and Solids
 Acids and Bases
 Solutions
 Chemical Thermodynamics
 Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
 Organic and Biochemistry
 Nuclear Processes

PHYSICS

 Physical Quantities and Vectors

 Mechanics
 Electricity
 Magnetism and Electronics
 Thermodynamics
 Modern Physics
 Light and Geometries Optics
 Earth and Space
 Astronomy
 Environment

5. MATHEMATICS

 Arithmetic & Number Theory and Business Math

 Basic & Advanced Algebra
 Plane and Solid Geometry
 Trigonometry
 Probability and Statistics
 Analytical Geometry
 Calculus
 Modern Geometry
 Linear and Abstract Algebra
 History of Mathematics
 Problem Solving
 Mathematical Investigation
 Instrumentation and Assessment

6. SOCIAL STUDIES/SOCIAL SCIENCES

 Trends and Issues in Social Studies

 Research
 Geography
 Sociology and Anthropology
 Politics/Governance/Law-Related
HISTORY: 

 World History and Civilization I

 World History and Civilization II
 Asian Studies

ECONOMICS

 Micro-Macro Economics
 Economic Planning and Strategies

METHODS

 Teaching Approaches in Secondary Social Studies

 Productions of Instructional Materials for Social Studies
 Building Bridges Across Social science Discipline ( MAKABAYAN as a core learning area in
Basic Education)

ASSESSMENT

 Assessment and Evaluation in the Social Sciences/Social Studies

7. VALUES EDUCATION

FOUNDATION OF VALUES EDUCATION

 Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of VE

 Socio-Cultural, Anthropological & Legal Bases of VE
 Psychological Theories of Values Development

PERSONHOOD DEVELOPMENT

 Personhood Development
 Dynamics of Intra and Interpersonal Relations
 Psycho-Spiritual Development
 Management of Behavior Problems

TRANSFORMATIVE EDUCATION (SOURCES OF VALUES AND FACTORS IN VALUES ED)

 Family Life and Filipino Values System

 Education for Human Rights and Responsible Citizenship
 Foundations of Gender Studies
 Peace and Global Education
 Information Technology and Human Development
 Moral Issues and Concerns in Contemporary Living

WORK ETHICS AND COMMUNITY SERVICE

COMMITMENT TO SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

 Career Development and Work Values

 Values Education through Community Service

APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGIES

 Facilitation
 Theory and Practice
 Teaching Approaches and Strategies in Transformative Education
 Values Integration in the School Setting
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

 Behavioral Statistics
 Development of VE Instruction Materials and Assessment Tools
 Research in VE

8. MAPEH

 Foundations of MAPEH
 Methods and Strategies of Teaching MAPEH
 Coaching and Officiating of Sports Events, Dance Competitions and Music Activities
 Organization and Management, Research, Special Education in MAPEH

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Anatomical, Mechanical and Physiological Bases of Movement

GYMNASTICS

 Philippine Folkdance
 Team SPORTS, Aquatics
 International Folk Dance and Other Dance Forms
 Athletics, Individual, Dual and Combative Sports

HEALTH EDUCATION

 Personal Community
 Environmental Health
 Safety Education and First Aid
 Health Practicum

MUSIC

 Philippine and Asian Music

 Solfeggio and Applied Piano
 Integrated Music Theory
 Music Literature
 Choral Works and Conducting and Randalia Playing Instrumentation
 ART EDUCATION

9. AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY ARTS

 Functional Application of Knowledge
 Breeds of Farm Animals and Fish
 Pests and Diseases Affecting Animals and Fish Propagation
 Marketing Strategies in the Industry/Entrepreneurship
 Proper Care and Management of Agricultural and Fishery Products

10. TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION

 Basic Drafting
 Business Math
 Basic Electricity
 Basic Plumbing
 Cosmetology
 Foods
 Carpentry and Masonry
  Basic Electronics and Entrepreneurship

 "How to pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers?"

 This is a very common question to some people who are currently preparing for the
upcoming Licensure Examination for Teachers. Some of them asked their relatives or any
other friends who are ahead of them, while the others used the internet to search for the
tips on how to pass the LET. I believe that you're one of them and that's the reason why
you're here in this article. That's good! because this article will really help you!

 Actually I only have 3 Basic Tips on How to Pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers
and here are they:

 #1 Pray to God
 God is our Creator so this should be the first thing that you must do. Talk to God through a
sincere prayer. Just one simple prayer is enough as long as it comes from your heart. It
doesn't have to be very long, all you have to do is close your eyes and talk to Him as if He's
in front of you. He will never give you the answer keys but He will surely give you His
guidance. Give thanks to God our Creator. Amen?

 #2 Believe in Yourself
 This is the second thing that you need to do. It's really simple right? You have to believe in
yourself. God created you and gave you talents and skills so you must believe that you can
do it. Throw away those "What if..." questions from your mind! Avoid being pessimist
because it will never help you. Trust your self because God has a plan for you. If
you believe in yourself you'll eventually gain some sort of interest or energy to take up the
next step.

 #3 Review Review Review

 This is the last but the most important thing that you must do. Review those past lessons
that you had taken from your school/university. God will give you His guidance to pass the
LET but He'll never give you the answer keys so, do your part. If you really want to pass
you have to review. There are lots of reviewers in this website and some important points
that will help you to pass the examination.

There are lots of Famous Filipino Writers in Philippines. All of them are great writers and they
contributed a lot of compositions and writings. Those writers used Pen Names/Pseudonyms and
here are they:

List of the Famous Filipino Writers and their Pen Names or Pseudonyms

 Jose dela Cruz - Huseng Sisiw

 Marcelo H. Del Pilar - Plaridel, Dolores Manapat, Piping Dilat, Siling Labuyo, Kupang,
Haitalaga, Patos, Carmelo, D.A. Murgas, L.O. Crame D.M. Calero, Hilario, and M. Dati.
 Severino de las Alas - Di-kilala
 Epifanio delos Santos - G. Solon
 Valeriano Hernandez Peña - Ahas na Tulog, Anong, Damulag, Dating Alba, Isang Dukha,
Kalampag and Kintin Kulirat
 Severino Reyes - Lola Basyang
 Pedro de Govantes de Azcarraga - Conde de Albay
 Francisco dela Cruz Balagtas - Francisco Baltazar
 Asuncion Lopez Bantug (Rizal’s grand niece) - Apo ni Dimas
 Jose Ma. Basa
 Dr. José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda - José Rizal, Dimas-alang (Tagalog for
Touch me not), Laong-Laan (which means Ever-prepared), Agnoand Calambeño
 Hugo Salazar - Ambut
 Moises Salvador - Araw
 Jose Turiano Santiago - Tiktik
 Lope K. Santos - Anak-Bayan and Doctor Lukas
  Juan Crisostomo Soto - Crissot
 Luis Taruc - Alipato (which means spark that spreads a fire and one of Rizal’s pet dogs)
 Jose Ma. Sison - Amado Guerrero
 Dr. Pio Valenzuela - Madlang-Away
 Clemente Jose Zulueta - M. Kaun
 J. Zulueta - Juan Totoó
 Isaac Fernando delos Rios
 Bautista - Ba Basiong
 Gen. Vito Belarmino - Blind Veteran
 Andres Bonifacio - Agapito Bagumbayan, while his inspiring Katipunan name was
Maypagasa
 Felipe Calderon - Simoun and Elias (names from Rizal’s novels)
 José Corazón de Jesús - Huseng Batute
 Mariano del Rosario - Tito-Tato
 Antonio K. Abad - Akasia
 Jose Abreu - Kaibigan
 Macario Adriatico - Amaori, C. Amabri and Felipe Malayo
 Faustino Aguilar - Sinag-Ina
 Emilio Aguinaldo - Magdalo
 Virgilio Almario - Rio Alma
 Pascual Alvarez - Bagongbuhay
 Aurelio Alvero - Magtanggul Asa
 Cecilio Apostol - Catulo, Calipso and Calypso
 Francisco Arcellana - Franz Arcellana
 Salvador Vivencio del Rosario - X and Juan Tagalo
 Domingo Gomez - Romero Franco
 Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez - N.V.M. Gonzalez
 Fernando Ma. Guerrero - Fluvio Gil
 Amado Hernandez - Amante Ernani, Herininia de la Riva and Julio Abril
 Emilio Jacinto - Dimas-ilaw and his Katipunan name was Pingkian
 Nick Joaquin - Quijano de Manila
 Jesus Lava - B. Ambrosio Rianzares
 Sixto Lopez - Batulaw
 Gen. Antonio Luna - Taga-Ilog
 Juan Luna - J.B. and Buan (a translation of his surname Luna which means moon)
 Apolinario Mabini - Bini and Paralitico
 Jose Palma - Ana-haw, Esteban Estebanes and Gan Hantik
 Rafael Palma - Hapon and Dapit-Hapon
 Jose Maria Panganiban - Jomapa and J.M.P.
 Pascual H. Poblete - Anak-Bayan
 Mariano Ponce - Naning, Tikbalang, and Kalipulako

Iba’t Ibang Panahon ng Panitikang Pilipino

Sinaunang Panahon

 May sarili nang panitikan ang ating mga ninuno sa panahong ito.
 Alibata ang kadalasang ginagamit.
 Gumagamit din sila ng mga biyas ng kawayan , talukap ng bunga o niyog at dahon at balat
ng punungkahoy bilang sulatan at matutulis na bagay naman bilang panulat.

Mga uri ng Panitikang sumibol at sumikat sa sinaunang panahon:

1. Alamat
2. Kwentong Bayan
3. Mga Awiting Bayan
4. Epiko

a. Bidasari - Moro
b. Biag ni Lam-ang - Iloko
 c. Maragtas - Bisaya
d. Haraya - Bisaya
e. Lagda - Bisaya
f. Kumintang - Tagalog
g. Hari sa Bukid - Bisaya
      5. Karunungan Bayan
          a. Salawikain - nagsisilbing batas at tuntunin ng kagandahang-asal ng ating mga ninuno.
             Halimbawa: Aanhin pa ang damo kung wala na ang kabayo.
          b. Sawikain - mga kasabihang walang natatagong kahulugan
             Halimbawa: Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa.
          c. Bugtong - maikling tulang karaniwang naglalarawan ng isang bagay na siyang
pahuhulaan.
             Halimbawa: Isang tabo , laman ay pako. (langka)

Pananakop ng Mga Kastila:

Mga Impluwensya ng Kastila sa ating Panitikan:

1. Nahalinan ng Alpabetong Romano ang Alibata

2. Naituro ang Doctrina Cristiana
3. Naging Bahagi ng Wikang Filipino ang maraming salita sa Kastila
4. Nadala ang ilang akdang pampanitikan ng Europa at tradisyong Europeo na naging bahagi ng
ating panitikan gaya ng awit, corido, moro-moro at iba pa.
5. Nasinop at nasalin ang makalumang panitikan sa Tagalog sa ibang wikain
6. Nailathala ang iba’t ibang aklat pambalarila sa wikang Filipino tulad ng Tagalog, Ilokano at
Bisaya 
7. Nagkaroon ng makarelihiyong himig ang mga akda

Mga Unang Aklat:

a. Ang Doctrina Cristiana (1593) – Padre Juan de Placencia at Padre Dominga Nieva
b. Nuestra Senora del Rosario (1602) – Padre Blancas de San Jose
c. Ang Barlaan at Josaphat (nobelang Tagalog) – Padre Antonio de Borja
d. Ang Pasyon – iba’t ibang bersyon sa Tagalog (Mariano Pilapil, Gaspar Aquino de Belen, Anecito
de la Merced at Luis de Guia)
e. Ang Urbana at Felisa – Modesto de Castro (Ama ng klasikang tuluyan sa Tagalog)

Mga Akdang Pangwika:

a. Arte Y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala

b. Compendio de la lengua Tagala
c. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala
d. Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampango
e. Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya
f. Arte de la Lengua Bicolana
g. Arte de la Lengua Iloka
Mga Dulang Panlibangan

1. Tibag 7. duplo
2. Lagaylay 8. kurido
3. Sinakulo 9. saynete
4. Panubong 10. karagatan
5. Karilyo 11. sarswela
6. Moro-moro

Panahon ng Pagbabagong-isip (Propaganda)

 Ang diwang maka-relihiyon ay naging makabayan at humihingi ng pagbabago sa sistema

ng pamamalakad sa pamahalaan at simbahan.
 Pagpasok ng diwang liberalismo.

Mga Propagandista:
a. Dr. Jose Rizal/ Laong Laan at Dimasalang (“Noli at El Fili)
b. Marcelo H. Del Pilar (Palridel, Piping Dilat at Dolores Manapat) – Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa,
Kaiigat Kayo at Tocsohan
c. Graciano Lopez Jaena (Fray Botod, Sa Mga Pilipino atbp)
d. Antonio Luna (Noche Buena, Por Madrid atbp)

Panahon ng Amerikano

1. Maalab ang diwang makabayan na hindi na magawang igupo ng mga Amerikano

2. Pinasok ng mga manunulat na Pilipino ang iba’t ibang larangan ng panitikan tulad ng tula,
kwento, dula, sanaysay, nobela atbp.
3. Pag-ibig sa bayan at pagnanais ng kalayaan ang tema ng mga isinusulat
4. Namayani sa panahong ito ang mga akda sa wikang Kastila, Tagalog at wikang Ingles
5. Pinatigil ang mga dulang may temang makabayan
6. Sa panahong ito nailathala ang babasahing Liwayway
7. Pinauso rin ang balagtasan katumbas ng debate
8. Nagkaroon/Nagsimula ang pelikula sa Pilipinas

Mga Pahayagan:

1. El Nuevo Dia (Ang Bagong Araw) ni Sergio Osmena (1900)

2. El Grito del Pueblo (Ang Sigaw ng Bayan) itinatag ni Pascual Poblete (1900)
3. El Renacimiento (Muling Pagsilang) – itinatag ni Rafael Palma (1900)

Mga Dulang Pinatigil:

1. Kahapon Ngayon at Bukas – Aurelio Tolentino

2. Tanikalang Ginto – Juan Abad
3. Walang Sugat – Severino Reyes

Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Kastila na sumikat:

1. Cecelio Apostol
2. Fernando Ma. Guerrero
3. Jesus Balmori
4. Manuel Bernabe Manalang
5. Claro M. Recto

Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Wikang Tagalog:

1. Lope K. Santos
2. Jose Corazon de Jesus
3. Florentino Collantes
4. Amado V. Hernadez
5. Valeriano Hernandez Pena
6. Inigo Ed Regalado

Panahon ng Hapon

1. Natigil ang panitikan sa Ingles kasabay ng pagpatigil ng lahat ng pahayagan.

2. Gintong Panahon para sa mga manunulat sa wikang tagalog.
3. Ipinagbawal din ng mga Hapon ang paggamit ng wikang Ingles.
4. Ang paksa ay natutungkol sa buhay lalawigan.
5. Napasara ang mga sinehan at ginawa na lamang tanghalan.
6. Nagkaroon ng krisis ng papel kaya hindi masyadong marami ang akdang naisulat.

Tatlong Uri ng Tula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon

1. Haiku
2. Tanaga
3. Karaniwang Anyo
Ilang Dula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon

a. Panday Pira – ni Jose Ma. Hernandez

b. Sa Pula sa Puti --- Francisco Soc. Rodrigo
c. Bulaga - ni Clodualdo del Mundo
d. “Sino ba Kayo?” “Dahil sa Anak” at “Higanti ng Patay” ni NVM Gonzales

Ilang Mahusay na Maikling Kwento

a. Lupang Tinubuan - Narciso Reyes

b. Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa - Liwayway Arceo
c. Lunsod Nayon at Dagat-dagatan - NVM Gonzales

Bagong Kalayaan (1945 - 1972)

 Sumigla muli ang panitik sa Pilipinas.

 Naging paksain ang kabayanihan ng mga gerilya, kalupitan ng mga Hapon, Kahirapan ng
pamumuhay noon atbp.
 Nabuksang muli ang mga palimbagang naipasara dahil sa giyera.
 Naitatag ang Palanca Memorial Award in Pilipino and English Literature noong 1950.
 Nagkaroon din ng Republic Cultural Award, Gawad ni Balagtas at Taunang Gawad ng
Surian ng Wikang Pambansa.
 Sumigla rin ang pagkakaroon ng pahayagan sa mga paaralang pangkolehiyo.
 Nagbukas rin ang palimbagan ng lingguhang babasahin: Liwayway, Bulaklak, Tagumpay,
Ilang-ilang atbp.

Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Filipino:

 Taliba ng Inang Wika (TANIW)

 Kapisanan ng Diwa at Panitik (KADIPAN)
 Kapisanan ng mga Mandudulang Pilipino (KAMPI)
 Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Ingles:
 Philippine Writers Association
 Dramatic Philippines
 Philippine Educational Theater Association (PETA)
 Arena Theater
 Barangay Writer’s Guild

Batas Militar 1972 – 1986

 1972 idiniklara ang Batas Militar sa Pilipinas sa pamumuno ni Pangulong Ferdinand Marcos.
 Paksa ang paghingi ng pagbabago sa pamahalaan at lipunan.
 Pagsisimula ng programang Bagong Lipunan noong Setyembre 21, 1972.
 Pinahinto ang mga pampahayagan at maging samahang pampaaralan.
 Pagpapatatag ng “Ministri ng Kabatirang Pangmadla” (sumubaybay sa mga pahayagan,
aklat at mga iba pang babasahing panlipunan).

Kasalukuyang Panahon

 Isa pang makulay na kabanata ng panitikang Pilipino.

 Namumulat ang mamayang Pilipino sa kahalagahan ng pambansang wika.
 Marami na ang sumusubok na sumulat gamit ang kanilang sariling bernakyular.
 Mas mayaman ang pinagkukunan ng paksang isusulat.
 Malaki ang impluwensiya ng teknolohiya at agham.
 Malayo na rin ang naaabot ng media.
 Kahit sa mga telebisyon nagbabago na rin ang wikang ginagamit.
 Hindi lamang pamapanitikan ang uri ng salitang ginagamit ngunit mapapansin na may mga
akda na gumagamit na rin ng pabalbal, kolokyal at lalawiganin.
Jose P. Rizal (1861-1896) 

Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887). Noong 1890, tinapos niya ang
ikalawang nobela, ang El Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal ng mga sagisag na
“Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay nakapagsasalita ng dalawampu’t dalawang wika.

Marcelo H. del Pilar 

Bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya kaagad ang pagtutol sa mga
pamamalakad ng mga Kastila. Lantad ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang
Diariong Tagalog, na itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong 1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, 1889,
napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging patnugot ng La Solidaridad. Gumamit siya ng mga sagisag tulad
ng “Dolores Manapat”, “Piping Dilat”, “Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at
“Pupdoh”.

Mga Akda ni Marcelo H. del Pilar:

1. “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” – salin ng tulang “Amor Patrio” ni Rizal.
2. Caiigat Cayo (1888)
3. Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888)
4. Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios
5. Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889)
6. Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…

Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896) 

Itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat ng mga ulat para sa Circulo. Noong
1889, itinatag niya ang La Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot nito. Nang mapalipat kay M. del
Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat na lamang siya ng pahayagan. Nagkubli siya sa
pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang orador kaysa manunulat.
Sinulat niya ang FrayBotod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam na naglalarawan sa “kasibaan
ng mga prayle”. Ang FrayBotod ay prayleng napakalakas kumain.

Mariano Ponce (1863-1899) 

Gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang
“Mga Alamat ng Bulakan”, at ang dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”.

Antonio Luna (1866-1899) 

Parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-akda. Marami siyang naiambag

sa La Solidaridad. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La Tertulia Filipina”, “La
Maestra de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”.

Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911) 

May-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang nobelang sinulat sa Kastila ng isang
Pilipino.

Pascual Poblete (1858-1921) 

Nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Pahayagan”. Siya ang nagtatag ng mga
pahayagang El Resumen, El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya rin ang kauna-unahang
nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere.

Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895)

Sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim ng sagisag na Jomapa.

Pedro Serrano Laktaw 

Leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang unang sumulat ng Diccionario
Hispano-Tagalog (1889).

Isabelo delos Reyes 

Nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala sa Exposisyon sa Madrid, sa
sinulat na “El Folklore Filipino”.

Fernando Canon 

Kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa mga tulang pang-Rizal
nagsimula ang kanyang katanyagan. Kapwa pintor naman sina Juan Luna at Felix Resureccion
Hidalgo.

Mga Nakilalang Mandudula

Severino Reyes (1861-1942) 

Pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin siya sa sagisag na “Lola
Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga kuwentong-bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang Liwayway. Ang
kanyang sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na kanyang obra-maestra. Noong 1922, naging
patnugot siya ng Liwayway.

Patricio Mariano 

Isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata. Marami siyang nasulat na dula na
kinabibilangan ng Anak ng Dagat, Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo Rin, at iba pa.
Siya ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga Mandudulang Tagalog.

Hermogenes Ilagan

Siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa paglikha at pagtatanghal ng

sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag niyang dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid.

Julian Cruz Balmaseda 

Namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni Anita. Ito ang dulang nagtamo
ng unang gantimpala sa timpalak ng Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa Bunganga ng Pating,
binaka niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping patubuan.

Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913) 

Dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at Kastila. Maraming dula siyang

nasulat tulad ng Bagong Kristo, isang sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan, isang romantikong
sarsuwelang may tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga dula niya, ang nakilala’y ang kanyang
Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang ito ay naglalahad sa pamamagitan ng mga
simbolikong tauhan na pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas.

Juan K. Abad 

Nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang kanyang mga akdang nanunuligsa
sa pamahalaan at sa mga prayle at pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad ang
pagbaka sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay nakakalason sa isipan ng mga Pilipino.

THE MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS

also known as
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4670
(June 18, 1966)

I. DECLARATION OF POLICY COVERAGE

Sec. 1. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of this Act to promote and
improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working
conditions, their terms of employment and career prospects in order that they may compare
favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life, attract and retain in the teaching
profession more people with the proper qualifications, it being recognized that advance in
education depends on the qualifications and ability of the teaching staff and that education is an
essential factor in the economic growth of the nation as a productive investment of vital
importance. 

Sec. 2. Title Definition. This Act shall be known as the "Magna Carta for Public School Teachers"
and shall apply to all public school teachers except those in the professorial staff of state colleges
and universities. 

As used in this Act, the term "teacher" shall mean all persons engaged in classroom teaching, in
any level of instruction, on full-time basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians,
industrial arts or vocational instructors, and all other persons performing supervisory and/or
administrative functions in all schools, colleges and universities operated by the Government or its
political subdivisions; but shall not include school nurses, school physicians, school dentists, and
other school employees. 

II. RECRUITMENT AND CAREER 

Sec. 3. Recruitment and Qualification. Recruitment policy with respect to the selection

and appointmentof teachers shall be clearly defined by the Department of Education: Provided,
however, That effective upon the approval of this Act, the following shall constitute the minimum
educational qualifications for teacher-applicants: 

(a) For teachers in the kindergarten and elementary grades, Bachelor's degree in Elementary
Education (B.S.E.ED.); 

(b) For teachers of the secondary schools, Bachelor's degree in Education or its equivalent with a
major and a minor; or a Bachelor's degree in Arts or Science with at least eighteen professional
units in Education. 

(c) For teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses, Bachelor's degree in the
field of specialization with at least eighteen professional units in education; 

(d) For teachers of courses on the collegiate level, other than vocational, master's degree with a
specific area of specialization; 

Provided, further, That in the absence of applicants who possess the minimum

educational qualificationsas hereinabove provided, the school superintendent may appoint, under a
temporary status, applicantswho do not meet the minimum qualifications: Provided, further, That
should teacher-applicants, whether they possess the minimum educational qualifications or not, be
required to take competitive examinations, preference in making appointments shall be in the
order of their respective ranks in said competitive examinations: And provided, finally, That the
results of the examinations shall be made public and every applicant shall be furnished with his
score and rank in said examinations. 

Sec. 4. Probationary Period. When recruitment takes place after adequate training and professional
preparation in any school recognized by the Government, no probationary period preceding
regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher possesses the appropriate civil
service eligibility: Provided, however, That where, due to the exigencies of the service, it is
necessary to employ as teacher a person who possesses the minimum
educational qualifications herein above set forth but lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility,
such person shall be appointed on a provisional status and shall undergo a period of probation for
not less than one year from and after the date of his provisional appointment. 

Sec. 5. Tenure of Office. Stability on employment and security of tenure shall be assured the
teachers as provided under existing laws. 
Subject to the provisions of Section three hereof, teachers appointed on a provisional status for
lack of necessary civil service eligibility shall be extended permanent appointment for the position
he is holding after having rendered at least ten years of continuous, efficient and faithful service in
such position. 

Sec. 6. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses. Except for cause and as herein otherwise
provided, no teacher shall be transferred without his consent from one station to another. 

Where the exigencies of the service require the transfer of a teacher from one station to another,
such transfer may be effected by the school superintendent who shall previously notify the teacher
concerned of the transfer and the reason or reasons therefor. If the teacher believes there is no
justification for the transfer, he may appeal his case to the Director of Public Schools or the
Director of Vocational Education, as the case may be. Pending his appeal and the decision thereon,
his transfer shall be held in abeyance: Provided, however, That no transfers whatever shall be
made three months before any local or national election. 

Necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and his family shall be paid for by the Government if
his transfer is finally approved. 

Sec. 7. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers. Within six months from the approval of this Act,
the Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare a Code of Professional Conduct for Public
School Teachers. A copy of the Code shall be furnished each teacher: Provided, however, That
where this is not possible by reason of inadequate fiscal resources of the Department of Education,
at least three copies of the same Code shall be deposited with the office of the school principal or
head teacher where they may be accessible for use by the teachers. 

Sec. 8. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedure. Every teacher shall enjoy equitable safeguards at
each stage of any disciplinary procedure and shall have: 

a. the right to be informed, in writing, of the charges; 

b. the right to full access to the evidence in the case; 

c. the right to defend himself and to be defended by a representative of his choice and/or by his
organization, adequate time being given to the teacher for the preparation of his defense; and 

d. the right to appeal to clearly designated authorities. 

No publicity shall be given to any disciplinary action being taken against a teacher during the
pendency of his case. 

Sec. 9. Administrative Charges. Administrative charges against a teacher shall be heard initially by
a committee composed of the corresponding School Superintendent of the Division or a duly
authorized representative who should at least have the rank of a division supervisor, where the
teacher belongs, as chairman, a representative of the local or, in its absence, any existing
provincial or national teacher's organization and a supervisor of the Division, the last two to be
designated by the Director of Public Schools. The committee shall submit its findings and
recommendations to the Director of Public Schools within thirty days from the termination of
the hearings: Provided, however, That where the school superintendent is the complainant or an
interested party, all the members of the committee shall be appointed by the Secretary of
Education. 

Sec. 10. No Discrimination. There shall be no discrimination whatsoever in entrance to the teaching
profession, or during its exercise, or in the termination of services, based on other than
professional consideration. 

Sec. 11. Married Teachers. Whenever possible, the proper authorities shall take all steps to enable
married couples, both of whom are public school teachers, to be employed in the same locality. 

Sec. 12. Academic Freedom. Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom in the discharge of their
professional duties, particularly with regard to teaching and classroom methods. 

III. HOURS OF WORK AND REMUNERATION 

Sec. 13. Teaching Hours. Any teacher engaged in actual classroom instruction shall not be required
to render more than six hours of actual classroom teaching a day, which shall be so scheduled as
to give him time for the preparation and correction of exercises and other work incidental to his
normal teaching duties: Provided, however, That where the exigencies of the service so require,
any teacher may be required to render more than six hours but not exceeding eight hours of actual
classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional compensation at the same rate as his
regular remuneration plus at least twenty-five per cent of his basic pay. 

Sec. 14. Additional Compensation. Notwithstanding any provision of existing law to the contrary,
co-curricula and out of school activities and any other activities outside of what is defined as
normal duties of any teacher shall be paid an additional compensation of at least twenty-five per
cent of his regular remuneration after the teacher has completed at least six hours of actual
classroom teaching a day. 

In the case of other teachers or school officials not engaged in actual classroom instruction, any
work performed in excess of eight hours a day shall be paid an additional compensation of at least
twenty-five per cent of their regular remuneration. 

The agencies utilizing the services of teachers shall pay the additional compensation required
under this section. Education authorities shall refuse to allow the rendition of services of teachers
for other government agencies without the assurance that the teachers shall be paid the
remuneration provided for under this section. 

Sec. 15. Criteria for Salaries. Teacher's salaries shall correspond to the following criteria: 

(a) they shall compare favorably with those paid in other occupations requiring equivalent or
similar qualifications, training and abilities; 

(b) they shall be such as to insure teachers a reasonable standard of life for themselves and their
families; and 

(c) they shall be properly graded so as to recognize the fact that certain positions require higher
qualifications and greater responsibility than others: Provided, however, That the general salary
scale shall be such that the relation between the lowest and highest salaries paid in the profession
will be of reasonable order. Narrowing of the salary scale shall be achieved by raising the lower end
of the salary scales relative to the upper end. 

Sec. 16. Salary Scale. Salary scales of teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a
minimum to a maximum salary by means of regular increments, granted automatically after three
years: Provided, That the efficiency rating of the teacher concerned is at least satisfactory. The
progression from the minimum to the maximum of the salary scale shall not extend over a period
of ten years. 

Sec. 17. Equality in Salary Scales. The salary scales of teachers whose salaries are appropriated by
a city, municipal, municipal district, or provincial government, shall not be less than those provided
for teachers of the National Government. 

Sec. 18. Cost of Living Allowance. Teacher's salaries shall, at the very least, keep pace with the rise
in the cost of living by the payment of a cost-of-living allowance which shall automatically follow
changes in a cost-of-living index. The Secretary of Education shall, in consultation with the proper
government entities, recommend to Congress, at least annually, the appropriation of the necessary
funds for the cost-of-living allowances of teachers employed by the National Government. The
determination of the cost-of-living allowances by the Secretary of Education shall, upon approval of
the President of the Philippines, be binding on the city, municipal or provincial government, for the
purposes of calculating the cost-of-living allowances of teachers under its employ. 

Sec. 19. Special Hardship Allowances. In areas in which teachers are exposed to hardship such as
difficulty in commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment,
as determined by the Secretary of Education, they shall be compensated special hardship
allowances equivalent to at least twenty-five per cent of their monthly salary. 

Sec. 20. Salaries to be Paid in Legal Tender. Salaries of teachers shall be paid in legal tender of the
Philippines or its equivalent in checks or treasury warrants. Provided, however, That such checks or
treasury warrants shall be cashable in any national, provincial, city or municipal treasurer's office
or any banking institutions operating under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines. 
Sec. 21. Deductions Prohibited. No person shall make any deduction whatsoever from the salaries
of teachers except under specific authority of law authorizing such deductions: Provided, however,
That upon written authority executed by the teacher concerned, (1) lawful dues and fees owing to
the Philippine Public School Teachers Association, and (2) premiums properly due on insurance
policies, shall be considered deductible. 

IV. HEALTH MEASURES AND INJURY BENEFITS 

Sec. 22. Medical Examination and Treatment. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided
free of charge for all teachers before they take up teaching, and shall be repeated not less than
once a year during the teacher's professional life. Where medical examination show that medical
treatment and/or hospitalization is necessary, same shall be provided free by the government
entity paying the salary of the teachers. 

In regions where there is scarcity of medical facilities, teachers may obtain elsewhere the
necessary medical care with the right to be reimbursed for their traveling expenses by the
government entity concerned in the first paragraph of this Section. 

Sec. 23. Compensation For Injuries. Teachers shall be protected against the consequences of
employment injuries in accordance with existing laws. The effects of the physical and nervous
strain on the teacher's health shall be recognized as a compensable occupational disease in
accordance with existing laws. 

V. LEAVE AND RETIREMENT BENEFITS 

Sec. 24. Study Leave. In addition to the leave privileges now enjoyed by teachers in the public
schools, they shall be entitled to study leave not exceeding one school year after seven years of
service. Such leave shall be granted in accordance with a schedule set by the Department of
Education. During the period of such leave, the teachers shall be entitled to at least sixty per cent
of their monthly salary: Provided, however, That no teacher shall be allowed to accumulate more
than one year study leave, unless he needs an additional semester to finish his thesis for a
graduate study in education or allied courses: Provided, further, That no compensation shall be due
the teacher after the first year of such leave. In all cases, the study leave period shall be counted
for seniority and pension purposes. 

The compensation allowed for one year study leave as herein provided shall be subject to the
condition that the teacher takes the regular study load and passes at least seventy-five per cent of
his courses. Study leave of more than one year may be permitted by the Secretary of Education
but without compensation. 

Sec. 25. Indefinite Leave. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be granted to teachers when the
nature of the illness demands a long treatment that will exceed one year at the least. 

Sec. 26. Salary Increase upon Retirement. Public school teachers having fulfilled the age and
service requirements of the applicable retirement laws shall be given one range salary raise upon
retirement, which shall be the basis of the computation of the lump sum of the retirement pay and
the monthly benefits thereafter. 

VI. TEACHER'S ORGANIZATION 

Sec. 27. Freedom to Organize. Public school teachers shall have the right to freely and without
previous authorization both to establish and to join organizations of their choosing, whether local or
national to further and defend their interests. 

Sec. 28. Discrimination Against Teachers Prohibited. The rights established in the immediately
preceding Section shall be exercised without any interference or coercion. It shall be unlawful for
any person to commit any acts of discrimination against teachers which are calculated to (a) make
the employment of a teacher subject to the condition that he shall not join an organization, or shall
relinquish membership in an organization, 

(b) to cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a teacher by reason of his membership in an
organization or because of participation in organization activities outside school hours, or with the
consent of the proper school authorities, within school hours, and (c) to prevent him from carrying
out the duties laid upon him by his position in the organization, or to penalize him for an action
undertaken in that capacity. 
Sec. 29. National Teacher's Organizations. National teachers' organizations shall be consulted in
the formulation of national educational policies and professional standards, and in the formulation
of national policies governing the social security of the teachers. 

VII. ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT 

Sec. 30. Rules and Regulations. The Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare the
necessary rules and regulations to implement the provisions of this Act. Rules and regulations
issued pursuant to this Section shall take effect thirty days after publication in a newspaper of
general circulation and by such other means as the Secretary of Education deems reasonably
sufficient to give interested parties general notice of such issuance. 

Sec. 31. Budgetary Estimates. The Secretary of Education shall submit to Congress annually the
necessary budgetary estimates to implement the provisions of the Act concerning the benefits
herein granted to public school teachers under the employ of the National Government. 

Sec. 32. Penal Provision. A person who shall willfully interfere with, restrain or coerce any teacher
in the exercise of his rights guaranteed by this Act or who shall in any other manner commit any
act to defeat any of the provisions of this Act shall, upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not
less than one hundred pesos nor more than one thousand pesos, or by imprisonment, in the
discretion of the court. 

If the offender is a public official, the court shall order his dismissal from the Government service. 

Sec. 33. Repealing Clause. All Acts or parts of Acts, executive orders and their implementing rules
inconsistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed, amended or modified accordingly. 

Sec. 34. Separability Clause. If any provision of this Act is declared invalid, the remainder of this
Act or any provisions not affected thereby shall remain in force and in effect. 

Sec. 35. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. 

Here are some of the salient points in the Philippine History:

 The first book published in the Philippines was Doctrina Cristiana.

 The Father of Ilocano Literature is Pedro Bukaneg.
 The Father of Tagalog Poetry is Francisco Baltazar.
 Lola Basyang is the pen name of Severino Reyes.
 The first and longest running komiks series in the Philippines is Kenkoy (Liwayway
Magasin,1929)
 The Father of Pampango Literature who wrote "There is no God" is Juan Crisostomo Soto.
 The oldest existing newspaper in the Philippines since the 1900 is Manila Bulletin.
 The Father of Modern Tagalog Poetry is Alejandro Abadilla.
 The work of Bonifacio which tells the history of the Philippines Ang Dapat Mabatid ng
mga Tagalog.
 He wrote the popular fable The Monkey and the Turtle - Jose Rizal
 This is known as Andres Bonifacio's Ten Commandments of the Katipunan - The Decalogue.
 Rizal's model for Pilosopong Tasyo was Paciano Rizal.
 The following characters created by Rizal reflect his own personality except Simoun (El
Filibusterismo)
 The line "whoever knows not how to love his native tongue is worse than any beast or even
smelly fish" To My Fellow Childred
 Rizal's pen name - Dimasalang, Laong-Laan
 Taga-ilog is Juan Luna's Pen name.
 The first filipino alphabet was called Alibata
 Baybayin - The first filipino alphabet consisted of 15 Letters
 This is a song about love - Talindaw
 Awit ng mga taong hindi naimbetahan sa kainan - Colado
 He was known for his `Memoria Fotografica` - Jose Ma. Panganiban 
 He is known as the `poet of the workers or laborers` - Amado Hernandez
 Ilocano balagtasan is called Bukanegan
 Visayan epic about good manners and right conduct - Maragtas
 The father of Filipino newspaper is Pascual Poblete
  Lupang Tinubuan is considered to be the best story written during Japanese Period. The
author is Narciso Reyes
 The original title of Ibong Adarna was Corido at Buhay na Pinagdaanan ng Tatlong
Prinsipeng Anac ng Haring Fernando at Reyna Valeriana sa Caharian Berbania
 Pan de Regla - First filipino bread
 The Great Plebian - Andres Bonifacio
 The Father of the Katipunan - Andres Bonifacio
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle - Gregorio Del Pilar
 President of the First Philippine Republic - General Emilio Aguinaldo
 Brains of the Philippine Revolution - Apolinario Mabini
 Martyred Priests in 1872 - GOMBURZA
 Brains of the Katipunan - Emilio Jacinto
 Co-founder of La Independencia - General Antonio Luna
 Mother of Balintawak - Melchora Aquino
 Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement - Graciano Lopez- Jaena
 First Filipino Cannon-maker - Pandar Pira
 Managing Editor of La Solidaridad - Mariano Ponce
 Lakambini of Katipunan - Gregoria de Jesus
 Poet of the Revolution - Fernando Ma. Guerrero
 Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic - Felipe Agoncillo
 First University of the Philippines President - Rafael Palma
 Greatest Filipino Painter - Juan Luna
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement - Marcelo H. del Pilar
 First Filipino Poetess - Leona Florentino
 Peace of the Revolution - Pedro Paterno
 Founder of Philippine Socialism - Isabelo Delos Reyes 
 Viborra - Artemio Ricarte
 Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem - Jose Palma
 Composer of the Philippine National Anthem - Julian Felipe
 Chief of Tondo - Lakandola
 The Last Rajah of Manila - Rajah Soliman
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal - Leonor Rivera
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag - Marcela Agoncillo
 Co-founder of Katipunan - Galicano Apacible
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt - Diego Silang
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-Lapu
 Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol - Francisco Dagohoy
 The Man of Many Talents - Epifanio Delos Santos
 Prince of Tagalog Poets - Francisco Baltazar
 Visayan Joan of Arc - Teresa Magbanua
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato - Trinidad Tecson
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte - Agueda EstebanLeader of the Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco
Makabulos
 Spaniards born in the Philippines - Insulares
 Leader of Magdalo - Baldomero Aguinaldo 
 Leader of Magdiwang - Mariano Alvarez
 Founder of La Liga Filipina - Jose Rizal
 Painter of the Spolarium - Juan Luna

Science

 From Latin word “scientia." which means "knowledge".

 Any methodological activity. such as observational. experimental investigation and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.
 Systematized knowledge based on facts.

Divisions of Science

 Social Science
 Political Science
 History
  Mathematics
 Natural science

Branches of Natural Science

 Physical Science - Dealing with non-living things.

 Biological Science - Dealing with living things.

Scientific Method

 An orderly. logical and rational manner of solving problems.

 Enables and Ieads scientists towards unveiling the truths about observable phenomena and
construct their clear representations.

Cell Theory

 Describes or explains what a cell is.

 Cell is the basic component of a living organism.
 New cells are produced from existing cells.
 Cell is the building block of life.

Kinds of Cell

 Prokaryotic - has no nucleus; ex. Bacteria

 Eukaryotic - has true nucleus; ex. Mammals

Electromagnetism

 Magnetism  - derived from Magnesia, an island in the Aegean Sea

 Magnet  - an object that attracts magnetic objects like metals
 A magnet has two poles, north and south.
 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
 Generator - a device that changes mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Motor - a device that changes electrical energy to mechanical energy

Mixtures

 Physical combination of 2 or more substances which can be separated by mechanical

means.

 Homogeneous mixture 
 a mixture in which the molecules are thoroughly mixed: a mixture that is uniform
throughout.
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The components of solution are solute, which is the
dissolved particles. and the solvent. which is the dissolving particles.

 Heterogeneous mixture
 Suspensions - heterogeneous mixture where particles are too large that they settle at the
bottom of the container.
 Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures whose particles are not large enough to settle nor small
enough to be dissolved, like the Tyndall Effect. which is the scattering of light by the
particles.

Methods of Separating Mixtures

 Filtration - use of filter paper to separate liquid from solid components.

               Filtrate - liquid that passes through the filter paper.

               Residue - substance that did not pass through the filter paper.
  Decantation - pouring off a layer of liquid from a mixture.
 Magnetism - use of magnets to separate magnetic materials from the nonmagnetic ones.
 Centrifugation - substance is subjected to circular or rotational motion in a centrifuge.
 Distillation - liquid is set to boiling. Vapour is collected and later cooled to condense.
 Chromatography - passing mixture in solution or suspension or as a vapour (as in gas
chromatography) through a medium in which the components move at different rates.

Basic Concept in Educational Technology

A field dedicated to a theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
management and evaluation of process and resources for learning.
Technology Integration
It is the process of determining where and how technology fits in the Teaching and
Learning process.
Factor affecting the selection of educational
technologies
1. Human factors
1.1. Learner factors – refer to learner differences that can influence media choice.

a.) Individual Differences

Research suggests that learner differ in:
• Their preference for learning: by observing (visual learners) or by listening (aural
learners)
• Their perception of a given message: a factor of past experience, and often a
culture difference exists
• Their understanding of the conventions used by various media: language and
technical drawings used

b.) Attention Span
Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one type of task are age,
interest and learners’ motivation

c.) Number of Learner

Select media that are well suited to the group size you have or, if this is difficult,
modify the group or structure to media you have.

d.) Physical Disabilities of Learners (poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color blindness,
etc.)

1.2. Teacher factors- refer to those factors that affect the success of media
implementation.

2. Instructional method
The method of instructions dictates or limit our choice of presentation media. Is it
self-regulated learning method or lecture/expository?

3. Practical constraints
Administrative and economic constraints both limit the choice of methods and
media.
       1.) Objectives           3.) Time
       2.) Availability         4.) Resources
Contributions of education technology to education
• Increase students’ motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence and academic
achievement.
• Supplies stimulating environment that encourage student involvement in the
learning process.
• Promotes higher-level thinking skills and student-centered instruction.
• Offers students diversity, self-paced learning, and opportunities for individuals
growth and self expression.
• Provides students with unique opportunities to apply skills and talent and to
interact with other in non-threatening environments.
• Changes teacher’s and student’s role into positive directions.
• Inspires student and teacher by making learning exciting and interesting.
• Forests the development of leadership abilities and teamwork.
• Support new instructional approaches: cooperative learning, inquiry approach,
problem- based learning, project-based learning and multiple intelligence.
• Provides unique opportunities for student to practice, demonstrate and critique
communication skill.
• Supplies information through multi-sensory delivery channels, allowing students
with various learning styles to assimilate and apply knowledge.
• Expand classroom “walls” and links students and teachers in national and
international exchanges.
Essential conditions for technology integration in the
classroom
For technology to have desired impact on improved teaching and learning, several
conditions must be in place;
• Shared vision for technology integration – this requires coordinated school district
planning with teacher and other personnel at all levels, budgeting yearly amounts for
technologies purchases with incremental funding, emphasizing teacher training,
matching technology to curriculum needs, and keeping current and building
flexibility.
• Standard and curriculum support – technology and content area standard are
designed to support each other.
• Required policies – policies are in place to ensure legal/ ethical use, safe, internet
use, and equity.
• Access to hardware, software and other resources – there is adequate funding,
purchasing procedures are organized and effective, and procedure are in place to set
up and maintain technology resources.
• Trained personnel- staff development that includes hands-on , integration
emphasis, training over time; modeling, mentoring and approaching and post
training-access to technology resources.
• Technical assistance- continuing support for diagnostic and maintenance problem
for teachers’ and students’ computer.
• Appropriate teaching and assessment approaches - teaching strategies are
matched to needs and assessment strategies are matches to the type of learning
being measured.
Some of the most important benefits of internet and
other distances resources: 
• Easy and rapid communication.
• Access to expert resources and information not locally available.
• Access to up-to-date information.
• Easy sharing the information and product.
• Support of a cooperative group work.
• Support for learning information and visual literacy.
Evaluating Instructional Resources
In evaluating instructional resources, several question you should ask yourself are
important, regardless of the type are resources you are considering;
1. Does the content match the curriculum?
2. Is the content accurate, up to date, and appropriate with the students?
3. Do the materials teach and/or reinforce learning effectively?
4. Do these resources enhance instruction?
5. Is the resource easy for the teacher and students to use?
6. Are the materials of high quality technically?
7. Is the use of resource practical of my teaching setting (cost, needed equipment,
etc.)?
Ten Commandments in creating learning/presentation
materials
1. Don’t overcrowd.
2. Be consistent in formal, layout and conventions.
3. Use appropriate type paces and point uses.
4. Used bold and italics for emphasis, but don’t overuse them.
5. Use titles, headings, and subheadings to clarify and guide.
6. Use numbers through direct sequence.
7. Use graphics and illustration to reinforce ideas.
8. Use symbols and icons as identifying markers.
9. Use color/audio/music to stimulate but not to overpower, the senses.
10. Produce the materials with technical excellence – good quality good audio, clear
etc.

According to UNESCO the four pillars of learning are the fundamental principles for
reshaping education.

FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION/LEARNING

LEARNING TO KNOW
 Focuses on combining broad gen. knowledge and basic educ. with the
opportunity to work on a small number of subjects in the light of rapid
changes brought about by scientific progress ang new forms of economic and
social acitivity.
 Learning how to learn and to discover, as to benefit from ongoing educational
opportunities continuously arising throughout life.
 Developing the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning and problem
solving.
 Understanding about one's environment.
 Communicating with others.

LEARNING TO DO
 Emphasizes on the learning of skills necessary to practice a profession or
trade.
 Applying in practice what has been learned.
 Developing vocational / occupational and technical skills.
 Developing social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relationships.
 Developing competence, social behavior, aptitude for teamwork.
 Enhancing the ability to communicate and work with others.
 Managing and resolving conflicts.

LEARNING TO BE 
 Prioritizes the development of the human potential to the fullest.
 Tapping the talents hidden with individual.
 Developing personal commitment and responsibilty for the common good.
LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER
 Emphasizes understanding of others, their history, tradition and cultures, and
also living and interacting peacefully together.
 Appreciating diversity of human race
 Being receptive to others and encounter others through dialogue and debate.
 Caring about others
 Working toward common objectives in cooperative undertakings.
 Managing and resolving conflicts.

ANO ANG TAYUTAY?

Ang Tayutay ay isang salita o grupo ng mga salita na kadalasang ginagamit upang
maipahayag ang isang emosyon sa paraang hindi karaniwan upang makabuo ng mas
malalim na kahulugan. Ito ay hindi literalkundi isang patalinghaga na minsa'y
ginagamit bilang simbolo.

MGA URI NG TAYUTAY

1) ALITERASYON (Alliteration) - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-katinig sa inisyal na
bahagi ng salita.
Halimbawa: 
a. Makikita sa mga mata ni Maria ang mga masasayang nangyari sa kaniya kasama
si Marco. (makikita, mga, mata, Maria, masasayang, Marco)

2) KONSONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-katinig sa final na bahagi ng salita.

Halimbawa: 
a. Ang aking pagmamahal para kay Rosal ay lalong tumatatag habang tumatagal.
(pagmamahal, Rosal, tumatagal)

3) ASONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-patinig sa alinmang bahagi ng salita.

Halimbawa: 
a. Ang aking alagang aso ay agad kong pinaliguan pagdating ko sa amin.

4) ANAPORA - Pag-uulit sa unang bahagi ng pahayag o taludtod.

Halimbawa:
Ikaw ang aking pangarap.
Ikaw ang bigay ng maykapal.
Ikaw ang lahat sa akin.
5) EPIPORA - Pag-uulit sa huling bahagi ng pahayag o taludtod.
Halimbawa:
Ang Konstitusyon ay para sa mamamayan,
Gawa ng mamamayan,
At mula sa mamamayan.
6) ANADIPLOSIS - Pag-uulit sa una at huling bahagi ng pahayag o talutod.
Halimbawa:
Ang mahal ko ay tanging ikaw,
Ikaw na nagbigay ng ilaw,
Ilaw sa gabi na kay dilim,
Dilim man o liwanag, ikaw ay mahal pa rin.
7) PAGTUTULAD (Simile) - Isang di-tuwirang paghahambing ng dalawang
magkaibang bagay gamit ang pariralang tulad ng, kawangis ng, para ng, gaya ng,
makasing, at magkasim.
Halimbawa: 
a. Parang hari si Tonio kung mag-utos.
8) PAGWAWANGIS (Metaphor) - Isang tuwirang paghahambing ng magkaibang
bagay at hindi gumagamit ng mga pariralang nabanggit sa itaas.
Halimbawa: 
a. Ang kanyang buhay ay isang bukas na aklat.
9) PAGHAHALINTULAD (Analogy) - Ito ay paghahambing na nagpapakita ng
ugnayan ng kaisipan sa kapwa kaisipan.
Halimbawa: 
a. Ang mga dalaga ay bulaklak at ang mga binata naman ay bubuyog.
10) PAGBIBIGAY - KATAUHAN (Personification) - Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-
buhay ang mga bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng pagkakapit sa mga ito
ng mga gawi o kilos ng tao.
Halimbawa: 
a. Ang mga bituin sa langit ay kumikindat sa akin.
11) PAGMAMALABIS (Hyperbole) - Lagpas sa katotohanan o eksaherado ang mga
pahayag kung pagkasusuriin.
Halimbawa: 
a. Narinig ng buong mundo ang iyong sigaw.
b. Huminto ang pagtibok ng aking puso nang makita kong may kasama siyang iba.
12) PAGPAPALIT-TAWAG (Metonymy) - Ito ang pagpapalit ng katawagan o
pangalan sa bagay na tinutukoy.
Halimbawa: 
a. Ang palasyo ay nag-anunsyo na walang pasok bukas. (palasyo - Presidente ng
Pilipinas)
13) PAGPAPALIT-SAKLAW (Synecdoche) - Ito ay ang pagbabanggit ng bahagi
bilang pagtukoy sa kabuuan.
Halimbawa: 
a. Apat na mata ang patuloy na tumititig sa kanya.
14) PAGLUMANAY (Euphemism) - Ito ay paggamit ng mga piling salita upang
pagandahin ang isang dikagandahang pahayag.
Halimbawa: 
a. Sumakabilang buhay kagabi ang ama ni Nena. (sumakabilang buhay - namatay)

15) PANAWAGAN (Apostrophe) - Ito ay isang panawagan o pakiusap sa isang

bagay na tila ito ay isang tao.
Halimbawa: 
a. O tukso! Layuan mo ako!
b. Buhos na ulan, aking mundo’y lunuring tuluyan.
c. Kamatayan nasaan ka na? Wakasan mo na ang aking kapighatian.

16) PAGHIHIMIG (Onomatopeia) - Sa pamamagitan ng tunog o himig ng salita ay

nagagawang maihatid ang kahulugan nito.
Halimbawa: 
a. Dumagundong ang malakas na kulog na sinundan ng pagguhit ng matatalim na
kidlat.
b. Ang tik-tak ng relo ay nangibabaw.

17) PAG-UYAM (Irony) - Isang pagpapahayag na may layuning mangutya ngunit

itinatago sa paraang waring nagbibigay-puri.
Halimbawa: 
a.Siya ay may magandang mukha na kung saan tanging ina niya lang ang
humahanga.

18) PAGTATAMBIS (Oxymoron) - Ito ay ang paglalahad ng mga bagay na

magkasalungat upang higit na mapatingkad ang bisa ng pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa:
a. Kailan nagiging tama ang mali?

19) PAGLILIPAT-WIKA (Transferred Epithet) - Katulad ng pagbibigay-katauhan

na pinagsasabay ang mga katangiang pantao na ginagamit ang pang-uri.
Halimbawa:
a. Madilim ang kinabukasan para sa kaniya at kaniyang pamilya mula nang iwanan
sila ng kanilang ama.

20) TANONG RETORIKAL (Rhetorical Question) - Ito ay isang tanong na walang

inaasahan sagot na ang layunin ay maikintal sa isipan ng nakikinig ang mensahe.
Halimbawa:
a. Natutulog ba ang Diyos?
b. Bakit napakalupit ng kapalaran?

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
"Figurative Language is a language that uses words or expressions with a meaning
that is different from the literal interpretation. When a writer uses literal language,
he or she is simply stating the facts as they are. Figurative language, in comparison,
uses exaggerations or alterations to make a particular linguisticpoint." - Your
Dictionary

1. Simile - An indirect association and comparison between two things.

Example: She is like a flower.

2. Metaphor - A direct comparison.

Example: You are the sunshine of my life.

3. Personification - Giving human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc)

Example: The sun is looking down on me.

4. Oxymoron - A self-contrasting statement.

Example: Loud silence

5. Metonymy - An association wherein the name of something is substituted by

something that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.

6. Irony - The contrast between what was expected and what actually happened.
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.

7. Hyperbole - An exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river.
8. Synecdoche - An association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: The face who launched a thousand ships.

9. Euphemism - Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.

Example: Loved child (illegitimate child).

10. Asyndeton - Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions).

Example: No retreat. no surrender.
11. Apostrophe - A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed
away.
Example: Love, please come and take me!

Correct you grammar! Here are the 20 rules in subject

verb agreement with examples.

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is

the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the
concept.
· The baby cries when he is hungry.
· The babies cry when they are hungry.
· The dog eats bones.
· The dogs eat bones.
· The apple is sweet.
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come
between the subject and verb; they do not affect
agreement.
· The cat, who is chewing on my jeans , is usually very good.
· The plants, which grows in our backyard , are very nice to the see.
· The boy, who pushes the carts is my friend.
· The ants in the ant-hill are working.
· The knight under the trees is the guard.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb
usually do not affect agreement.
· The colors of the bag are beautiful.
· One of the schools in Pampanga is implementing a new curriculum.
· Bones of the cow are nutritious.
· The computers found in the library are new.
· Schools in this town are very nice.
4. When sentences start with “there” or “here” the
subject will always be placed after the verb, so care
needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
· There is a problem with the internet connection.
· Here are the files you requested.
· There are some computers left in the library.
· Here is your ball pen.
· There is an error with the codes.
5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in
questions. Make sure you accurately identify the
subject before deciding on the proper verb form to
use.
· Does Doggy usually eat fish ?
· Where are the pieces of this collection?
· Is there something wrong with Lina?
· Who is the president in this institution?
· Where are the songs in this album?
6. If two subjects are joined by and , they typically
require a plural verb form.
· The singer and the actress are from different country.
· My father and I will go to market today.
· The lawyer and the judge will go to the court later.
· The teachers and the principal will have a meeting.
· The police and the detective will have the case.
7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated
by and refer to the same person or thing.
· Red beans and rice is my favorite dish.
· Ham and bread has been my favorite snack.
· Spoon and fork is used in eating.
· Shoes and socks is the gift that I received.
· Pen and Note is my tool in school.
8. If one of the words each, every, or no comes before
the subject, the verb is singular.
· No eating or drinking is allowed.
· Every man and woman is required to take the survey.
· Every child is special to God.
· No man is an island.
· Every student is required to wear proper uniform.
9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected
by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or , and not
only/but also the verb is singular.
· Erick or Christian is to blame for the accident.
· Neither Lina nor Cathy was absent yesterday.
· Either apple or grape is sweet.
· Neither Marco nor Vincent is good in class.
· Either Jessy or Daisy is good in singing.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition
factors into the decision of plural or singular verb
forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some,
half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a
prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of
the preposition determines the form of the verb.
· All of the chicken is gone.
· All of the chickens are gone.
· None of the apples are eaten.
· None of the apple is eaten.
· Some of the oranges are eaten.
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of
measurement or time.
· Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
· One half of the members of the cabinet believes that president is responsible for
the incident.
· Two third of the spectators of the concert shouts when the show started.
· Eight o’clock is the start of the class.
· One fourth of the class is absent.
12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected
by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or , and not
only/but also , the verb is plural.
· Dogs and cats are both available at the pet shop.
· The president and the former PNP chief are both responsible for the misencounter.
· Apples and grapes are both sweet.
· Teachers and students are part of the teaching – learning process.
· Scientists and inventors are great people.
13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the
words are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor,
either/or , and not only/but also , you use the verb
form of the subject that is nearest the verb.
· Either the tigers or the lion has escaped from the zoo.
· Neither the lion nor the tigers have escaped from the zoo.
· Either the teacher or the students have participated on the show.
· Neither the principal nor the teachers are the performer.
· Either the police men or the criminals are dead.
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs.
· Everybody wants to be loved.
· Nobody has passed for the examination.
· Someone is waiting outside the hall.
· Anybody is the player of the game.
· Somebody starts the drill.
15. Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both,
all, some) that always take the plural form.
· Few were left in the school after the parade.
· Many people were stranded during the typhoon.
· Some are gathering their data about the experiment.
· Both police and criminal were found dead.
· All are good in the game.
16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take
the plural form of the verb.
· To sing and to play guitar require great skill.
· To sketch and to paint are his talent.
· To dance and to sing are her talent.
· To belt and to sing are difficult.
· To glide and to fly are extraordinary.
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a
sentence, they take the singular verb form of the
verb; but, when they are linked by and, they take the
plural form.
· Standing in the tower was a bad idea.
· Swimming in the river and playing guitar are my hobbies.
· Singing is my hobby.
· Dancing and singing are quite difficult.
· Playing basketball is very tiring.
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd,
etc. usually take a singular verb form.
· The faculty is going to participate in the program.
· The crowd is very thick.
· The senate decides to make the judgement.
· The class is the participant of the meeting.
· The yellow team is the winner.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as
singular and take a singular verb.
· The Tomorrow land is a movie starring George Clooney.
· Back to the future is my favorite movie.
· El Filibusterismo is the novel of Dr. Jose Rizal
· Noli Me Tangere is a great novel.
· Assessment of Learning Outcomes is our reference book in this subject.
20. Use the singular form of the verb if the subject is
singular, and plural if the subject is plural except for
the word I and You.
· I have two hands.
· You are the best for me.
· You are my last hope.
· I have my money inside the bag.
· You are the shining star.

Educational Philosophies
NATURALISM
 Naturalism stands for a democratic and universal way-everyone must be
educated in the same manner.
 Education is in accordance to human development and growth.
 Emphasis is given more on the physical development-informal exercise-and
hygiene of the person rather of the 3 R’s.
 Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare him for a definite vocation
or social position-but to prepare him to adapt to the changing times and
needs.
 Consequently, one’s conduct is governed by impulse, instincts and
experience.
 It puts the child at the center of educational process and prepares him to
experience life as it is.

IDEALISM
 Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but
just a mere representation of ideas.
 Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by speculation and reasoning for its
central tenet is that ideas are the only things worth knowing for.
 Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth. This
includes the activities pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and
intuition and the use of logic.
 Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child and cultivates it in order to
prepare him for a better position in the society and for him to serve the
society better.
 Emphasis is given on subjects - philosophy, literature, religion and history -
that will develop and enhance the mind of the child.
 Methods used in teaching include lecture, discussion and Socratic dialogue.
  Character development is through emulation of examples and heroes.

REALISM
 The most effective way to find about reality is to study it through organized,
separate and systematically arranged matter - emphasis is on subject matter
concerning Science and Mathematics.
 Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and
demonstration.
 Character development is through training in the rules of conduct.

EXISTENTIALISM
 Subject matter is personal choice.
 Learning is based on the willingness of the student to choose and give
meaning to the subject.
 Emphasis is given on the students rather than on the curriculum content.
 Students should not be treated as objects to be measured and standardized.
 Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the students for self-
actualization and self-direction.
 Character development is through the responsibility of every individual in
making a decision.

ESSENTIALISM

 Schooling is practical for this will prepare students to become competent and
valuable members of the society.
 Focuses on the basic - reading, writing, speaking and the ability to compute
(arithmetic).
 Subjects that are given emphasis include geography, grammar, reading,
history, mathematics, art and hygiene.
 Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance, discipline and respect to
authorities.
 Students should be taught to think logically and systematically-grasping not
just the parts but the whole.
 Methods of teaching center on giving regular assignments, drills, recitation,
frequent testing and evaluation.

PRAGMATISM
 Involves students to work in groups.
 Methods of teaching include experimentation, project making and problem
solving.
 Stresses on the application of what have learned rather that the transfer of
the organized body of knowledge.

PERENNIALISM
 Some of the ideas in the past are still being taught because they are
significant.
  Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality,
morality, aesthetics and religious principles. This includes history,
language, mathematics, logic, literature, humanities and science.
 Curriculum must be based on recurrent themes of human life for it views
education as a recurring process based on eternal truths.
 The teacher must have the mastery of the subject matter and authority in
exercising it.
 Aims for the education of the rational person—to develop man’s power of
thought—the central aim of this philosophy.

PROGRESSIVISM
 Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the content or the teacher.
 Curriculum content comes from the questions and interests of the students.
 Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by the students through active
experimentation.
 Methods of teaching include discussions, interaction (teacher with students)
and group dynamics.
 Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method of instruction, learning
through memorization, the use of fear and punishment and the four walled
philosophy of education.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
 A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality does not exist outside of
human conceptions. It is the individual who constructs reality by reflecting on
his own experience and gives meaning to it.
 Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new
experience.

RECONSTRUCTIVISM
 Schools should originate policies and progress that will bring social reforms
and orders.
 Teachers should be an instrument to encourage and lead students in the
program or social reforms.
 Curriculum emphasizes on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses
on student experience and taking social actions on real problems.
 Method of teaching include the problem-oriented type (students are
encouraged to critically examine cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry,
dialogues, interactions and community-based learning.
 The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experimenting school practices
“bringing the world into the classroom”.

BEHAVIORISM
 Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment.
 The only reality is the physical world.

NATIONALISM
 The most important development was the creation of common language.
  Stresses on the teaching of the principles of democracy, and duties of
citizenship. 
 Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and
support of public school system.
 Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar, geography and history.
 Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content regarding on nature
studies, physical exercisesand play activities.

HUMANISM
 Education is a process and should not be taken abruptly. The unfolding of
human character proceeds with unfolding of nature.
 The learner should be in control of his destiny.
 Concern is more on methods which include theme writing rather than oral
discussions, drills and exercises, playing.
 Asserts the importance of playing in the curriculum.
 Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and rewards.
 Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical
education, social training in manners and development.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS

SUMMARY
The Education Levels in the Philippines
Basic Education includes the following:
1. Kindergarten
2. Grade 1 – Grade 6 (elementary)
3. Grade 7 – Grade 10 (Junior High School)
4. Grade 11- 12 (Senior High School)

Technical Vocational Education

1. Taken care by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
2. For the TechVoc track in SHS, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination
(Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) and Technical-Vocational-Livelihood
(TVL) Track specializations may be taken between Grades 9 to 12. Exploratory
Subjects at 40 hours per quarter are taken during Grades 7 to 8.)

Higher Education
Colleges with some courses. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to
12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013

7 types of Curriculum According to Allan Glatthorn

1. Recommended Curriculum - The curriculum that is recommended by scholars
and professional organizations.
Basic Education - Recommended by DepEd
Higher Education - Recommended by CHED
Vocational Education - TESDA
2. Written Curriculum - Documents based on recommended curriculum
 Example: syllabi, course of study, module, books or instructional guides, lesson plan.
3. Taught Curriculum - The curriculum which teachers actually deliver day by day.
4. Supported Curriculum - Includes those resources that support the curriculum-
textbooks, software, and other media supporting materials that make learning and
teaching meaningful print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-
print materials like Power Point presentations, movies, slides, models, mock ups,
realias facilities – playground, laboratory, AV rooms, zoo, museum, market or plaza
(places where direct experiences occur)
5. Learned Curriculum - The bottom-line curriculum it is the curriculum that
students actually learn.
6. Assessed Curriculum - The curriculum which appears as tests and performance
measures: state tests, standardized tests, district tests, and teacher-made tests.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum - This is the unintended curriculum. It defines what
students learn from the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of
the school. Not planned but has a great impact on students

Ways of Presenting the Curriculum

1.Topical Approach – Content is based on knowledge and experiences.
2. Concept Approach – Fewer topics in clusters around major and sub concepts.
3. Thematic – Combination of concepts.
4. Modular – Leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of the Subject Matter

1. Self-Sufficiency – it is about helping the learners to attain the utmost
independence in learning yet in an inexpensive way. It is the most important guiding
principle in selecting the content according to Scheffler. This means, more of the
results and effective learning outcomes though a lesser amount of the teacher’s
effort and so with the learner’s effort.
2. Significance – It is significant if fundamental ideas, concepts, principles and
generalization are supplied in the subject matter to achieve the overall aim of the
curriculum.
3. Validity – The genuineness of a content selected is by its legality. The subject
matter to be selected has to be legal to avoid selecting the obsolete ones.; must be
verified at regular interval.
4. Interest – The learner’s interest is a major factor in selecting the content; one of
the driving forces of the learner to learn better.
5. Utility - Deciding on subject matter, its usefulness is considered to be essential.
6. Learnability – if there is a quotation to “live within our means” then there is also
the consideration of “teaching within the means of the learners.”
7. Feasibility – content selection takes into thought the possibility, the practicability
and the achievability of the subject matter in terms of the availability of the
resources, proficiency of the teachers, and the personality of learners especially
within the framework of the society and the government

Guides in Addressing Content in the Curriculum

1. Balance – Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.
2. Articulation - As the content complexity progresses, vertically or horizontally,
smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This ensures that there is no
gaps or overlaps in the content.
3. Sequence – Logical arrangement
- Vertically – For deepening the content
- Horizontally – For broadening the content
4. Integration – Relatedness or connection to other contents. Provides a holistic or
unified view of curriculum instead of segmentation.
5. Continuity – Should be perennial, endures time. Constant repetition,
reinforcement and enhancement are elements of continuity.
Four Phases of Curriculum Development
1. Curriculum Planning – Considers the school vision, mission, and goals; includes
the philosophy or strong education belief of the school.
2. Curriculum Designing – The way curriculum is conceptualized to include the
selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to
measure achieved learning outcomes. Also include the resources to be utilized and
the statement of the intended learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum Implementing – Putting into action the plan; it is where the action
takes place; involves the activities transpire in every teacher’s classroom where
learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum Evaluating – Determines the extent to which the desired outcomes
have been achieved. This is an ongoing procedure as in finding out the progress of
learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative)

Curriculum Development Process Models

Ralph Tyler Model : Four Basic Principles
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the purposes
4. Evaluation of the experience

Hilda Taba Model : Grassroots Approach

Taba strongly believed teachers should take part in the design of curricula. Taba’s
model included seven steps:

1. Educators must first identify the students’ needs for the development of the
curriculum.
2. Objectives should by specific.
3. The content matches the objectives, as well as demonstrates validity.
4. Curriculum content is designed based on students’ interest, development, and
achievement.
5. Instructional methods are selected by teachers.
6. The organization of the learning activities is determined by the teacher.
7. Evaluation procedures are determined by students and teachers.

Galen Sayler and Wiliam Alecander Curriculum Model 

Viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps:

1. Goals, Objectives and Domain

2. Curriculum Designing
3. Curriculum Implementation
4. Evaluation

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

1. Perennialism
2. Essentialism
 3. Progressivism
4. Reconstructionism

Elements/Components of a Curriculum Design

1. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcomes DLO
2. Subject matter or content
3. Teaching and learning methods
4. Assessment /Evaluation

5 Categories of Curriculum Change

1. Substitution - Current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new
one. Complete overhaul and not merely a revision.
2. Alteration - There is a minor change.
Example: graphing paper – to graphing calculator
3. Restructuring - Major change or modification in the school system, degree
program or educational system.
4. Perturbations - Changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to
them within a fairly short time.
Ex. Changes in time schedule to catch up with something
5. Value Orientation
Ex. A teacher who gives emphasis on academic and forget the formation of faith and
values needs value orientation.
The art of questioning is one of the basic skills of good teaching. Through asking
questions, we can stimulate critical thinking to the students. The art of thoughtful
questioning can also help the teacher to extract not only the factual information
from the learners, but also the genuine idea of them. In this article we will discuss
the 5 types of questions that may help to improve your questioning technique.

There are 5 Types of Questions:

1. Factual - It is the type of question that is reasonably simple and straight forward.
The answers are based on obvious facts or awareness and commonly requires one
fact based answers. It is at the lowest level of cognitive or affective processes.

Example: What is the name of the little girl in the story?

2. Convergent - It is the type of question that requires inferences

or conjecture. Answers to this type of question is usually within a very finite range of
acceptable accuracy.

Example: What were the reason why the boy got mad? (This is not specifically stated
in one direct statement in the text or story so, the reader must make simple
inferences as to why the boy got mad.)

3. Divergent - It is the type of question that allows the learners to generate variety
of answers. This type of question often requires students to analyze, synthesize, or
evaluate a knowledge base and then project or predict different outcomes.

Example: In the story, what do you think will happen to the boy if he ran away from
their home?

4. Evaluative - It is the type of question that usually requires sophisticated levels

of cognitive and emotional judgment. To answer evaluative question, the students
must combine multiple logical and affective thinking process or comparative
frameworks. Answers in this type of question is analyzed at multiple levels and from
different perspective to arrive at the newly synthesized information or conclusions.

Example: What are the similarities and differences between Erikson and Freuds
theory of development?

5. Combinations - It is the combination of the types of questions above.

Here are some of the important people in the

Philippine History:
 The Philippine National Hero: Dr. Jose Rizal
 The Great Plebian: Andres Bonifacio 
 The Father of the Katipunan: Andres Bonifacio 
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle: Gregorio Del Pilar 
 President of the First Philippine Republic: General Emilio Aguinaldo 
 Brains of the Philippine Revolution: Apolinario Mabini 
 Martyred Priests in 1872: GOMBURZA 
 Brain of the Katipunan: Emilio Jacinto 
 Co-founder of La Independencia: General Antonio Luna 
 Mother of Balintawak: Melchora Aquino Tandang Sora: Melchora Aquino 
 Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement: Graciano Lopez- Jaena 
 First Filipino Cannon-maker: Pandar Pira 
 Managing Editor of La Solidaridad: Mariano Ponce 
 Lakambini of Katipunan: Gregoria de Jesus 
 Poet of the Revolution: Fernando Ma. Guerrero 
 Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic: Felipe Agoncillo 
 First University of the Philippines President: Rafael Palma 
 Greatest Filipino Painter: Juan Luna 
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement: Marcelo H. del Pilar 
 First Filipino Poetess: Leona Florentino 
 Peace of the Revolution: Pedro Paterno 
 Founder of Philippine Socialism: Isabelo Delos Reyes 
 Viborra: Artemio Ricarte 
 Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem: Jose Palma 
 Chief of Tondo: Lakandola 
 The Last Rajah of Manila: Rajah Soliman 
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal: Leonor Rivera 
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag: Marcela Agoncillo 
 Co-founder of Katipunan: Galicano Apacible 
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt: Diego Silang 
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-lapu 
 Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol: Francisco Dagohoy 
 The Man of Many Talents: Epifanio Delos Santos 
 Prince of Tagalog Poets: Francisco Baltazar 
 Visayan Joan of Arc: Teresa Magbanua 
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato: Trinidad Tecson 
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte: Agueda Esteban 
 Leader of the Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco Makabulos 
 Composer of the Philippine National Anthem: Julian Felipe 
 Spaniards born in the Philippines: Insulares 
 Leader of Magdalo: Baldomero Aguinaldo 
  Leader of Magdiwang: Mariano Alvarez 
 Founder of La Liga Filipina: Jose Rizal 
 Painter of the Spolarium: Juan Luna

Here are the republic acts for all teachers in the Philippines:

 REPUBLIC ACT No. 137 -Board of Textbooks. It provided for all public

schools to use only those books approved by the board for a period of six
years from the date of their adoption.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 1425 -The inclusion of a course on the life, works and
writings- especially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo of Dr. Jose Rizal
in the curricula of all public and private schools.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 4670 -The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers.
 REPUBLIC ACT 1079 - Commonwealth Act No.117. Civil Service Eligibility
shall be permanent and shall be valid throughout a person’s lifetime.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 6728 -The Act Providing Government Assistance to
Students and Teachers in Private Education. (Scholarship Programs)
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7722 -Creating the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) composed of a chairperson and four (4) commissioners.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7743 - The establishment of public libraries and reading
centers in every barangay and municipality of the country.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7784 - The Centers of Excellence Law
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7796 - The TESDA Law
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7836 - Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of
1994
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7877 - Anti Sexual harassment Act of 1995
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 27 - the inclusion of subject courses on human
rights in the school curricula, textbooks, and other reading materials
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 189 - All public Secondary School teachers under
the administrative supervision and control of DECS. Issued by former
President Corazon Aquino.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 6-A - Known as the Educational Development
Decree of 1972, and was implemented by the late former President Ferdinand
Marcos.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 146 - This decree requiring ALL senior high
school students to pass the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) as
pre-requisite for admission to any post- secondary academic or professional
degree program.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No.451 - This law repealed R.A No. 6139 and
authorized the Sec. of Education and Culture to regulate the imposition of
tuition fee and other school fees in all private educational institutions.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 688 - This law gave the Civil Service
Commission the power and authority to give the appropriate examination for
all public school teachers.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1139 - This decree issued on May 13, 1977,
created the position of the undersecretary for NON-FORMAL Education who
shall make an overall assessment of the existing non formal education
programs and shall take charge of all non-formal education programs of
DECS.
 DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 1, s.1973 - This DECS order reiterates the policy
on the use of locally published textbooks of Filipino authorship in all levels of
education, both public and private.
  DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 25, s.1974 - The implementation of BILINGUAL
EDUCATION Program which mandates the use of English and Filipino as
separate media of instruction.
 MEC ORDER No. 22, s.1978 - ALL institutions shall offer in all their
curricular programs at least six (6) units of Filipino, starting the FIRST SEM Of
school year 1979- 1980.
 DECS ORDER No. 30, s. 1993 - This order issued on May 20, 1993,
providing for a National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) for ALL grade
six pupils in Public and Private schools
 DECS ORDER No. 38, s. 1994 - Provided for a National Secondary
Assessment Test (NSAT) to be administered to ALL graduating public and
private high school.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 1265 - The Law on the Observance of Flag Ceremony
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 200, sec.3 -The Law prohibits fund raising in school
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. 3:2 -The Law teaches and
imposes discipline
 BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232, sec. 13:2 / 1987 CONSTITUTION,
ARTICLE XIV, sec 5:2,/ 1973 CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XV, sec. 8:2 -the
Law recognizes Academic Freedom
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec 48-49 - The
Law requires to have a fixed calendar
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec. 44-47 -
The Law on Education specifies faculty qualification
 R.A No. 1054 AS AMENDED BY P.D.’s Nos. 442, 570-A, 622, AND 643 -
The Law requires Education to provide Medical and Dental Services
 CIVIL CODE, ARTICLE 349 - The Law considers teachers, professors, and
administrators to be in LOCO PARENTIS to their pupils and students
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. 5:4 - The Law requires
Education to provide professional advancement teachers.

LAWS ALLOWING PUBLICATIONS IN THE SCHOOL

CAMPUS
- The Revised Penal Code of the Philippines prohibits the publication of the following:

1. ARTICLE 138 – Inciting the people to rebellion

2. ARTICLE 142 – Seditious Libel

3. ARTICLE 154 – Unlawful utterances

4. ARTICLE 201 – Immoral Doctrine, obscene publication and exhibition
5. ARTICLE 356 – Threatening to publish and offering the prevent publication of an
article for a certain fee.
6. ARTICLE 357 – Acts in the official proceedings that are prohibited to be published
7. ARTICLE 362 – Libelous remarks
Here are the bases of the Philippine Educational System. The texts below are the
articles, section, and the republic acts under the Philippine Constitution.
MAJOR LEGAL BASES
The Philippine Constitutions
1. 1935 CONST. Article XIV Section 5
2. 1973 CONST. Article XV Section 8 (1-8)
3. 1987 CONST. Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS
Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all the citizens to quality
education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make
such education accessible to all.
Section 2. The state shall:
1. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system
of education relevant to the needs of the people and society;
2. Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary
and high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear
their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school
age;
3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs,
subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in
both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged;
4. Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as
self- learning independent and out-of-school study programs particularly those
that respond to community needs; and
5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part
of the curricula.
2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity,
respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of
citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character
and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden
scientific and technological knowledge and promote efficiency.
3. At the option expressed in writing by the parent or guardians, religion shall be
allowed to be taught to their children or wards in the public elementary and
high schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or
approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or
wards belong, additional cost to the Government.
Section 4.
1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of the public and private
institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable
supervision and regulation of all educational institutions.
2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and
mission boards, shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is
owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino
equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and
administration of educational institutions shall vested in citizens of the
Philippines. No educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens
and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one third of the enrollment in
any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools
established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents and, unless
otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents.
3. All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit educational institutions used
actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt
from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate
existence of such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner
provided by law. Proprietary educational institutions, including those
 cooperatively owned, may likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to
the limitations provided by law including restrictions on dividends and
provisions for reinvestment.
4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endowments, donations
or contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational
purposes shall be exempt from tax.
Section 5.
1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions
and shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies
and programs.
2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to
fair, reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements.
4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement.
Non- teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the
protection of the State.
5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure
that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the
best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job
satisfaction and fulfillment.
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)
This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated
system of education. In accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern
both formal and non- formal system in public and private schools in all levels of the
entire educational system.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:
1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and
social progress.
2. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and
enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and
3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve,
develop and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in changing
world.
It is also stated in Section 3 that:
The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education,
regardless of sex, age, creed socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions,
racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore promote
and maintain equality of access to education as well as the benefits of education by
all its citizens.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)
1. The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.
2. The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula
and continue their course up to graduation, except in cases of academic
deficiency or violations of disciplinary regulations.
3. The right to school guidance and counseling services.
4. The right to access to his owns school records and the confidentiality of it.
5. The right to issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records,
grades, transfer credentials and similar document within thirty days from
request.
6. The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during
symposia, assemblies and other activities.
7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective
channels of communication with appropriate academic and administrative
bodies of the school or institutions.
 8. The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and
societies recognized by the school…, or to form, join
and maintain organizations and societies for purposes not contrary to law.
9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by
their organizations and societies.
RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.
2. To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in
case of public school personnel and the school authorities concerned in case of
private school personnel, when charged in administrative, civil and/or criminal
proceedings, by parties other than the school authorities concerned, for actions
committed directly in the lawful discharged of professional duties and/or in
defense of school policies.
3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their
welfare and defend their interest.
4. To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own
organizations.
SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC
STAFF (Section 11)
1. Right to be free compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in
their appointment or employment contracts unless compensated thereof.
(additional compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at least 25% his regular
remuneration)
2. Right to intellectual property………
3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and
responsibilities… shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection
(Commonwealth Act No. 578)
4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for
advancements.
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)
1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful
discharge of their duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due respect
and protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578)
RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)
1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or
management systems.
2. The right of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds
who shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects
of the study and research.
MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION
1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)
2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Sections 176 and
17)
3. Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41)
OTHER LEGAL BASES
1.  Republic Act No. 74
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and
provided:
a. Establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General
superintendent

b. The archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective
management of the school system.

c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling

d. Optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)

e. Establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade-

PCAT now known as Technological University of the Philippines), a school of
Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila (Philippine Normal School) (Section
18)

• Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC)
by virtue of Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, the
PNC was converted to Philippine Normal University as provided by Republic Act No.
7168.
2. Republic Act No. 2706
This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on March 10, 1917 by the
Philippine Legislature, which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of
private schools and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as to maintain
a standard of efficiency in all private schools and colleges in the country.

This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13,
1936 which provided that:

The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power to “supervise, inspect and
regulate said schools and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction
given in the same.”

And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the Secretary of
DPI, thus eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools.

3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)

Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on
December 21, 1935, which provided in Section 81 that:
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth in the elementary grade
school at the age of ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his
schooling into college or post-secondary education.
By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on August
8, 1980, otherwise known as the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act No. 1
was amended, and required all citizens to render, civic welfare service, law
enforcement service and military service.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
This law created the Office of Adult Education on October 26, 1936, so as to
eliminate illiteracy and to give vocational and citizenship training to adult citizens of
the country.
5. Commonwealth Act No. 578
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the
teachers, professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly
recognized private schools, colleges and universities.

This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and one
day to six years and a fine ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found
guilty of assault upon those teaching personnel.

6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)

This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved on August 7, 1940 by the
Philippine Assembly.
The law provided for the following:
a. Reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.

b. Fixing the school entrance age to seven.

c. National support of elementary education.

d. Compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children who enroll in Grade
I.

e. Introduction of double- single session- one class in the morning and another in the
afternoon under one teacher to accommodate more children.

7. Commonwealth Act No. 589

This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a school ritual in all public and
private elementary and secondary schools in the Philippines.
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that include the singing of the
National Anthem and Patriotic Pledges.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. This law provided that all
public schools must only use books that are approved by the Board for a period of six
years from the date of their adoption.

The private schools may use books of their choice, provided the Board of Textbooks
has no objections with those books.

9. Republic Act No. 896

Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary Education Act of 1953, it
repealed Commonwealth Act 586 and provided for the following:
a. Restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)

b. Abolition of the double - single session and return to the former practice of only
one

c. Class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers to two classes or five
teachers to three classes in the intermediate level

d. Compulsory completion of the elementary grades

e. Compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools upon attaining seven

years of age.

10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. 7722)

Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of National Education
charged with the duty of formulating general educational policies and directing the
educational interests of the nation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National Board of Education (P.D. No.
1), was abolished bu virtue of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as
stipulated in Batas Pambansa Blg. 232. The Board’s function is now assumed by the
commission on Higher Education or CHED by virtue of Republic Act No. 7722.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)
This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that a daily flag ceremony
shall be compulsory in all educational institutions. This includes the singing of the
Philippine National Anthem.
12. Republic Act No. 1425
It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all
schools, both public and private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life,
works and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
13. Republic Act No. 4670
Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”. This was approved on June
18, 1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school
teachers, their living and working conditions, their employment and career
prospects.
It also provided the following:
1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers
2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching (maximum load)
4. Additional compensation- 25% of the regular remuneration
5. Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
6. One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuous
teaching, the teacher should receive 60% of the monthly salary.
7. One range salary increase upon retirement (basis computing the retirement
fee).
8. Freedom to form organizations.
14. Republic Act No. 1079
Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be
permanent and shall have no time limit.
15. Republic Act No. 6655
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988”, it was approved
on May 26, 1988 and provided for:
a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality
education at all level.

b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in

the school community such I.D., student organization and publication.

c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation.

d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools ( Section 7)

e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years
could no longer avail of their program.
Here are some of the important dates in the Philippine
History:
January
 January 1, 1571 – LaVilla de San Miguel renamed Ciudad del Santissimo,
Nobre de Jesus “Sto Nino” 
 January 12, 1889 – La Association Hispano founded by Miguel Morayta to
introduce changes in the Philippines and have a Filipino representative in the
Spanish Cortes 
  January 20, 1872 – Meeting in Cavite led by Sargent Lamadrid and killed their
Spanish officers 
 January 23, 1899 – Inauguration of the first republic (Mololos) Aguinaldo as
president 

February
 February 2, 1543 – Villalobos named Samar and Layte “Pilipinas” 
 February 13, 1565 – Miguel Lopes de Villalobos reached Cebu 
 February 14, 1899 – Outbreak of Filipino – American War (Sta. Mesa Manila) 
 February 15, 1898 – Spanish blew up the amiracan warship in Havana Cuba 
 February 15, 1889 – The newspaper La Soliraridad founded by Graciano Lopes
Jaena 
 February 17, 1872 – Execution of GOMBURZA 
 February 18, 1891 – Rizal second novel El Filibusterismo was publish and
finance by Valentin Ventura 

March
 March 16, 1521 – Magellan sighted the island of samar 
 March 16, 1565 – Blood compact Legaspi and Rajah Sikatuna of Bohol 
 March 17, 1521 – Magellan landed Homnhon “Archipelago of St. Lazarus” 
 March 22, 1897 – Tejeros Convention resolved the conflict between Magdalo
and Magdiwang 
 March 23, 1935 – ConCon was headed by C.M. Recto 
 March 23, 1901 – Gen. Aguinaldo captured at Palanan 
 March 24, 1934 – Creation of Commonwealth Government as provided by
Tyding McDuffie Law and approved by US President F. Roosevelt 
 March 14, 1947 – Formal agreement between US and Philippine (22 sites as
military bases for 99yrs in return AFP accepted US $100 M worth of military
equipment) 
 March 17, 1957 – Pres. Magsaysay died in a plane crash in Mt. Manunggal
Cebu 
 March 17, 1957 – Garcia become the president of the Philippines 
 March 29, 1512 – Blood compact Magellan and Rajah Kulambo of Limasawa 
 March 29, 1942 – Creation of HUKBALAHAP (Luis Taruc) 
 March 31, 1899 – Transfer of capital republic from Malolos to San Fernando
Pampanga 
 March 31, 1521 – First mass officiated b y Father Pedro de Valderrama 

April
 April 4, 1947 – Pres. Roxas died of cardiac arrest at Clark air base 
 April 4, 1947 – Elpidio Quirino become the president 
 April 9, 1942 – Fall of Bataan, Death March from Bataan to San Fernando
Pampanga 
 April 13-14, 1671 – defeat of the 6 Dutch led by Juan Ronquillo in battle of
Playa Honda, Zam 
 April 25, 1898 – US declare war against Spain 
 April 27, 1521 – Magellan killed in the battle of Mactan 
 April 27, 1565 – First Spanish settlement establish by Legaspi name La Villa
de San Miguel 
  April 30, 1846 – Approved of Philippine Rehabilitation Act by the US. 

May
 May 1, 1898 – US naval under George Dewey defeat the Spain armada led by
Patrico Montojo in famous battle of Manila Bay 
 May 6, 1942 – Fall of Corregidor Island (Gen. Jonathan Wainwright) – (Gem.
Homma of Japan) 
 May 10, 1897 – Execution of Bonifacio brathers 
 May 12, 1935 – SAKDALISTA Party by Benigno Ramos against the
Commonwealth Government 
 May 12, 1962 – Macapagal change the date of Independence day from July 4,
1946 to June 12, 1898 
 May 16, 1584 – Royal Audiencia referred to as the Supreme Court during
Spanish 
 May 17, 1764 – Britain surrendered the Philippines to Spanish 
 May 28, 1898 – Gen. Aguinaldo waved the Philippine flag for the first time to
celebrate its victory 
 May 31, 1764 – Truce was signed between France and England 

June
 June 3, 1571 – Manila conquered by Martin de Goiti 
 June 5, 1899 – Assassination of Antonio Luna at Cabanatuan 
 July 7, 1987 – Biak-na-Bato revolutionary government was established 
 June 12, 1898 – Proclamation of Philippines Independence by Gen. Aguinaldo 
 June 18, 1908 – UP was established (Murray Barlett as first President) and
(Ignacio Villamor as first Filipino President) 
 June 19, 1861 – birth of Jose Rizal 
 June 24, 1571 – Manila was named “Distinguished and Ever Loyal City” by
Legaspi and First Governor-General of the Philippines 

July
 July 3, 1892 – La Liga Filipina founded by Dr. Rizal 
 July 4, 1946 – Inauguration of 3rd Republic and the signing of the Treaty of
General legalized the retention of US bases in the Philippines 
 July 7, 1892 – Rizal exiled in Dapitan for 4yrs 
 July 7, 1892 – KKK organized by Andres Bonifacion in Azcarraga st. (C.M.
Recto) 

August
 August 6, 1945 – First Atomic bomb dropped in Hiroshima Japan 
 August 8, 1963 – Macapagal approved the Agriculture Land Reform to abolish
tenancy 
 August 9, 1945 – Second Atomic bomb dropped in Nagasaki Japan 
 August 13, 1898 – Mock battle of manila bay between Spain and America 
 August 14, 1898 – Military government under General Wesley Merit 
 August 19, 1896 – Katipunan was discovered by Fr. Mariano Gil trough
Teodoro Patino 
 August 23, 1896 – Philippine Revolution “Cry of Balintawak” 
  August 25, 1896 - Battle of Pasong Tamo 
 August 26, 1930 – Founding of the Communist Party of the Philippines CPP by
Crisostomo Evangelista 
 August 29, 1916 - Creation of bicameral legislature as granted by the jones
law 
 August 30, 1896 – Battle of Pinaglabanan 
 August 31, 1896 – Gen. Aguinaldo led the uprising in Kawit Cavite 

September
 September 2, 1945 – Japanese imperial surrendered and ended the war in asia
pacific 
 September 5, 1955 – The Laure-Langley Agreement was replacing the Bell
Trade Act 
 September 6, 1834 – manila was opened to world trade led to an era of
commercial revolution I the Philippines 
 September 8-10, 1954 – SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty Organization) 
 September 12, 1896 – 13 men from Cavite know as “Los Tresce Martirez” was
executed 
 September 28, 1901 – Gen. Antonio Lucban attacked the American Garrison in
Balangiga, Samar 

October
 October 3, 1646 – defeat of Dutch in battle of manila 
 October 5, 1762 – manila was conquered by British forces under Gen. William
Draper and Admiral Samuel Cornish 
 October 6, 1913 – Francis Burton Harrison first American Governor General of
the Philippines 
 October 13, 1913 – Signing of underwood-simons tariff law (open trade Phil.
and American) 
 October 14, 1943 – Inauguration of Japanese puppet republic Jose P. Laurel as
President 
 October 16, 1907 – First Philippine Assembly (M. Quezon as M.Floor Leader)
and (S. Osmena as Speaker) 
 October 20, 1943 – McArthur landed the Red Beach, Polo Layte (Osmena as
President with C. Romulo) 
 October 24 – 26, 1944 – Battle of Leyte Gulf 
 October 31, 1829 – Dagohoy Longest Revolt in the Philippines lasted 85yrs 

November
 November 4, 1841 – Apolinario Dela Cruz “Hermano Pule” was executed by
Spanish 
 November 10, 1953 – Magsaysay and Garcia were elected as Pres and Vice
Pres 
 November 11, 1957 – Macapagal (Poor boy from Lubao) elected as President
of the Philippine 
 November 15, 1935 – Inauguration of Commonwealth government with
Quezon as president and Osmena as vice president 
 November 30, 1574 – De Goiti was killed by Limahong 
December
 December 2, 1899 – Gen. Gregorio del Pilar was killed by the Americans 
 December 7, 1933 – Right of Suffrage was granted to Filipino by Gov. Frank
Murphy 
 December 8, 1941 – Bombing of Pearl Harbor 
 December 10, 1898 – Treaty of Paris was signed between Spain and America 
 December 15, 1897 – treaty Biak-na-Bato was signed by Pedro Paterno and
Gov. Primo de Rivera 
 December 21, 1898 – The Philippines was considered American
benevolent assimilation 
 December 26, 1941 – Declaration of manila as open city by Gen. McArthur 
 December 30, 1896 – Execution of Rizal at Luneta de Bagumbayan

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Among others
Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.

 General principles of social learning theory

follows:
 1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of others and the outcomes
of those behaviors.
 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that
learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in
contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through
observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their
performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.
 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning
theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human
learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or
punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition
between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

 How the environment reinforces and punishes

modeling:
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura
suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling.

This is in several possible ways:

1, The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who
changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood
of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be
modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class
 leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the
observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many
behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra
work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra
work and also receive enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observers behavior
vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the
model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in
that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film
of a model hitting a inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model
being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children
began to also hit the doll .

Contemporary social learning perspective of

reinforcement and punishment:
 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment
have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual
exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
 3. The expecfation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that
promote learning. Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And
attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example
would be, where the teacher tells a group of students that what they will
study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention, because they do
not expect to know the information for a test.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling:

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples
that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students
can watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or seen someone
acting bravely and a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through
models. Much research indicate that children become more aggressive when
they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral
behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral
judgments regarding right and wrong which can in part, develop through
modeling.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
 2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a
student might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football
because he is not tall enough for basketball.

 Educational implications of social learning theory:

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve
discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide
a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote
effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential
conditions exist; attention, retention , motor reproduction, and motivation.
 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that
they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This
technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
 6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
Thus it is very important to develop a sense of selfeflicacy for students.
Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having students receive
confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience
success on their own. .
 7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their
academic accomplishments. In general in my class that means making sure
that expectations are not set too low. I want to realistically challenge my
students. However, sometimes the task is beyond a student's ability, example
would be the cancer group.
 8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving
student behavior.

Observational Learning (2)

 Definition
 Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an
observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An
observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative
consequences-called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment - of a
model's behavior.

 Discussion
There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social
learning theory:
 l. The observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model
possesses characteristics- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good
looks, or popularity-that the observer finds attractive or desirable
 2. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the
model's behavior. When the mddel's behavior is rewarded, the observer is
more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished,
an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce
the same behavior.
 3. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and
"performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the
behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations
where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
 4. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention,
retention, production and motivation.
 - Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's
happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the
model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and
by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or
level of emotional arousal.
 - Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but
also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's
ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or
to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.
 - Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of
producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary
responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve skills
the obseryer has not yet acqufued. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus
juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.
 - Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have
some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or
punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most
important in this process.
 5. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's
behavior; production and motivation control the performance.
 6. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the
person's behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these
elements is called reciprocal determinism.A person's cognitive abilities,
physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence
both his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal,
however. A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his
attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows
comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. 

 Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully

influence what he does. But a person's behavior also contributes to
his environment.
 By the 1920s John B. Watson had left academic psychology and
other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning
other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was
Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons he is more commonly
known as B.F. Skinner.


 Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner
believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more
productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.


 Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the
causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant
conditioning.


 Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work
of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a
puzzle box to propose the theory known as the 'Law of Effect'.


 Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was
based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the
Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be
repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die
out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).


 Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using
animals which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s
puzzle box.






 B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly
changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the
desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that
can follow behavior.


 Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of
behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired
 response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can
follow behavior.
 • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase
nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
 • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability
of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
 • Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of
a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.


 We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by
reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of
behaviors and learnt from their consequences. 

 For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the
chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to
hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and
would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence
was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents
became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you
would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.



 Reinforcement (strengthens behavior)

 Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in
his Skinner box. The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a
food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly
learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they
would repeat the action again and again.


 Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each
time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you are more likely to
repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of
completing your homework.


 The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is
known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse
stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal. Negative reinforcement
strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. 

 For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher £5.
You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the
behavior of completing your homework.

 Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his
Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which
caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would
accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would
be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric
current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

 In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on
a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press
the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the
electric current being switched on.


 These two learned responses are known as Escape
Learning and Avoidance Learning.
 Punishment (weakens behavior) 

 Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to
weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. 
 Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an
unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially
rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to
punish undesirable behavior.
 Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative
reinforcement.



 Behavior Modification

 Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant
conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing
environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For example,
the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired
ones. 
 This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for
example, is basically bribery.
 There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is
when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is
when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a primary
reinforcer.
 Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and
behavior shaping



 Token Economy
 The token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced
with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards
(primary reinforcers). 
 Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc.
While rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges/activities.
 Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric
patients. However, the patients can become over reliant on the tokens,
making it difficult for them once they leave prisons, hospital etc.
 Teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children
stickers to reward good behavior.



 Operant Conditioning in the Classroom


 Behavior modification therapy is much used in clinical and
educational psychology, particularly with people with learning difficulties. In
the conventional learning situation it applies largely to issues of class- and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to
shaping skill performance.
 A simple way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in
providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of
five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being the
most effective in altering behavior in a desired manner. 



 Operant Conditioning Summary


 Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ behavior we can identify some
of the major assumptions of behaviorists approach.
 • Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific
manner. Skinner's study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully
controlled laboratory conditions.
 • Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to
internal events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that
the rats learnt to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead
concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats
acquired.
 • The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In
the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats
learned to repeat that behavior, e.g. classical and operant conditioning.
 • There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans
and that in other animals. Therefore research (e.g. classical conditioning) can
be carried out on animals (Pavlov’s dogs) as well as on humans (Little Albert).
Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as
the way the rats learned to press a lever.


 So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in
laboratories wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate
mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are probably thinking of
behavioral psychology. 


 Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the
psychological perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how
we learn to behave in certain ways. We are all constantly learning new
behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. Behavioral psychology is
the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place.

 Critical Evaluation
 Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behavior, from
the process of learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has
practical application (such as token economy) which can be applied in
classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals. 
 However, operant conditioning fails to taken into account the role of inherited
and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the
learning process in humans and animals.
 For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems
in a flash of insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also social learning
theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically
through observation rather than through personal experience.

 The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the
issue of extrapolation. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from
studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from
humans, & they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason,
patience, memory or self-comfort.
 Behaviorism is essentially the study of how we learn. Humans are different from many
animals in that we possess very little instinct, or genetic blueprint for our behaviors. For
example, humans do not instinctively know how to perform a ritual mating dance or we do
not instinctually fly south for the winter. Instead, humans progress through life continually
changing our behaviors due to new or repetitive experiences. In a word, we LEARN.
 It was the Greek philosopher, Aristotle who came to the conclusion, over 2000 years ago
that we learn by association. Learning by association is connecting events that occur in
sequences. Psychologists have determined that there are two basic types of learning by
association: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.
 Classical Conditioning was first developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov
during the late 1920’s. Pavlov was originally trying to study the saliva’s role in
the digestive system of dogs. During the course of his experiments he made the connection
between reflex and a conditioned response.
 Essentially, what Pavlov discovered was the model of learning that works on both animals
and humans. To understand classical conditioning it is best to describe Pavlov’s experiments.
 Pavlov realized that when a dog is introduced to a plate of food, the dog’s natural reaction
or reflex was to begin to drool. Drooling was then an Unconditioned Response (UCR) to the
presence of the food. The food was then the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS). What Pavlov then
stumbled upon was an association that took place when a bell was rung when the food was
presented to the dog. Normally, a bell is a Neutral Stimuli (NS), which means that on its own
a bell will not cause any real reaction to a dog. However, when the bell was rung in
conjunction with the presenting of the food, the dog began to associate the ringing of the
bell with the presence of food. After awhile, Pavlov had only to ring the bell and the dog
 would begin to drool. In this sense the bell became a Conditioned Stimuli (CS) and the
drooling at the bell became the Conditioned Response (CR).


 This discovery led Pavlov on another 30 years of study around the

concept of conditionedresponses and learning. During this time Pavlov
identified 5 major conditioning processes;

 Pavlov’s 5 Major Conditioning Processes

 1. Acquisition - Is the initial learning that takes place.  It is determined by
how much time elapses between the presenting the neutral stimuli (NS) and
the unconditioned stimuli (UCS).
 2. Extinction - Is how long it takes to forget or eliminate
the conditioned response (CR).
 3. Spontaneous Recovery - Happens after the conditioned response (CR)
reappears after a long period of time. It proved that Extinction only
suppressed the conditioned response (CR), not completely eliminated it.
 4. Generalization - Is the tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to
the conditioned stimuli (CS).  For example Pavlov’s dog would drool upon
hearing a buzzer as well as the bell.
 5. Discrimination - Is the learned ability to differentiate between similar
stimuli (the dog learns eventually to tell the difference between the bell and
the buzzer).

 In the end, Pavlov was a Nobel Prize-winning physiologist who discovered

classical conditioning in the course of his physiological research. He
eventually and begrudgingly became a psychologist and in the process helped
change the direction of psychological research. Classical conditioning became
a major tool in the theoretical formulations of later behaviorists. It allowed
them to explain behavior without having to consider consciousness. Pavlov's
discovery of classical conditioning provided the first mechanism for explaining
learning without reference to the mind.

 Definition of Learning
 Life is a process of continual change. From infancy to adolescence to
adulthood to death, we are changing. Many factors work together to produce
those changes, but one of the most important is the process of learning.
Through our experiences, we learn new information, new attitudes, new fears,
and new skills; we also learn to understand new concepts, to solve problems
in new ways, and even to develop a personality over a lifetime. And in the
 course of reading textbooks, we learn new definitions for words like learning:
In psychology the term learning refers to any relatively permanent change in
behaviour brought about through experience—that is, through interactions
with the environment.

 Classical Conditioning:  Learning by Association

 We begin our study of specific types of learning with a simple form called
classical conditioning. The scientific study of classical condition began around
the turn of the [20th] century with an accidental discovery made in the
Leningrad laboratory of Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who
was studying the role of saliva in digestion at the time of the discovery. To
study the reflexive response of the salivary glands to the presence of food in
the mouth, he had surgically implanted tubes in the cheeks of dogs so that
saliva could be drained and precisely measured when small amounts of food
were placed in the dogs’ mouths. Pavlov noticed, however, that dogs that had
been in the experiment a few days started salivating when the attendant
entered the room with the food dish before the food was placed in their
mouths. The sights (and probably sounds) of the attendant had come to elicit
(evoke or produce) a reflexive response that only the food had originally
elicited. This fact would have gone quite unnoticed had the tubes not been
placed in the dogs’ cheeks—that is the accidental part of the discovery. A dog
that salivates whenever he or she sees a laboratory attendant may not seem
like a great step forward for science at first glance. But Pavlov recognized that
a reflexive response to food, which was biologically ―wired into‖ the nervous
system, had come under the control of an arbitrary stimulus—the sight of the
attendant.
 Stated in a different way, Pavlov knew he had witnessed a form of learning
that was based on nothing more that the repeated association of two stimuli.
Because the dog’s experience of food was linked to the sight of the attendant,
the behaviour of the dog was changed— the dog now salivated to the stimuli
of the approaching attendant. That is, the stimuli elicited a response. When
you were born, you could only respond to the outside world with a limited
repertoire of inborn reflexes, but now you are a marvelously complex product
of your learning experiences. Pavlov wanted to understand this process of
learning, so over his colleagues’ objections, he hastily completed his studies
of digestion and devoted the rest of his career to the study of learning.

 Association:   The Key Element in Classical

Conditioning
 It had been noted by Aristotle more than 2,000 years before Pavlov that two
sensations repeatedly experienced together will become associated. If you
have frequently visited the seashore with a friend, visiting the seashore alone
will probably trigger memories of that friend. If you got sick the last time you
ate a hot dog, you will likely feel nauseous the next time you see one.
Learning through association is a common part of our lives.
 Before we can proceed much further in our understanding of classical
conditioning, we need to learn some new terminology. Although a bit awkward
and confusing at first, these new terms will allow us to expand our discussion
of classical conditioning to topics more relevant to your own experiences than
salivating dogs without losing sight of the basic concept. First we use each of
these four new terms to refer to the specific stimuli and responses in
Pavlov’s experiments, then we use them with new examples. The new terms
are as follows.
 1. Unconditioned Stimulus – The meat which was given to the dogs in
Pavlov’s experiments was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This can be any
stimulus that can elicit the response without any learning. In other words, the
response to an unconditioned stimulus is natural and inborn.
 2. Unconditioned Response – The dogs’ salivation to the meat powder was
the unconditioned response (UCR). It is an unlearned, inborn reaction to the
unconditioned stimulus.
 3. Conditioned Stimulus – The bell used in Pavlov’s experiments was
originally unable to elicit the response of salivation, but it acquired the ability
to elicit the response through the process of classical conditioning. It was the
conditioned stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s studies.
 4. Conditioned Response – When the dog began salivating to the
conditioned stimulus, salivation became the conditioned response (CR). When
a response that is similar or identical to the unconditioned response is then
elicited by the conditioned stimulus, it’s referred to as the conditioned
response.
 To summarize: The meat was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS); the bell was
the conditioned stimulus (CS), the salivation was the unconditioned response
(UCR); and when the salivation was elicited by the conditioned stimulus, it
became the conditioned response (CR).

 Definition of Classical Conditioning

 We have finally covered enough terminology to be able to give a precise
definition of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a form of learning
in which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that
elicits an unlearned response (UCR). As a result of these pairings of the CS
and the UCS, the CS comes to elicit a response (CR) that is identical or very
similar to the UCR.
 Note that we consider classical conditioning to be a form of learning not
because a new behaviour has been acquired, but because an old behaviour
can be elicited by a new stimulus; behaviour is ―changed‖ only in that sense.
It is important to notice also that the process of classical conditioning does
not depend on the behaviour of the individual being conditioned. The critical
element in classical conditioning is that the CS and the UCS be closely
associated in time.

 The Bell and Pad: An Application of Classical

Conditioning
 A problem that affects many children is nocturnal enuresis, or nighttime bed-
wetting. Some children do not develop the ability to wake up during the night
when they have a full bladder, long after most children have learned to do so;
instead, they wet the bed in their sleep. About 1 percent of all 5-year-olds and
2 percent of children over 12 have this problem, especially boys. While this is
not a problem of major concern, it’s embarrassing for the child and often quite
upsetting for the parents.
 A simple device, called the bell and pad, was developed many years ago
based on the principle of classical conditioning that deals with the problem of
nocturnal enuresis rather successfully. The device consists of two thin metallic
sheets that are perforated with small holes and attached separately by wires
to a battery-operated alarm. The flexible metallic sheets are placed on top of
one another and separated by a sheet of fabric and then laid under the child’s
sheets. As soon as the child passes the first drops of urine, the urine closes
 the electric circuit between the metallic sheets, causing the alarm to wake the
child.
 In the terminology of classical conditioning, the alarm is a UCS that elicits the
UCR of awaking. By repeatedly pairing the alarm with the sensation of a full
bladder, these sensations become a CS that elicits the CR of awakening. This
process of classical conditioning—which does not hurt, but is not appropriate
for the bed training of normal children—has be found to been over 60 percent
successful in treating nocturnal enuresis.

 Of Special Interest: John B Watson an Little Albert

– Classical Conditioned Fear
 In 1920, behaviourist John B. Watson and his associate Rosalie Rayner
published what must be the most widely cited example of classical
conditioning and stimulus generalization in psychology. Watson was
convinced that many of our fears are acquired through classical conditioning
and sought to test this idea by teaching a fear to a young child, the now
famous little Albert. Albert was first allowed to play with a white laboratory rat
to find out if he was afraid of rats. At that time they discovered that he was
not. Then as he played with the white rat, an iron bar was struck loudly with a
hammer behind Albert’s head. As might be expected, the noises caused
Albert to cry fearfully. After seven such pairings, Albert showed a strong fear
response when the rat was placed near him. He had learned to fear the rat
through classical conditioning. In addition, the fear seemed to have
generalized to other similar objects. Five days later, Albert reacted fearfully to
a white rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. He also showed mild fearful
reactions to balls of cotton and a Santa Claus mask.
 For understandable reasons, this experiment would not be considered ethical
by today’s standards. Although the conditioned fear probably did not persist,
Watson and Rayner made no attempt to reverse the conditioning of Albert’s
fear, and they possibly left him with a minor phobia for the rest of his life.
 According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of
five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and
continue to influence behavior later in life.

 Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but
also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops
through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking
energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This
psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.

 If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a
healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage,
fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual
stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this
stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-
dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking, or eating.

 1. The Oral Stage

 Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
 Erogenous Zone: Mouth 
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. the
infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must
become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail
biting.

 2. The Anal Stage

 Age Range: 1 to 3 years
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
 Focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The
major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control
his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage
is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. If
parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-
expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet
training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops
in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.

 3. The Phallic Stage

 Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals
 During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival
for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of
wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However,
the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been
used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.Eventually, the
child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputedthis
theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney
proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give
birth to children.

 4. The Latent Period 

 Age Range: 6 to Puberty
 Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
 During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The stage begins
around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests. This stage is important in
the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

 5. The Genital Stage 

 Age Range: Puberty to Death
 Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
 During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a
strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty
but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in
the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have
been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.
 Erik Erikson was a psychoanalyst who developed the theory of psychosocial
development. He was born on June 15, 1902 in Karlsruhe Germany. His classic
work "Childhood and Society" set forth his theory of the life cycle. He believed
that the achievements and failures of earlier stages influence later stages,
whereas later stages modify and transform earlier ones. Erikson's
conceptualization of psychosocial development based its model the
epigenetic principle of organismic growth in utero. Erikson views psychosocial
growth occurs in phases.
 Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson
extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s
biological and sexually oriented theory. It’s also interesting to see how his
ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own journey through the
‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that underpinned his work.
 Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well designed.
The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of
personality and behaviour, and also for understanding for facilitating personal
development – of self and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more
knowledgeable and at the same time understand the various environmental
factors that can affect his/her own and his/her students’ personality and
behaviour.
 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A
helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing forces is
‘contrary dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life for the
stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the word ‘syntonic’ for the
first-listed positive dispositionin each crisis (e.g., trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the
second-listed negative disposition (e.g., mistrust). To signify the opposing or
conflicting relationship between each pair of dispositions, Erikson connected
them with the word ‘versus’.
 If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial
strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
Successfully passing through each crisis involves ‘achieving’ a healthy ratio or
balance between the two opposing dispositions that represents each crisis.
 On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation and
malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is
the worse of the two, and involves too little of the positive and too much of
the negative aspects of the task, such as a person who can’t trust others. A
maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much too much of the
positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.

 THE 8 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

 Stage one (Trust vs. Mistrust) 
 The first stage is the infancy, approximately the first year or year and a half of
life. The task is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity
for mistrust. If mom and dad can give the newborn a degree of familiarity,
consistency, and continuity, then the child will develop the feeling that the
world - especially the social world - is a safe place to be, that people are
reliable and loving. Through the parents' responses, the child also learns to
trust his or her own body and the biological urges that go with it. If the
parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it, if
other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infants needs to
satisfy their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will
be apprehensive and suspicious around people. 
 Too much trust leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls Sensory
Maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe
anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defences at their
command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong.
Worse is the malignant tendency which Erikson calls Withdrawal which is
characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis. 
 If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue hope, the
strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well
in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when
the child isn't overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction
of his or her needs: Mom or dad don't have to be perfect; I trust them enough
to believe that, if they can't be here immediately, they will be here soon;
Things may be tough now, but they will work out in the end. This is the same
ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our careers,
and other domains of life. 

 Stage two (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt) 

 The second stage is the early childhood, from about eighteen months to three
or four years old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad (and the other care-takers that
often come into the picture at this point) permit the child, now a toddler, to
explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense
of autonomy (independence). The parents should not discourage the child, but
neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advise new
parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage, and the advice is good. This
way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem. 
 On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of
shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore
and be independent, children will soon give up with and assume that they
cannot and should not act on their own. We should keep in mind that even
something as innocent as laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child
to feel deeply ashamed, and to doubt his or her abilities. 
 And there are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt: If you give
children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help
children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also give
them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren't patient
enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never
learn to tie them, and will assume that this is just too difficult to learn! Shame
and doubt sound very negative. Do we really need them? Yes, unless you
think it is a good idea to run around naked in public or jump off of buildings.
 Too much autonomy will leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls
impulsiveness, a sort of shameless wilfulness that leads you, in later
childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things without proper
consideration of your abilities. Worse is too much shame and doubt, will leads
to malignant tendency which Erikson calls compulsiveness.
The compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they
do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely
keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all cost.
 If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt,
you will develop the virtue of willpower (determination). One of the most
admirable - and frustrating - thing about two- and three-year-olds is their
determination. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can do"
attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as
adults. 

 Stage three (Initiative vs. Guilt) 

 Stage three is the early childhood stage. From three or four to five or six, the
task confronting every child is to learn initiative without too much guilt.
Initiative means a positive response to the world's challenges, taking on
responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage
initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept and
encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for play, not
for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining a
future situation, one that isn't a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to
make that non-reality a reality. 
 But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be
responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my watch down the
toilet, I can safely assume that there were no "evil intentions." It was just a
matter of a shiny object going round and round and down. What fun! But if my
five year old does the same thing... well, she should know what's going to
happen to the watch, what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what's
going to happen to her! She can be guilty of the act, and she can begin to feel
guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgement has arrived. Do we really
need guilt? Very much. The only people that don't feel guilt are called
psychopaths.
 Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson
calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be “without
mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright; they have their plans,
wether it’s a matter of school or romance or etc. It’s just that they don’t care
who they step on too achieve their goals. Ruthlessness is bad for others, but
actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the
malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited
person will not try things because “nothing ventured, nothing lost” and,
particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a
lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed. 
 A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of
purpose is something many people crave in their lives, yet many do not
realize that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and
initiative. I think an even better word for this virtue would have been courage,
the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and
past failings. 
 Stage four (Industry vs. Inferiority) 
 Stage four is the school-age stage from about six to twelve. The task is to
develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of
inferiority. Children must "tame the imagination" and dedicate themselves to
education and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There
is a much broader social sphere at work now: The parents and other family
members are joined by teachers and peers and other members of he
community at large. They all contribute: Parents must encourage, teachers
must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not
only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or social. 
 A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in
the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four-year-olds may
love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may
change them several times during the course of the game, and be very
unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their
opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules,
considers them pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the
game is not allowed to come to its required conclusion. 
 If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting
peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority
or incompetence. An additional source of inferiority Erikson mentions is
racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination: If a child believes that
success is related to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why
try? 
 Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow
virtuosity. We see this in children who aren’t allowed to be children, the ones
that parents or teacher push into one area of competence, without allowing
the development of broader interests. These are kids without a life: child
actors, child athletes, child musician, child prodigies at all sorts. We al admire
their industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an
empty life. Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes
all of us who suffer from “inferiority complexes” that Alfred Adler talked
about. If at first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do
well in mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we took another math
class.
 Good and balanced development of industry and inferiority is a happier thing -
that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly
humble. This virtue called competency.

 Stage five (Ego identity vs. Role Confusion) 

 Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20
years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid
role confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and
the patterns he saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other
stages. Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest
of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself
and mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds
meaningful. 
 There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should have a
mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, one with
good adult role models and open lines of communication. If the teenager
 looks around and sees nothing but sexism, racism, war-mongering, unbridled
materialism, self-centered hedonism, puritanical self-righteousness, etc. - why
bother to become an adult? 
 Further, society should provide clear rites of passage - certain
accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child.
In primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to
leave the village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic
animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go
through certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational
events. In one way or another, the distinction between the powerless but
carefree time of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of
adulthood, is made clear. 
 Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an
uncertainty about one's place in society and the world. When an adolescent is
confronted by role confusion, Erikson say he or she is suffering from an
identity crisis. In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask is a
straight-forward question of identity: "Who am I?" Notice how long it takes, in
our society, before we have an answer to the parallel question "What do I
want to be when I grow up?"
 Too much Ego Identity leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls
fanaticism. A fanatic person believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents
are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency to see things in
black-and-white. These people will gather others around them and promote
their beliefs and life-styles without regard to others’ rights to disagree. The
lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the
malignant tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject
their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their
need for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against
the norms to form their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations,
groups founded on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the
painful demands of mainstream society. They may become involved in
destructive activities, drugs, or alcohol, or you may withdraw into their own
psychotic fantasies.
 If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called
fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by society's standards
despite the imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not
talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting those
imperfections. After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it
become the best it can be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in
that community, a place that will allow you to contribute. 

 Stage six (Intimacy vs. Isolation) 

 If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of the young adult, which
lasts (in modern society) from about 20 to about 30. The ages in the adult
stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and people may differ
dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to
remaining in isolation. 
 Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a
participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you are, you no
longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as many adolescents do. The "fear of
commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this
stage. This fear isn't always so obvious. Many people today are always putting
 off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married (or have a family, or get
involved in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I
have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon as.... If you've been engaged
for the last ten years, what's holding you back? 
 Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore. A
teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through
"couple-hood." A teenager might respond to "Who am I?" with "I'm her boy-
friend" or "I'm his girl-friend". The young adult relationship should be a matter
of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves.
 Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the
tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to
your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and
neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers. The malignancy
he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and develop a certain hatefulness in
compensation for one’s loneliness.
 If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will carry with you for the rest of
your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the
context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and
antagonisms through "mutuality of devotion." It includes not only the love we
find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one's
neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot as well. 

 Stage seven (Generativity vs. Stagnation) 

 The seventh stage is the middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it
would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising
children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between
30 and 60. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and
stagnation. 
 Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next
generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less "selfish"
than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or
friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily reciprocal. Oh, of
course we love each other unselfishly, but the reality is such that, if the love is
not returned, we don't consider it a true love. With generativity, that implicit
expectation of reciprocity isn't there, at least not as strongly. Few parents
expect a "return on their investment" from their children; If they do, they
aren't very good parents! 
 Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising
children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching,
writing, invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally
contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well. 
 This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women take a
look at their lives and ask that big, bad question "what am I doing all this for?"
Notice the question carefully: Because their focus is on themselves, they ask
what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at getting older
and not having experienced or accomplished what they imagined they would
when they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the
most flambouyant examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their
humdrum jobs, buy some "hip" new clothes, buy a Porsche, and start hanging
around singles bars. Of course, they seldom find what they are looking for,
because they are looking for the wrong thing! 
 Maladaptive tendency in this stage was called Overextensions. Some people
try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest
and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well.
More obvious is the malignant tendency which Erikson calls rejectivity. Too
little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating
in or contributing to society. And much of what we call “the meaning if life” is
a matter of how we participate and what we participate. 
 If you are successful at this stage, you will develop a virtue which is the
capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of your life. 

 Stage eight (Ego Integrity vs. Despair) 

 This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less
delicately as old age, begins sometime around retirement, after the kids have
gone, somewhere around 60 years old in our society. Some older folks will
protest and say it only starts when you feel old and so on, but that's an effect
of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding any
acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory, reaching this stage is a good
thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarded your
development! 
 The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This
stage, especially from the perspective of youth, seems like the most difficult
of all. First comes a detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for
most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they've held for years;
others find their duties as parents coming to a close; most find that their input
is no longer asked for or required. 
 Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does
everything it used to. Women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause;
Men often find they can no longer "rise to the occasion." Then there are the
illnesses of old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns
about breast and ovarian and prostrate cancers. There come fears about
things that one was never afraid of before - the flu, for example, or just falling
down. Along with the illnesses come concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives
die. One's spouse dies. It is, of course, certain that you, too, will have your
turn. Faced with all this, it might seem like everyone would feel despair. 
 In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the
past. After all, that's where things were better. Some become preoccupied
with their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some
in the previous stage) they really don't have the time or energy to reverse
them. We find some older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid,
hypochondrical, or developing the patterns of senility with or without physical
bases. 
 Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to
terms with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course
of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then
you needn't fear death. Although most of you are not at this point in life,
perhaps you can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We've all
made mistakes, some of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made
these mistakes, you wouldn't be who you are. If you had been very fortunate,
or if you had played it safe and made very few mistakes, your life would not
have been as rich as is. 
 The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what
happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the
 difficulties of old age. The person is old age believes that he alone is right. He
does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is
called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of life, one’s own or
anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
 Good balance will leads to the development of the virtue which Erikson calls
wisdom. Someone who approaches death without fear. He calls it a gift to
children, because "healthy children will not fear life if their elders have
integrity enough not to fear death."