Building stones

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I

GROUP 3
Calupas, Daniel
Eguia, Joy
Endo, Precious
Leyran, Stephen

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 stones
- ARE NATURALLY OCCURING COMPACT SOLID
AND MASSIVE MATERIAL THAT MAKE THE
CRUST OF THE EARTH

TECHNECALLY, THE STONES ARE CALLED ROCKS. THE

ROCKS OCCUR IN GREAT VARIETY. THE ROCKS POSSES
SUITABLE PROPERTIES OFTEN FIND USE IN THE BUILDING
STONES. IT FOLLOWS THAT ALL BUILDING STONES ARE
ROCKS IN NATURE, ALL ROCKS MAY NOT BE USEFUL AS
BUILING STONES.

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BUILDING STONES
- Stones have been used in all type of
construction since time immemorial..

- Stone, timber and clay had been the

most commonly construction used
material right from the beginning of
the civilization till the advent of
Portland cement and hence concrete
in the early nineteenth century.
Characteristics and Qualities of Good
Building stones
• The stone should be free from soft
• The stone should be easily and patches, flaws, cavities and cracks.
economically obtainable in bulk. • Impurities and other undesirables
• Ease of quarrying • It should be well seasoned and easily
• Durability and hardness: The workable.
stone should be hard, strong
and durable.
• It should weather well.
• It should have fine compact
texture.
• Color and aesthetic value
• It should be capable to
withstand the effects of smoke
and acidic atmosphere.
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Characteristics and Qualities of Good
Building stones

• These come from all geological

environments.
• -
• Building materials are by far the
lowest cost geological materials
and their value is usually in the
order of only a few dollars per ton
• The most important economic
factor for building materials is that
the material has to be close to
where it is going to be used, as the
highest cost is in its transportation.
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CLASSIFICATION
Building Stones may be:
i) Crushed rock (or Aggregate Stone): Natural aggregate (crushed
stone, sand, and gravel) is the most commonly used building material,
along with concrete which is derived from crushed limestone. Bricks are
made from fine aggregate along with clay which acts as the binding
material, and iron oxide minerals for colouration.
• Aggregate is also used as a sub-surface lining on our roads.
• Plaster is derived from crushed and refined gypsum.
• Coarse and fine aggregates
• Fillers
• Proximity to market
• Optimum targets for exploitation.

ii) Dimension (or Ornamental) stones are much higher-value building

material and are used as decorative facings on buildings.
Examples: Marble, Quartzite, Gneiss, Schist, Serpentinite, Slate, Migmatite.
By far the most commonly used dimension stones are marbles.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONES

• GEOLOGICALLY
• CHEMICALLY
• STRUCTURALLY
• Classification based on stone hardness: Natural (Rock)
stone

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 Stone classification:
• According to its contents
• According to place which refer to
• According to its texture
1. Natural stone properties (advantages)
2. Natural stone properties (Disadvantages)
Stoning
Manufacturing
Stone construction:
Stone finishing
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 ROCKS
• Rock is the term used to name a
solid portion of the earth's crust .
• It has no definite shape and
chemical composition
• It is generally very big in site.
• The rocks have one or more
than one materials .
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STONES
• The stone is always obtained from
rock. The rock quarried from
quarries is called stone.
• Quarried stone may be in form of
stone blocks, stone aggregate,
stone slabs, stone lintels , Stone
flags, ETC.
• These materials are know as
engineering materials; building
materials or materials of
Construction
 A. GEOLIGICAL STONES
The geological age of rocks has also some relations with their
properties as building materials. As a general rule, the very ancient
rocks are more stronger and more durable, but to this there are
many exceptions. According to the usual geological classification,
rocks are divided into igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

I. IGNEOUS
II. SEDIMENTARY
III. METAMORPHIC
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 I. IGNEOUS ROCK (Greek word ignis= fire)
These rocks are formed when the magma from the earth comes out of the surface or cools
inside near the surface of the earth.

Characteristics:
A. Intrusive - subsurface crystallization
B. Extrusive- above surface crystallization
*note Temperature and time has a lot of effect on crystal sizes i.e.: Heat + time = Larger
crystal

CLASSIFICATION OF STONES

• Plutonic Rocks • Formed at great depths, generally from 210 km below the surface. These
have coarse crystals.

• Examples: Granites, Syenites’, Gabbros.

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 Volcanic Rocks • Formed at great depths, generally from 210 km below the surface. These have
coarse crystals.

Examples: Granites, Syenites’, Gabbros.

Hypabyssal Rocks. Formed at the intermediate depth below the surface generally up to 2 km. These
have mixed characters.
Examples: Porphyries of various types.

C. Mineral content
D. Grain size, Plutonic >3/16" coarse. Extrusive 1/64" - 3/16" Medium and < 1/64" fine 2
E. Crystal shape
F. Texture % A, %B, crystal angle.
G. Color.
These rocks are further classified into
A. Acid rocks > 65% Si + > 10% Modal Quartz
B. Intermediate rocks 55% - 65% Si
C. Basic rocks 45% - 55% Si < 10% Modal Quartz
D. Ultra-Basic < 45% Si.

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 II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
. The uniqueness of these rocks
Characteristics: are:
Sandstone, limestone, dolomite
 Formed at or near the surface
.originally formed mainly in sea water,  Distinctive strata
or lakes, from the  Many fossils have been found
remains of animals and plants, also in this type of rock Grain
from transportation and deposition of shape
-Rounded
rock products - Angular.

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Clastic Rocks (Detrital) •
These are sedimentary rocks formed
by deposition and consolidation of
disintegrated sediments and fragments
from the previous rocks in suitable river
basins, lake and the sea basins etc..
They form very good type of building
stone
 • If dolomite (magnesium carbonate) content is high, the term dolomite rock is used. Depending on the
content of either carbonate (calcium or magnesium carbonate), rocks will receive different names, such
as dolomite rock, limestone or calcareous dolomite rock.

• In industry, both sedimentary rocks, i.e. Limestone and Dolomite rock, may be called "MARBLES" due
to their appearance once polished, although, as discussed below, marble is not a sedimentary but a
metamorphic rock. The presence of fossils in rocks determines their sedimentary origin.

• Tufas are limestones in whose genesis the photosynthetic activity of microorganisms and vegetables is
involved. Carbonate material accumulates around them, thus preserving a high porosity which leads to
a decrease in weight. Tufas have been widely used in popular architecture (for arches and vaults) as
they can be easily worked, maintaining good consistency and compactness.

• Evaporites are also a type of chemical rock, so called because they form in water masses that are
subjected to intense or complete evaporation. Only rarely have these rocks had any interest as natural
stone, but there exists an evaporite rock in the Northern coast of Egypt that, due to its post-sedimentary
evolution, displays characteristics that have turned it into a valued material. This rock is alabaster, to
which a chapter will be dedicated.

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 Chemical rocks which are formed by
mineral precipitation. Carbonates are the
most frequently occurring and also the
most
used subgroup, i.e. limestone, mainly
composed by microscopic calcite crystals
(calcium carbonate), although other
minerals may
also occur, but far less frequently: silica,
clays, iron and manganese oxides, organic
matter… and other carbonates. Iron oxides
confer interesting yellow, orange, red and
black coloration. Meanwhile, organic
matter confers black or grey colors.

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 Organic formed Sedimentary
Rocks • As we know that more
than 70 % of the surface of earth
is covered with water in the form
of sea and oceans. Many sea
animals have their hard parts
made up of bones, which are a
mixture of calcium and
magnesium carbonates. These
parts accumulate at proper
places on the sea floor.
Gradually huge thickness of
such deposits get formed and
compacted and consolidates
with passage of time.

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 METAMORPHIC ROCKS (meta=
Change; morph= form)
These are originally either igneous or
sedimentary rocks. The process for
their change under the influence of
increased temperature, pressure, and
chemical environment is called
metamorphism.
Characteristics: Marble, serpentine,
onyx, slate, quartzite, gneiss are
produced from sedimentary or igneous
rocks by the action of heat and
pressure.
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The uniqueness of these rocks are:
A. No pressure - fossils survive
B. Low pressure - fossils distorted or
destroyed
C. Moderate pressure - Grains form
moderately
D. High pressure - Active fluids may circulate
E. Heat alone, Metamorphic Aureole
surrounding a deep plutonic intrusions,
possibly with active fluids.
F. Dynamic Meta - Large scale movement
phenomena G. Crushing actions produce
Xylonite Meta rock from powder
H. Low angle thrust fault: Plate pressure
coupled with subsidence
I. Thrust movement, plate movement
 the nature of change of an original rock depend on following
factors:

• (i) The type of agent/s operating ( Temperature, Pressure,

chemically active fluid etc.)
• The duration of operation of the above agent.
• The nature and composition of the original rocks, Some very
common metamorphic rocks are Marble, Quartzite, Gneiss, Slate
and Schist; The first three rocks are very good building stones in
many cases.

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 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
I.) Siliceous Rocks • These rocks
have silica (and, quartz and flint)
as their principal constituent and
are very hard and durable,
unaffected by weathering. Chief
types of siliceous rocks are
Granites, Traps, Quartzite and
Sandstones.
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2) Calcareous Rocks. • Calcium
carbonate or lime is the main
constituent of these rocks.
Crystalline and compact types are
hard and durable. Clay is very
often found mixed in such rocks.
Marbles and limestone are
calcareous rocks.
3) Argillaceous Rocks. •
Rocks of the clayey types
which are more or less
composed of alumina mixed
with small quantities of other
minerals. Slates and laterites
belong to this group.
 Structural Classification
1.) The Massive or Unstratified
Rocks. • These rocks occur in
huge masses without showing
any layered structure in them.
Igneous and many
metamorphic rocks and some
sedimentary rocks may be
seen occurring as big masses.
Granite and Quartzite often
occur in massive form.
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2) The Stratified Rocks. • Most
sedimentary rocks occur in
distinct layers of same and
different color and
composition. Their different
layers are also called beds
and are separated by planes
of weaknesses called bedding
planes
3.) Foliated Rocks • Very often a
third group of rock is distinguished
as foliated rocks in which there is
profuse development of well
defined band of different
composition. This is seen as
schists and gneisses. The foliated
rocks do not yield building stone of
good quality.s
Quarrying of Stones
(i) Availability of Sound Rock. • A quarry can be opened up where a sound
rock that can yield good quality of building stones existing in sufficiently
larger area. These is essential because quarrying operation require quite
heavy initial investment in men and machinery and these have to be
economically viable.

(ii) Distance from the areas of construction: Quarrying is

commonly a commercial operation. The quarry must not
be located far away from the area where constructional
activities are going on.
In such a case when it is located far away, the cost of
transport of stone from the quarry to constructional sites
may become too heavy.
At the same time, a quarry must not be located very close
to a town because quarrying operations are full of
hazards. This becomes especially important when
blasting method has to be used for quarrying of stones.

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 iv) Availability of water and dumping space: In quarrying operations, considerable man power is
employed. Water is an important necessity for the work force. It must be available in sufficient quantity near
the quarry site.
Similarly, quarrying operations involve a lot of breaking of different types of rocks all of which are not useful
for building construction.
Such waste rock or refuse has to be dumped on one or other side of the quarry, so that main quarry face is
not blocked.
The required dumping space should be easily available near the quarry.

(v) Another factor is drainage system: Ground water and surface

water have to be quickly drained. It should be possible to provide
adequate drainage at the quarry site.

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Preparation Steps for Stone Quarrying.
(i) Selection of Method for quarrying: At present, quarrying can be
done either by manual methods or by machines.
(ii) Preparation of a layout: In accordance with the method selected for
quarrying of stones, a scheme or layout for quarrying will be prepared.
(iii) Removal of the over burden: The surface of natural rock beds are
invariably covered by some thickness of soil or lose material.
 Methods of Quarrying of Stones.

Quarrying of Stones Without Blasting.

In these methods, blocks of rocks are broken

loose from their natural outcrops by men
using hand tools or special purpose
channeling machines.

Quarrying by Heating:

It is an old, crude method which may be useful locally

for obtaining small quantities of stones. Rocks are
heated for a few hours by burning heaps of firewood
over their surface.
Such a process results in expansion of the upper layers
and their cracking and separating from the lower layers.

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Quarrying of Stones by Blasting.
This method consists of using explosives
for breaking stones from very hard rocks.
It has been observed that quarrying of
granites, basalts, traps, quartzites,
and sandstones by wedging and other
methods is very laborious and costly.
(1) Drilling of blast-holes:
A blast-hole is a hole of suitable diameter and depth
driven at a properly selected location on a rock for
being charged with an explosive.
(2) Charging of Blast-hole:
The loading or charging of the blast-holes with pre-
determined quantities of the selected type of explosive
is to be done with great care and caution.
(i) The holes are first cleared of all the
obstructions and irregularities with the help of
wooden romping rods.
(ii) Explosive in the form of powder packs or
cartridges is then inserted in small quantity at
a time.
 iii) When blasting powder is used as an explosive charge, a fuse is inserted.
In the case of charge is in the form of cartridges a primer cartridge (which has a highly sensitive explosive), it is a
inserted and is connected to a safety fuse.
The hole is generally filled from 1/3 to 1/2 its depth with the explosive.

(iv) The hole is then summed. Stemming consists of filling the remaining 2/3 to 1/2 depth of blast-hole (above the
last compacted layer of explosive) with inert and non-combustible material like powdered clay, rock and, sand.

(v) It is also customary to put the safety fuse (for firing) at the beginning of stemming
operation.

(vi) Sometimes stemming is done in layers alternating with explosive layers. This becomes almost
necessary in deep holes involving the use of large quantities of an explosive in each shot.

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 (3) Firing of the Shot:
It is the final step involving igniting the explosive in the blast-holes by using a safety fuse or by electric
detonators.
A Safety fuse is essentially a thin strain of gun powder properly wrapped in a cotton thread. When ignited,
it burns from one end to the other end at a fixed speed, generally 100-130 seconds per meter.
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Dressing OF Stones:
This can be given at the quarry and also at the site
The Dressing of stone is defined as “The of construction.
process of giving a proper size, shape and
finish to the roughly broken stones as obtained (c) To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential
from the quarry.” building, stones are used not only because of their
Objectives: extra strength, hardness, and durability but also
Stones obtained from the quarries are very because of their aesthetic value.
rough and irregular in shape and quite bulky in
size and weight.
Various objectives of dressing are below;
(a) To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones
so that they are converted to easily lift-able pieces.
(b) To give a proper shape to the stone. It is
known that stones can be used at different places
in the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in
arches or for flooring, each situation will require a
proper shape.
This can be given at the quarry and also at the site
of construction.
Methods / Types of Dressing of
Stones.
(iii) Chisel drafting:
(i) Pitched dressing: In this method, drafts or grooves are made with the help
In Pitched dressing, only the edges of a stone of a chisel at all the four edges.
block are made level with the help of a hammer. Any superfluous stone from the center is then removed.
The superfluous mass on the face is generally Chisel drafted stones are specially used in plinths and
left intact. the buildings.

(ii) Hammer dressing:

It is that type of dressing in which large
raised portions of the stones are broken
off, and the stone is shaped somewhat flat
but rough due to hammer marks.
(iv) Rough Tooling:
The edges are first squared by using a chisel
and hammer. Then a series of grooves of
variable width are developed over the surface
of the stone.
(v) Punched Dressing:
In this method of dressing of stone, about 1
cm vertical or horizontal grooves are sunk
with a chisel having it’s shaped as a hollow
semi-circle. The sides of the rock are kept
chamfered or sunk.
(vi) Close Picked and Fine Tooling:
This is an extreme type of dressing of stone in
which almost every projection is removed from
all the sides of the stone. Its surface is given a
fine-texture and appealing look.
(vii) Boasted or Droved finish:
It is a very common type of dressing of
dressing of stone, in which the surface of the
stone is covered with parallel marks that may
run in any direction.
(viii) Scabbling:
Irregular edges of the stones are broken off, and the
stone is shaped. This work is generally done in a
quarry, and the edges are broken with a scabbling
hammer.
(ix) Reticulated finish:
In this type of dressing of stones, irregularly shaped
sinking are made within the central portion of the stones
having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides.
(x) Vermiculated finish:
This type of dressing of stone is the same as the
reticulated finish except that they are more curved and
give a worm-eaten type appearance.
(xi) Combed or Dragged finish: (xvi) Sand Blasting:
This type of finish is done on soft stones. A comb is This method of dressing of stone is done to imprint
driven over the surface of this stone to remove it all letterings and designs on the surface of granite.
elevating portions.
(xii) Picked Dressing: The polished surface is coated with a molten rubber-like
This type of Dressing of stones is obtained by finishing compound which solidifies on cooling.
the stone with a point, and the depression is smaller
than the above type.
(xiii) Molded finish:
Molding is done to improve the appearance of stones.
These are either handmade or machine made.
(xiv) Rubbed Finish:
In this method of dressing of stone, The surfaces of
stones are rubbed to get a smoother finish.
(xv) Polished Surfaces:
Stones which can take polish, e.g., granites, marbles,
limestones, etc., are first rubbed and then polished by
using rubber, pad, sand, water, and putty powder.

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Selection of Stones for Building Construction

1. Chemical composition of stones:

Using/selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and composition must be tested
and verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different properties.

2. Strength and hardness:

The more compact grained and heavier a stone, the more stronger it is. A crystalline
stone is superior to a non-crystalline texture. The specific gravity of good stone
should be above 2.7.

Stones used for road metal, paving blocks, floor slabs and railway ballast have to
withstand mainly abrasion or wear and tear. Stone wall subjected to vibrations of
machinery and moving loads should necessarily possess toughness. Strength and
hardness itself depend on some factors:

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 3) Resistance to heat:
Resistence to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of expansion due to large
increase in temperature. Silicious materials are good at areas where resistance to fire is required.

4) Bio-deterioration:
Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones and have both mechanical and
chemical adverse effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface and in minute fissures, their
by-products cause flaking and discoloration.

5) Appearance:
The aesthetic aspect that is color, appearance and show of stones must also be considered when
being used in a project. Appearance depends on the color and the ease with which the stone can
be dressed, rubbed or polished.

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Minerals, Rocks and Stones used in Construction
COAL:
A sedimentary rock, formed from
decayed plants, is mainly used in power
plants to make electricity.
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SHALE:
A sedimentary rock, well
stratified in thin beds. It splits
unevenly more or less parallel to
bedding plane and may contain
fossils. It can be a component of
bricks and cement.
 SANDSTONE:
CONGLOMERATE: GRANITE:
A sedimentary rock more or less
A sedimentary rock with a variable An igneous-plutonic rock, medium
rounded. Generally thick-
hardness, consisted of rounded or to coarse-grained that is high in
bedded, varicolored, rough feel
angular rock or mineral fragments silica, potassium, sodium and
due to uneven surface produced
cemented by silica, lime, iron oxide, quartz but low in calcium, iron and
by breaking around the grains.
etc. Usually found in mostly thick, magnesium. It is widely used for
Used principally for construction,
crudely stratified layers. Used in the architectural construction,
it is easy to work, the red-brown
construction industry. ornamental stone and
sandstone of Triassic age, better
monuments.
known as "brownstone," has
been used in many eastern
cities.

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 PUMICE:
An igneous-volcanic rock, it is a
porous, brittle variety of rhyolite and
is light enough to float. It is formed
when magma of granite
composition erupts at the earth’s
surface or intrudes the crust at
shallow depths. It is used as an
abrasive material in hand soaps,
emery boards, etc.
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GABBRO:
An igneous-plutonic rock,
generally massive, but may
exhibit a layered structure
produced by successive layers
of different mineral composition.
It is widely used as crushed
stone for concrete aggregate,
road metal, railroad ballast, etc.
Smaller quantities are cut and
polished for dimension stone
(called black granite).
 SCHIST:
A metamorphic uneven-
granular, medium to coarse
grained, crystalline with
prominent parallel mineral
orientation. Goes from
silvery white to all shades of
gray with yellow to brown
tones depending on the
mineral concentration. Some
schists have graphite and
some are used as building
stones.

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(1) Granites:

A typical granite is an Igneous rock. Its essential mineral components are mineral Orthoclase and
mineral Quartz.

It may also contain small quantities of accessory minerals like hornblende, mica, and tourmaline, etc.

Texture and Structure: Granites are coarse to medium-grained in texture, massive, unlayered and
crystalline in structure.

Color: They are commonly of light colors and often spotted.

Granites occur in appealing colors and have a capacity to take very fine, Glossy, mirror-like-finish on
polishing.

Building Properties: Most granites possess excellent building properties such as; high strength and
hardness, low absorption value, least porosity, good resistance to frost and weathering, excellent
durability.

These have, however, poor resistance to fire.

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 (2) Basalts (Traps):
This types of stones are also called Traps. These are volcanic igneous rocks that have formed
from cooling of lava erupting from volcanoes.

Composition: The basalts show a significant variation in their mineral composition.

Among their essential minerals, the felspars and ferro-magnesium minerals like Augite and
hornblende must be mentioned.

Texture and Structure: Basalts and traps are fine textured crystalline rocks which sometimes
show cavities and pores due to escape of gases at the time of cooling of lava.

Color: Because of their composition (being rich in ferro-magnesium minerals) most basalts are
dark or light dark in appearance.

Building Properties: Basalts, like granites, possess very high strength values. They are
resistant to weather and being fine textured impervious to moisture (except when rich in
gaseous cavities).

Being very hard, they are very difficult to dress in fine shapes.

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 (3) Limestones:
Limestones are sedimentary rocks of calcareous composition and generally showing a stratified
structure. They are made up of Calcium Carbonate.
Composition: The essential mineral of all limestones are Calcite (Ca CO3). which may make up as
much as 99 percent of some Limestones.
Most limestones, however, consist of a good proportion of Magnesium Carbonate (Mg CO3).
Texture and Structure: Most Limestones are invariably fine textured. Some of them may contain
fossils.
In structure, they may be stratified or sometimes massive. They also show great variation in
texture and structure.
Color: It varies greatly in limestones. From pure white (Chalk) varieties, Limestones of Grey and
dark varieties are also known.
The color depends on the presence of accessory minerals finely dispersed in the carbonate
matrix.
Building Properties: All Limestones are not useful for building construction.
Some varieties may be practically unfit (those which are rich in clay or are very soft) whereas
other varieties of Limestones may make excellent building stones.
These are dense, compact, fine textured varieties which are free from cavities and cracks. They
can be easily dressed and take a very fine polish.
The use of limestones as facing stones should be avoided in areas where the air is polluted with
industrial gases and also in coastal regions where Saltish winds can attack them.
In both cases, air is likely to strike the rock chemically and change its surface to spots of reactive
50compounds.
 (4) Marble:
Marble is a metamorphic rock of calcareous composition and often of a layered
structure.
Composition: Marble is formed in nature from limestone through the process of
metamorphism.
Its essential mineral is recrystallized Calcite (CaCO3). Besides, it may have
some impurities finely dispersed throughout the mass.
Texture and Structure: In texture, marble is a fine-grained rock with a uniform
granular (sugar-like grains) surface. It shows metamorphic structures developed
under heat.
Color: Marble occurs in almost all colors from pure white to dense black. The
color of marble depends on the impurities that are finely distributed in it during
its formation.
Building Properties: An excellent quality marble satisfies all the requisite
properties of a building stone.
They are quite strong, uniform in texture, least porous and take an excellent
polish. They are suitable both as ornamental stones and for general
construction.

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 (5) Sandstones:
These types of stones are sedimentary rocks, siliceous in composition and mostly
stratified in structure.
Composition: The essential mineral of all the sandstones is Quartz (SiO2).
Among the accessory minerals, micas, felspars, and dark minerals are
sometimes present.
In cemented varieties of sandstones, the cementing material may be siliceous,
ferruginous, calcareous or clayey in nature.
And this is most important in as far as defining the suitability of a sandstone for
building construction is concerned.
Texture and Structure: They occur in medium to fine-grained texture and
stratified structure.
Color: Sandstones occur in many colors: white, gray, pink, red, maroon and dark.
Building Properties: Some sandstones are excellent building stones.
These are the varieties that have a light color, and are rich in quartz and have a
siliceous cement and a line grained uniform texture.
They must be free from fine layers or minerals like mica and chlorite.

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 (6) Gneisses:
A Gneiss is geologically a metamorphic rock. It is generally siliceous in composition and foliated or banded in
structure.
In most cases, it resembles closely with granite from which metamorphism commonly derives it.
Composition: Gneisses show wide variation in a mineral composition which depends on the source rock.
Granites changing into gneisses generally contain the same minerals; the only structure is altered.
Felspars, Quartz, ferro-magnesium minerals and mica are among the main constituents of gneisses.
Texture and Structure: In texture, gneisses are coarsely crystalline rocks. They often show a banded or
layered structure in which case mica minerals are segregated in distinct bands separating felspars and other
granular minerals.
This destroys the usefulness of gneiss as a building material.
Building Properties: When coarsely crystalline and uniformly textured, gneisses are as good building stones
as granites.
These are varieties light in appearance and free from mica. Dark colored, mica-rich and banded types,
however, are to be discarded.

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 (7) Laterite:
This type of stones are sedimentary rock composed
mainly of oxides of aluminum with varying amounts of
oxides of iron.

Texture and Structure: The rock is formed from the

chemical decomposition of alkaline igneous rocks by
leaching of some components.

This results in the development of porous or spongy

texture of laterites.

Building Properties: The laterites are light to dark red in

color depending upon the quantity of iron in their
composition.

They are poor in compressive strength which varies

from 20-30 kg/cm2. They are quite often used in the
ordinary type of construction and also as a road
material.

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 (8) Slates:
These type of stone are the metamorphic rock with a distinct foliated (cleavage)
structure. It is commonly siliceous in composition.

Texture and Structure: Slate is a very fine textured rock, so much so that its
constituents can hardly be identified even under a microscope.

It shows typical slat cleavage which means that the rock can be split into large
thin sheets in certain directions.

This slat cleavage makes it an excellent rooting material for ordinary

Construction.

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 Properties of Stones
Strength & Durability:

It is the ability of a stone to endure and

maintain its essential and distinctive
characteristics i.e. resistance to decay,
strength and appearance. Physical
properties such as density, compressive
strength and porosity are measured in order
to determine its durability. Durability is
based upon the stones natural physical
properties, characteristics and the
environmental conditions to which it will be
or is subjected too. Another factor of stones
durability is its Aesthetic Durability or
Dimensional Stability. Cosmetic changes
may occur. This has to do with the Color
Stability of certain stones. These changes
can take place in two ways.

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 SUNLIGHT:
Porosity & Permeability:
When some stones are used in exterior
applications and exposed to direct sunlight
Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the
they fade or change color.
stone, to its total solid volume. Pores and the
capillary structure develop differently in each of the
MOISTURE:
three stone groups. Dense and compact stones
Some stones have moisture sensitive
have very few or no pores in them. An important
mineral contents that will cause the stone to
feature of sedimentary rocks is their porosity. Pores
develop rust spots, or other color variations,
are natural holes in the stones which allow fluids like
or contain moisture s
rainwater to enter and leave the fabric.ensitive
substances that will cause blotchy and streaking
discolorations.

Permeability is increased when a stone is highly

fractured or the veining material is soft or grainy. A
particular variety of stone may be highly permeable (a
well defined interconnected network of pores), although
its porosity is low (a low percentage of voids).

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 Hardness & weathering:
Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist
scratching. It is determined by comparison with the standard
minerals of the Moh’s scale. The objective of the MOH Scale is
to measure stones resistance to hardness.

Measurement of Hardness:

Talc
Gypsum
Calcite (Most Marbles)
Fluorite
Apatite
Feldspar (Granite)
Quartz (Granite)
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond
Weathering

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 Water absorption and frost resistance:
Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental
conditions penetrates the wall leading to cracks,
efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint peeling,
darkening of masonry and spalling. The perfect sealing
of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since
fine cracks and joints will allow the passage of water
into the wall.

Absorbency:
It is the result of these two properties (permeability and
porosity). Absorbency is an important determining
factor in stones sensitivity to stains. The size of the
pores, their orientation, how well they are networked
and the type of finish the stone has are important
contributing factors to a stones overall absorbency. In
relation to cleanability this factor is more important than
how porous a stone is. Honed and textured surfaces
are more susceptible to soiling and staining due to the
fact that there are more open pores at the surface than
a highly polished finish.
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 Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles
occur when water within the pore structure or cracks
freezes to ice. It has been estimated when water
freezes it expands between 8 to 11 percent, with a
force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per
square foot. This increase of internal pressure
combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces
micro-fissures, cracks, flaking and spalling.

Tests on Stones
Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is
important than to ensure whether it exhibits the
necessary physical properties and durability to remain
in working condition for a long time.

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 Applications & Uses of Building Stones

• Uses of stones:
• Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.

• Good and durable construction material

• Thresholds and steps in manor houses

• War memorials in the 19th and 20th centuries

• Limestone for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement

• Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces

• Insulators in electrical appliances

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 Although wood, straw and mud is used for
houses in some parts of the world, most
buildings are preferred to be built of stones.

Building wells.

Material for foundation and walling of buildings,

dams, bridges, etc.

Aggregate

Stone walls

Roof tile in the form of slates

Murram for covering and flooring of road

surface

Limestone for burning lime and for the

manufacture of Portland cement

Shale is a component of bricks

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 Types of Stone Masonry - Rubble Masonry and Ashlar Masonry

The art of building a structure in stone with any

suitable masonry is called stone masonry.

Stone Masonry
The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as
stone masonry where the stones are available in a abundance in nature,
on cutting and dressing to the proper shape, they provide an
economical material for the construction of various building
components such as walls, columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.
Uses
1) Building foundations, walls, piers, pillars, and architectural works.
2) Lintels, Beams, beams Arches, domes etc.,
3) Roofs and Roof coverings.
4) Cladding Works
5) Dams, light houses, monumental structures.
6) Paving jobs
7) Railway, ballast, black boards and electrical switch
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64
 Types of Stone Masonry
Stone masonry can broadly be classified into the following two types:

65
 STONE MASONRY

RUBBLE MASONRY ASHLAR MASONRY

UNCOURSED ASHLAR ROUGH

MASONRY TOOL

RANDOM ASHLAR
MASONRY CHAMFERED

COURSED RUBBLE
ASHLAR FACING
MASONTY

DRY RUBBLE
ASHLAR FINE
MASONRY

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Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly
dressed stone are laid in a suitable mortar is called
rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of
uniform thickness. Rubble masonry is further sub-divided
into the following three types:
 Random rubble masonry:
Rubble masonry is the type of stone
masonry in which either undressed
or hammer dressed stones are used
is called random rubble masonry.
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• Un-coursed random rubble
masonry:
The random rubble masonry in which
stones are laid without forming
courses is known as un coursed
random rubble masonry. This is the
roughest and cheapest type of
masonry and is of varying appearance.
Applications of Random Rubble Masonry:
Used for construction of walls of low height in
case of ordinary buildings.
 Squared Rubble Masonry:
The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints and beds by
hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called squared
rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.

Coursed Square Rubble Masonry:

The square rubble masonry in which chisel dressed stones laid in courses is called
coarse square rubble masonry. This is a superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists
of stones, which are squared on all joints and laid in courses. The stones are to be
laid in courses of equal layers. and the joints should also be uniform.

Applications of Coursed Square Rubble Masonry:

Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools, markets, modern residential
buildings etc and in hilly areas where good quality of stone is easily available.

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Coursed random rubble
masonry:
The random rubble masonry in
which stones are laid in layers of
equal height is called random
rubble masonry. In this masonry,
the stones are laid in somewhat
level courses. Headers of one
coursed height are placed at
certain intervals. The stones are
hammer dressed.
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Dry rubble masonry:
The rubble masonry in which stones
are laid without using any mortar is
called dry rubble masonry or
sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is
an ordinary masonry and is
recommended for constructing walls
of height not more than 6m. In case
the height is more, three adjacent
courses are laid in squared rubble
masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
71
 Ashlar Masonry:
It is the type of stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in
cement or lime mortar is known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are
the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and
have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires
dressing of stones.

Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural

buildings, high piers and abutments of bridges.

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1. Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, the beds and sides
are finely chisel dressed but the exposed face is
dressed by rough tooling. This dressing gives the
masonry a rough exposed finish to the masonry.

2. Ashlar Fine Tooled Masonry

This is the finest type of ashlar stone masonry. The
bed, joints and faces of the stones are chisel-dressed to
remove all unevenness and obtain perfectly horizontal
and vertical joints. The mortar joints are so thin that
they are barely exposed which gives this type of
masonry, a very close and packed finish.

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 3. Ashlar Facing
This type of ashlar masonry is used to give the building
an exposed and good aesthetics. The exposed faces of
the stones are rough tooled and chamfered.

4. Coursed Ashlar Masonry

This type of ashlar masonry has uniform sized stones
with alternating vertical joints which strengthens the
wall. The stones are laid in such a way that the joints
formed by the lower layer are covered.

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 5. Chamfered Ashlar Masonry
It is a special type of ashlar rock faced in which the strip
provided around the perimeter of the exposed face is
chamfered at an angle of 45 degree to a depth of 25 mm.

6. Random Ashlar Masonry

The stone block arrangement doesn’t have any specific
rule of placement.
It has a general course of alignment, however, the
vertical joints need not be one over the other.

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 1. Machu Picchu, Peru
The ‘dry stone walls’ technique is known for its
peculiarity of constructing stone walls without
binding the stones within with mortar. This Inca
site of Machu Picchu has such dry stone walls.

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 2. Pyramid of Menkaure, Cairo
This is the smallest of the triad of pyramids located on the
Giza plateau, on the southwestern outskirts of Cairo in Egypt.
It is built from granite and limestone. The mortuary temple
complex was constructed using ashlar granite.

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 3. Royal Tombs, Mycenae, Greece
Ashlar masonry was used in the building
of the so-called ‘beehive’ dome. Hard
rocks are the perfect kind for shaping
into ashlar stones. Since the rock has to
be heavily chiseled, a soft rock cannot
be used due to the risk of fractures.
Thus, rocks like granite, bluestone, and
sandstone are used in ashlar masonry.

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 ESTIMATES

You need to determine the dimensions and the type of stone wall
you want to build before you can proceed. Determine the height,
width and length of the wall. You also need to decide whether
you are going to build a dry stack or a wet stack wall. The wet
stack wall uses mortar between the rocks or stones to add
additional strength to the wall.

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 Determine the length of the stone wall in feet.

Step 2
Calculate the wall width. Rock wall width should always be 2/3 of the wall height.
Use this formula to calculate the wall width: Y = 2/3X; where X = wall height, Y =
wall width; For example, if a rock wall is 3 feet high, the width should be 3 x 2/3 (or
.666) = 2 feet.

Step 3
Calculate the total volume of stone needed by using the formula: length x width x
height = volume in cubic feet. For example, if the wall length is 30 feet, the width is 2
feet and the height is 3 feet. The volume of the wall is 30 x 2 x 3 = 180 cubic feet.

Step 4
Calculate the tonnage of rock needed by converting the cubic foot volume into tons.
Use the standard formula of 15 cubic feet of rock = 1 ton of rock. Divide the total
cubic foot volume of rock by 15 to determine the number of tons of rock to purchase.
For example, 180 cubic feet of rock divided by 15 = 12 tons of rock to complete a 30 x 2
80 x 3 foot wall.
 Dry Stack Material Volume

Determine the volume of gravel needed for a dry stack stone wall foundation using
the formula: length x width x height = volume in cubic feet. The stone wall foundation
requires a 4-inch bed of gravel. For example, if the wall is 30 feet long, the width is 2
feet and the height is 4 inches (or 1/3 of a foot, or .333 feet). The volume of gravel
needed for the foundation of the dry stack stone wall is 30 x 2 x .333 = 20 cubic feet.

Step 2
Determine the volume of gravel needed for the wall portion of a dry stack stone wall
using the formula; length x width x height divided by 3 = volume in cubic feet. A dry
stack rock wall uses gravel to fill gaps between the rocks in the wall. For example, if
the wall length is 30 feet, the width is 2 feet and the height is 3 feet, the volume of
gravel needed to construct this wall is 30 x 2 x 3 = 180 divided by 3 = 60 cubic feet.
Step 3

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 Wet Stack Material Volume
Determine the volume of gravel needed for a wet stack stone wall foundation
using the formula: length x width x height = volume in cubic feet. The stone
wall foundation requires a 4-inch bed of gravel.

Example: if the wall is 30 feet long, the width is 2 feet and the height is 4
inches (or 1/3 of a foot, or .333 feet). The volume of gravel needed for the
foundation of the wet stack stone wall is 30 x 2 x .333 = 20 cubic feet.

Step 2
Calculate the tonnage of gravel needed by converting the cubic foot volume
into tons. Use the standard formula of 15 cubic feet of gravel = 1 ton of gravel.
Divide the total cubic foot volume of gravel by 15 to determine the number of
tons of gravel to purchase. For example, 20 cubic feet of gravel divided by 15
equals 1.333 tons. You will need to order 2 tons of gravel for this wall.
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 Step 3
Determine the number of bags of mortar mix needed to complete a wet stack
rock wall by using the formula: 1 bag of grout for every 5 cubic feet of rock
wall. Divide the total cubic feet of the rock wall by 5 to determine the number of
bags of mortar required to complete the wall. For example, a 180 cubic foot
rock wall divided by 5 equals 36 bags of mortar mix.

Step 4
Calculate the amount of sand required to add to the mortar mix. Equal
amounts of sand and mortar mix are combined with water when making
mortar. Each bag of mortar mix weighs 100 pounds. Use the formula: 100
pounds of sand for each bag of mortar mix. For example, 36 bags of mortar
mix will require 3,600 pounds of sand. You will need to purchase 2 tons of
sand to build this wall.

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