Circulatory System:

1. Every cell requires a supply of oxygen and nutrients molecules and must rid of itself of
waste molecule
2. Single celled organisms make these exchanges directly with the external environment
that surrounds their bodies. Even some small, multicellular animals do not require an
internal transport system in order to take care of the needs of their cells. Each cell is able
to exchange materials directly with water or with nearby cells that are in contact with
water
3. The other larger and more complex multicellular animals, however, require a blood
circulatory system to transport molecules because the body cells are far from specialized
regions of exchange with the external environments. Further, in these animals the body
cells are surround by a fluid called tissue fluid. Blood and tissue fluid together create an
internal environment for cells. Because the internal environment remains relatively
constant, the cells are protected from extreme changes in the external environment.
Open and closed circulatory system:
1. Some of the larger invertebrates have an open circulatory system, while others have a
closed system
2. In an open circulatory system, the blood is not always contained within blood vessels. A
heart pumps blood into vessels, then these vessels empty either into body cavities where
blood bathes the internal organs or into sinuses located within the organs themselves. In
an open circulatory system, the blood ebbs and flaws in a sluggish manner. Eg) in the
grasshopper
3. In a closed circulatory system, the blood is always contained within blood vessels. The
pumping of a heart keeps the blood moving in this system.

Human Circulation:
1. Humans, like all other vertebrates, have a closed circulatory system. Blood flows away
from the heart through arteries and arterioles to capillary networks, where exchanges
between blood and tissue fluid take place. Blood leaves the capillaries and return to the
heart through venules and veins.
2. Like other mammals, humans have both pulmonary and systemic circulatory pathways.
Humans also have a typically mammalian four chambered heart, with right and left artria
and right and left ventricles.

Blood pathway:
1. All blood entering the right atrium of the heart is deoxygenated. Blood passes from the
right atrium into the right ventricle, which then pumps it out through the pulmonary trunk
2. The pulmonary trunk branches into the two pulmonary arteries that carry blood to
arterioles and capillaries in the lungs
3. After passing through lung capillaries located around the alveoli, blood returns to the left
atrium of the heart through
Pulmonary venules and veins:
Systemic Circulation:
1. Blood returning from the pulmonary circulation is oxygenated. This oxygenated blood
passes from the left atrium into the left ventricle, which then pumps it out through the
aorta, the large arterial trunk that supplies the entire systemic circulation
 2. The aorta send branches to al parts of the body. The first branch is to the coronary
arteries that are part of a coronary circulation system for the heart. Heart cells do not
exchange material with the blood being pumped through the chambers, therefore, blood
flow through the coronary arteries is critical from normal functioning of the heart.
Blockage of any coronary artery quickly results in a heart attach with resultant damaged
heart muscle and impaired heart function
3. Anterior to the heart, the aorta arches to the left and then passes posteriorly through the
body. Branches off the arch of the aorta supply blood to the upper parts of the body.
4. As the aorta descends through the abdominal cavity, branches are given off to the
digestive organs, the kidneys, the body wall, the legs and other posterior parts.
5. Blood returns from the systemic circulations to the right atrium of the heart by way of
two large beins, the anterior (superior) vena cava and the posterior (inferior) vena cava.
The anterior vena cava returns blood from the head, arms, and chest, the posterior vena
cava returns blood from the remainder of the systemic circulation
Portal system:
1. A portal system is one that begins and ends in capillaries. The human body has only one
such major system, the hepatic portal system. In this system, the first set of capillaries
occurs at the digestive organs and the second occurs in the liver
2. Blood passes from the capillaries about the digestive organs into venules that join a major
vein (the hepatic portal vein) that takes the products of digestion to the liver. Here, these
products may be processed or stored until they are needed to maintain the consistency of
blood composition within the hepatic vein a vessel that leaves the liver to enter the vena
cava.
Human Blood:
Blood has two main portions: the liquid portion, called plasma, and cells. Plasma contains many
types of molecules, including nutrients, wastes, salts and protein. The salt and proteins buffer
the blood, effectively keeping the pH near 7.4. They also maintain blood’s osmotic pressure so
that water has an automatic tendency to enter blood capillaries.

Types of Blood Cells:

1. The cells are of three types, red blood cells, or erythrocytes, white blood cells, or
leukocytes and platelets or thromocytes
2. Erythrocytes are so small that a cubic millimeter (mm2) of blood contain five million of
them. Each one is so packed with hemoglobin that there is no room for cellular
organelles, not even a nucleus
- Hemoglobin inside erythrocytes reversibly bind with oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin.
- Oxygenated blood carrying oxyhemoglobin is found in pulmonary veins and systematic
arteries. Hemoglobin that is not carrying oxygen is called reduced hemoglobin, is a
darker, more purplish colour.

Deoxygenated blood is found in systematic veins and pulmonary arteries

- Red blood cells are manufactured in the red bone marrow at the rate of two million cells
per second. They live about four months, after which time they tend to become damaged
from squeezing through small capillaries. Damaged erythrocytes are withdrawn from
circulation as blood passes through the liver or spleen. The red blood cells are destroyed
 and hemoglobin is released. The iron is recovered and returned to the red bone marrow
for reuse.
- The heme portions of the molecules undergo chemical degradation and are excreted by
the liver as bile pigments in the bile. The bile pigments are primarily responsible for the
colour of feces.
- Sometimes the mechanism that normally balance erythrocyte production and destruction
fails. This can result in anemia, a condition in which there are fewer than the normal
number of erythrocytes (or in some cases lower hemoglobin content in the erythrocytes).
- White blood cells can be distinguished microscopically from red blood cells because they
are usually larger, have a nucleus, and without staining, appear white in colour. With
staining white blood cells appear bluish and may have granules that may bind with
certain stains.
- The latter type of white blood cell called granulocytes, has a lobed nucleus and is of
three types
1. Neutrophils: have granules that do not take up a dye
2. Eosinophils: have granules that take up the red dye eosin, and
3. Basiophils: have granules that take up a basic dye that stains them a deep blue colour
- Agranulocytes, or granular leukocytes, white blood cells that have no granules, have a
circular or indented nucleus; there are two types-the larger ones are called monocytes and
the smaller ones lymphocytes
- When bacteria or viruses enter the body by way of a cut, a response called the
inflammatory reaction occurs. Damaged tissue releases kinins that cause vasodilatation
and histamines that rushes to the area, and the neutrophils, which are amoeboid squeeze
through the capillary wall and enter the tissue fluid where they phagocytize foreign
material. The thick yellowish fluid pus contains a large proportion of dead neutrophils

Digestive system
- Animals are heterotrophic organisms that must take in performed food. However, the
various adaptations that have occurred to acquire and digest food are extremely varied.
- Some animals are omnivores, they eat both plants and animals. Others are herbivores,
they feed only on plants. Still others are carnivores they eat only other animals.

Human Digestive Tract:

- The human digestive system is complex. Each part has a specific function.
- Mouth:
1. Humans are omnivores, they feed on both plant and animal material. Therefore, their
human dentition is non specialized and able to deal adequately with both a vegetable
and a meat diet.
2. An adult human has 32 teeth. One half of each jaw has teeth of four different types;
two chisel-shaped incisors for biting, one pointed canine for tearing, two fairly flat
premolars for grinding and three molars, well flattened for crushing. The last molar,
or wisdom tooth may fail to erupt, or if it does, it is sometimes crooked and useless.
3. Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva into the mouth where it mixes with and
moistens the food, which is composed of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Saliva
also contains an enzyme, salivary amylase, that begins the process of starch digestion
by hydrolyzing some of the bonds between the glucose units that make up starch.
 4. The disaccharide maltose is a typical end product of salivary amylase digestion

Pharynx and Esophagus

1. The digestive and respiratory passage diverge in the pharynx
2. Normally swallowing involves a set of reflexes that closes the opening into the traches.
A slap of tissue, the epiglottis, covers the opening into the trachea as muscles move the
food mass through the pharynx into the esophagus, a tubular structure that takes food to
the stomach.

Stomach:
1. The stomach stores up to two liters of partially digested food, and even more in some
cases
2. The muscular walls of the stomach contracts vigorously and mix food with juices that are
secreted whenever food enters the stomach.
3. The gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCl) and substances active in digestion.
(this substance was later identifies as pepsin)
4. The gastric juices are produced independently of the protective mucous secretions of the
stomach
5. So much hydrochloric acid is secreted by the stomach that is routinely has a pH of about
2.0. Such high acidity usually is sufficient to kill bacteria and other microorganisms that
might be in food
6. This low pH also stops the activity of salivary amylase, which functions optimally at the
near-neutral pH of saliva, but it promotes the activity of pepsin is a hydrolytic enzyme
that acts on protein to produce peptides.
7. A coating of mucus secreted by the epithelial cells helps protect the stomach lining from
being digested, still, the epithelium is constantly eroded and mitosis generates enough
cells to completely replace the stomach lining every three days
8. About every 20 seconds, the stomach contents are mixed by the churning action of
smooth muscles
9. As a result of mixing and enzyme action, the recently swallowed meal become a nutrient
broth known as acid chyme
10. Much of the time, the stomach is closed off at either end. The opening from the
esophagus to the stomach, the cardiac orifice, which open intermittently with each wave
of peristalisis that deliver a bolus. The opening of the stomach to the small intestine is
the pyloric sphincter, which helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine. A
squirt at a time, it takes about 2 to 6 hours after a meal for the stomach to empty.

Small Intestine
- Although limited digestion of starch takes place in the mouth and partial digestion of
proteins by pepsin in he stomach, most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules in
food occurs in the small intestine
- The small intestine is more than 6 m in length and the longest section of the alimentary
canal. Thus it is the major organ of digestion and the part responsible for the absorption
of nutrients into the blood

Digestive accessory organs and their Regulation

Pancreas: produces an assortment of hydrolytic enzymes as well as an alkaline solution rich in
bicarbonate. The bicarbonate acts as a buffer to offset the acidity of chyme from the stomach
Liver: performs a wide variety of important functions in the body, including storing certain
nutrients, detoxifying various poisons and drugs, and converting many metabolic intermediary
from one for to another
- A major digestive responsibility of the liver is the production of bile, a mixture of
substances that is stored in the gallbladder, until needed. Bile contains no digestive
enzymes, but it does contain bile salts, which aid in the digestion and absorption of fats
- The first 25 cm or so of the small intestine is called the duodenum, and it is here that
chyme seeping in from the stomach mixes with digestive juices secreted by the pancreas,
liver, and gallbladder and gland cells of the intestinal wall itself.
- The digestion of starch that was initiated by salivary amylase in the mouth is continues in
the small intestine by the action of a pancreatic amylase which hydrolyzes starch into
maltose, and the digestion is completed by he enzyme maltase into molecules of simple
sugar glucose
- Pepsin in the stomach primes proteins for digestion by breaking them into smaller pieces,
and then a team of enzymes into small intestine completely dismantles polypeptides into
their component amino acids
- Nearly all the fat in a meal reaches the small intestine completely undigested. Bile salts
secreted into duodenum coat tiny fat droplets emulsification. Then these small droplets
are exposed to lipase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes the fat molecule
- Thus the macromolecules from food are completely hydrolyzed to their component
monomers and most digestion is completed early in this journey, while the chyme is still
in the dudenum. The remaining regions of the small intestine, the jejunen and ilium are
specialized for the absorption of nutrients.

Large Intestine
- The large intestine or colons is connected to the small intestine at a T-shaped injection,
movement of material. One arm of the T is a blind pouch called cecum. Humans have a
small cecum with a fingerlike extension, the appendix, which is dispensable.
- The main branch of the colon is shaped like an upside down U about 1.5 m in length
- Most reabsorption of water occurs along with the absorption of nutrients in the small
intestine. The colon finishes the job by reclaiming most of the water that remains in the
lumen. Together the small intestine and colon reabsorb about 90% of the water that
entered the alimentary canal
- The wastes of the digestive tract (feces) are moved along the colon by peristalsis
(rhythmic waves of contraction of digestive smooth muscle which push food along the
tract)
- The movement is sluggish, and it takes about 12 -24 hours for material to travel the
length of the organ
- Living in the large intestine is a rich flora of mostly harmless bacteria (mostly
Escherichia coli)
- As a byproduct of their metabolism, the microbes generate odoriferous gases. Some of
the bacteria produce vitamin K, which is absorbed by the host, this is probably the main
source of this vitamin for humans
- The feces contain cellulose and other undigested ingredients of food. Although cellulose
fibers have no caloric value to humans, their presence in the diet helps in moving food
along the digestive tract at an orderly pace
- The colour of feces is due to the presence of bile pigments
- The terminal portion of the colon is the rectum, where the feces are stored until they can
be eliminated. Between the rectum and the anus are two sphincters, one involuntary and
the other under voluntary control