Performance Characteristics of Sensors and Actuators PDF

UNIT – II
SENSORS AND DATA ACQUISITION
Dr. RM. KUPPAN CHETTY
Disclaimer
Pictures and support materials used are open source information from various
references and online sources. The information in this presentation was compiled
from sources believed to be reliable for informational purposes and non
commercial use only.
Unit Learning Outcome
 CO2: - Able to classify, illustrate and explain the construction,
working principle and applications of various sensors and
their data acquisition and presentation concepts.
Topics to be covered:
 Performance Characteristics of Sensors and Actuators
 Sensor and Transducers
 Classification of Sensors
 Sensors for measurement of physical quantities
 Signal Conditioning
 Display devices
 Data Loggers
Some general statements
• Sensors/actuators are common
• Usually integrated in a system (never alone)
• A system of any complexity cannot be
designed without them
• Very difficult to classify
• Difficult to get good data on them
• Definitions and terms are confusing
25-12-2019 HITS-MCT-BMT-UNIT11-RMKP 3
Definitions
• What are sensors and actuators?

• Why are they so difficult to classify?
• Too many principles involved
• Multi-discipline devices
• A mix of approaches to their design
• A mix of units and a range of complexities
SENSING
• Collect information about the world
• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an
environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement
• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of energy from
one form to another
Human sensing and organs

• Vision: eyes (optics, light)
• Hearing: ears (acoustics, sound)
• Touch: skin (mechanics, heat)
• Odor: nose (vapor-phase chemistry)
• Taste: tongue (liquid-phase chemistry)
Robotic
Counterparts?
Understand sensors…
 Sensors are not magical boxes.
 All information you get from sensors must be decoded by you, the human builder
and programmer.
 Sensors convert information about the environment into a form that can be used
by the computer.
 The sensors that are on the robot can be related to sensors found in humans.
 Touch sensors embedded in your skin, visual sensors in your retina, and hair cells
in your ears convert information about the environment into neural code that
your brain can understand.
 Your brain needs to understand the neural code before you can react.
 Since you will be programming the robot, you will need to understand the output of
the sensors before you can program your robot to react to different stimuli.
Learn about sensors in animals and think

how to use this knowledge in your
25-12-2019
projects.
HITS-MCT-BMT-UNIT11-RMKP 6
Understand sensors…
Information
• All information is carried to a sensor as a form of energy
• Six energy ‘domains’ have been identified as carriers of information
• A sensor converts between one form of energy and another
• This conversion is usually preformed to allow the measurement to be processed or
displayed
Carriers of information
 Radiant – electromagnetic waves from radio waves to gamma rays
 Mechanical – parameters of matter such as position, velocity etc..
 Thermal – quantities involving temperature
 Electrical – electrical parameters such as voltage, current, resistance,
capacitance
 Magnetic – includes field intensity, flux density and permeability
 Chemical – internal structure of matter, crystal structure, aggregation state, etc.
Definitions - Transducer
• A substance or device, such as a piezoelectric crystal, that
converts input energy of one form into output energy of
another.
• A device that is actuated by power from one system and
supplies power usually in another form to a second system (a
loudspeaker is a transducer that transforms electrical signals to
sound energy) (Webster, 3rd ed., 1999)
Transducers (contd..)
Classification of Sensors
• All of the sensors that will be presented in this part
are passive in that the stimulus, i.e., the physical
property, they were measuring, comes from the
environment.
• Also called as Self Generating Sensors. e.g. video
cameras, GPS
• Active sensors send signal into environment and
measure interaction of signal w/ environment. e.g.
radar, sonar, SG, Thermistors
• It requires external power source for its operation.
Also called as Modulating sensors are usually more
sensitive than self-generating.
An example of a modulating sensor
Here is a photograph of a
simple rotary optical encoder
(used to measure paper
travel in a printer)
Perforated disk (vane)
A simple rotary optical encoder Optical slotted switch

(difficult to see)
Energy transformations in an optical
encoder
Input Auxiliary energy source Output
Chemical Chemical Chemical
Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic
Electrical Electrical Electrical
Thermal Thermal Thermal
Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical
Radiant Radiant Radiant
None
Selection of Sensors
There are four main factors to consider in choosing a sensor.
• Cost:
– sensors can be expensive. (cheap sensors but often without good
documentation)
• Environment:
– there are many sensors that work well and predictably inside, but that choke
and die outdoors.
• Range:
– Most sensors work best over a certain range of distances.
– If something comes too close, they bottom out, and if something is too far,
they cannot detect it.
– Choose a sensor that will detect obstacles in the range you need.
• Field of View:
– Depending upon what you are doing, you may want sensors that have a
wider cone of detection.
– A wider “field of view” will cause more objects to be detected per sensor
– But it also will gives less information about where exactly an object is when
one is detected.
Input and Output
• Sensors : detects and responds to some type of
input from the physical environment
• Output is generally a signal that is converted to
human-readable display
Input: stimulus or measurand (temperature
pressure, light intensity, etc.)
Ouput: electrical signal (voltage, current
frequency, phase, etc.)
Input and Output
• Actuators : component of a machine that is responsible for
moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example
by opening a Valve.
Input: electrical signal (voltage, current
frequency, phase, etc.)
Output: mechanical(force, pressure, displacement) or display
function (dial indication, light, display, etc.)
• Actuators may be based on hydraulic, pneumatic, electric,
thermal or mechanical means
Input and Output
Transfer function
• Relation between input and output
• Other names:
– Input output characteristic function
– transfer characteristic function
– response
Used to determine the

characteristics of the
sensor or a measurement
system
Calibration
• The relationship between the
physical measurement variable (X)
and the signal variable (S)
• A sensor or instrument is calibrated
by applying a number of KNOWN
physical inputs and recording the
response of the system
Range and Span
• The region between the limits within which an instrument is
designed to operate for measurement.
• The range is expressed by stating the lower and upper values
• Range -100 to 100
• Span represents the algebraic

differences between the upper
and lower values of the
measurement / Instrument
• An Instrument which has the
reading range of -100 to 100
has the span of 200
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics: Dynamic Characteristics:
 Range and Span • Relationship between system
output and input when the
 Accuracy and Precision
measured quantity is varies
 Error rapidly
 Repeatability and Reproducibility • Dynamic characteristics tell us
about how well a sensor responds
 Sensitivity to changes in its input.
 Threshold • Describes the transient response
 Resolution of the system.
• Response to time varying
 Linearity
measurand.
 Hysteresis • It could be a step input, ramp
 Dead band input or sinusoidal input.
 Tolerance
Range and Span (Cont)
• Example: a sensors is designed for: -30 C to

+80 C to output 2.5V to 1.2V
• Range: -30C and +80 C
• Span: 80- (-30)=110 C
• Input full scale = 110 C
• Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
Accuracy, Errors, repeatability
• Error: deviation from “ideal” .
• Difference between the result of the measured and
true value
• Error = Measured – True Value
• Example: if a system gives a temperature reading of
25C when the actual is 24C, then the error is +1
• As a difference: e = V – V0 (V0 is the actual value, V is
that measured value (the stimulus in the case of
sensors or output in actuators).
Accuracy
• Closeness to the true value being measured
• Ability of an Instrument to show exact reading
• Always related to the extent of the wrong reading / non
accuracy.
• the degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation,
or specification conforms to the correct value or a standard.
freedom from error
Precision
• How close the measured values are to each other
• Capability of a measurement system to produce the
same reading each time.
(hitting the same spot, but maybe not the correct spot)
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in
output for a given change in input.
• Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer
function.
• Often Known as Scale Factor
• High Sensitivity is desirable
It is the ratio between the
small change in electrical
output to a small change
in physical input signal
Repeatability
• Failure of the sensor or actuator to represent the same
value (i.e. stimulus or input) under identical conditions
when measured at different times.
– usually associated with calibration and viewed as an error.
– given as the maximum difference between two readings taken
at different times under identical input conditions.
– error given as percentage of input full scale.
Reproducibility ?
Resolution
• the minimum increment in stimulus to which the sensor can
respond.
• It is the magnitude of the input change which results in the
smallest observable output.
• Smaller change in input that can be detected by the sensor
• In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as 1/ 2N
(N is the number of bit.)
Example:
Mobile Phone Camera’s and Digital Camera’s.
The more megapixels a camera captures, the more
information it gathers.
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis - the deviation of the sensor’s output at
any given point when approached from two different
directions
• Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
– Magnetization
– Thermal properties
– Loose linkages
If temperature is measured, at a
rated temperature of 50 °C, the
output might be 4.95V when
temperature increases but 5.05V
when temperature decreases.
Nonlinearity
• Nonlinearity is the behaviour of a circuit, in which the
output signal strength does not vary in direct proportion to
the input signal strength
• Nonlinearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
ideal linear transfer function.
• A property of the sensor (nonlinear transfer function) or:
• Introduced by errors
• Nonlinearity errors influence accuracy.
DEAD BAND
• Called a neutral zone or dead zone
• The lack of response or insensitivity of
a device over a specific range of the
input.
• In this range which may be small, the
output remains constant.
• A device should not operate in this
range unless this insensitivity is
acceptable.
Dynamic Characteristics
• Tells the Behaviour of the system w.r.t time.
• Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor
responds to changes in its input.
• Describes the transient response of the system.
• Response to time varying measurand.
• It could be a step input, ramp input or sinusoidal input.
Response time
• response time (or delay time), indicates the time
needed for the output to reach steady state (or a given
percentage of steady state) for a step change in input.
• Typically the response time will be given as the time
needed to reach 90% of steady state output upon
exposure to a unit step change in input.
• The response time of the device is due to the inertia of
the device (both “mechanical” and “electrical”).
Response time (cont.)
• Fast response time is usually desirable (not always)
• Slow response times tend to average readings
• Large mechanical systems have slow response times
• Smaller sensors and actuators will almost always
respond faster
• We shall meet sensors in which response time is
slowed down on purpose
Time constant
• Measure of inertia of the sensor
• how fast it will react to changes in input
• Bigger time constant; slower the reaction
• 63.2% of the steady state value
Rise time
• Time required for a pulse to rise from 10 per cent to 90 per cent
of its steady value.
Rise time, Settling time
Thank You

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UNIT – II

SENSORS AND DATA ACQUISITION

Dr. RM. KUPPAN CHETTY

• What are sensors and actuators?

Human sensing and organs

Learn about sensors in animals and think

A simple rotary optical encoder Optical slotted switch

Chemical Chemical Chemical

Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic

Electrical Electrical Electrical

Thermal Thermal Thermal

Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical

Radiant Radiant Radiant

Used to determine the

• Span represents the algebraic

• Example: a sensors is designed for: -30 C to

freedom from error

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