475316

316Journal of Interpersonal ViolenceTora

2013
JIV281110.1177/0886260512475

Article
Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Assessment of Sexual
28(11) 2351­–2367
© The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permissions:
Violence Against Female sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0886260512475316
Students in Wolaita jiv.sagepub.com

Sodo University,
Southern Ethiopia

Abebayehu Tora1

Abstract
Studies indicate that girls and women encounter sexual violence in their day-
to-day social life in all cultures and societies. This study aimed to determine
the prevalence of sexual violence against female students in Wolaita Sodo
University; 374 female students provided responses to self-administered
questionnaire. The study revealed 23.4% (95% CI = 18.7-27.3) attempted
rape, 8.7% (95% CI = 3.6-12.9) completed rape, 24.2% (95% CI = 17.7-26.1)
committed physical harassment, 18.7% (95% CI = 12.8-20.3) committed
verbal harassment, and 11.3% (95% CI = 6.6-12.6) forced sexual initiation.
Reported level of these perpetrations was experienced mainly at high school
and during enrollment year in the university. Boyfriends, close friends, family
members and relatives, school and university teachers, other employees, and
strangers were found to be the key perpetrators of sexual violence against
women. Interventions are required to create a safe learning environment for
female students through prevention and rehabilitation programs.

Keywords
sexual violence, rape, sexual harassment, forced sexual initiation, Ethiopia

1
Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

Corresponding Author:
Abebayehu Tora, Department of Sociology, Wolaita Sodo University, P. O. Box 138, Wolaita
Sodo, Wolaita Sodo, 138, Ethiopia.
Email: abezed@yahoo.com
2352 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

Introduction
According to Jewkes, Sen, & Garcia-Moreno (as cited in Contreras, Bott,
Guedes, & Dartnall, 2010, p.7), sexual violence refers to “any sexual act,
attempt to obtain sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, acts
to traffic women’s sexuality, using coercion, threats of harm or physical
force, by any person regardless of a relationship with the survivor, in any
setting, including but not limited to home or work”. Some writers argue
that sexual violence may manifest itself in many forms: “from psychologi-
cal intimidation and coercion through name calling, sexual harassment,
stalking, moderate physical violence (pushing, shoving, slapping), to
severe physical violence (beating, using weapons) and sexual assault”
(Crawford & Unger, 2000).
It is estimated that up to 6 out of every 10 women in the world experience
physical or sexual violence in their lifetime (United Nations Development
Fund for Women, 2009). Studies indicate that women of a younger age,
between 15 and 24 years, are at increased risk to experience various forms of
sexual victimization (Heise, Pitanguy, & Germain, 1994; Schei & Barketeig,
1989).
In Ethiopia, various studies indicated the prevalence of gender-based vio-
lence in general and sexual violence in particular. A study among high school
students revealed that of the 6.2% of the students who have started sexual
intercourse, 26.1% were raped and 75.9% of the students reported being sex-
ually harassed (Lellisa & Yusuf, 2008). School-based cross-sectional survey
conducted in Debark, north western Ethiopia, also indicated the prevalence
of completed and attempted rape to be 8.8% and 11.5%, respectively (Worku
& Addisie, 2002). Another study in eastern part of Ethiopia among secondary
school students revealed multitude of risk factors exposing school girls to
sexual victimization (Bekele, VanAken, & Dubas, 2011).
Scanty literature is available on the nature and extent of sexual violence
against female students in colleges and universities in Ethiopia. Previous
studies indicate that schools and universities are found to be highly suscep-
tible to sexual and gender-based violence (WHO, 2002) though the problem
is not adequately addressed in the education sector (Panos Institute, 2003).
School- and college-aged girls are highly prone to sexual violence and harass-
ment due to the patriarchal tradition, alcohol and drug exposure, and ill-reg-
ulated sexual behavior, which is prevalent both among youth and adults
(Philpart, Goshu, Gelaye, Williams, & Berhane, 2009; Tadesse, 2004). In a
cross-sectional survey conducted in Addis Ababa University among 612
female students, the prevalence of lifetime completed and attempted rape was
12.7% and 27.5%, respectively, whereas sexual harassment in lifetime and
Tora 2353

12-month period accounted for 58% and 41.8%, respectively (Tadesse,

2004). A study conducted in Hawasa University recorded the overall preva-
lence of gender-based violence among 1,330 female students and found a
lifetime prevalence of 59.9%, 46.1% since enrolling college, and 40.3% cur-
rent academic year (Dodie, Bizu, Miruts, Yemane, & Michelle, 2008). The
consequence of sexual violence against young women are more devastating
because they are linked directly or indirectly with reproductive health issues
(Heise et al., 1994), poor academic performance (Demise et al., 2002), lack
of self-esteem, and impaired social relationships (Gossaye, Deyessa, Berhane,
Ellsberg, & Emmelin, 2003). Long-term impact of sexual violence includes
chronic depression, eating disorders, substance abuse, suicidal attempts, and
sexual risk taking (WHO, 1997).
The present study aimed to assess the prevalence of sexual violence
against female students in Wolaita Sodo University. As the concept of sexual
violence involves a broad range of issues, the scope of this study was
restricted to address the prevalence of rape: attempted and completed; sexual
harassment: verbal and physical; and forced sexual initiations by disaggre-
gating to four time periods: childhood (below Grade 8), high school, during
the enrollment year, and during second and above years in the university.

Materials and Methods

Ethical Consideration

In the informed verbal consent sheet presented to the participants, the pur-
pose of the study and method of data collection were clearly stated. The
participants were given Yes and No options to express their willingness.
Information was provided to participants that their responses would be kept
confidential and anonymous. If the respondents find some of the questions
recalling trauma, they were informed that they can stop filling the question-
naire and consult student counseling office in the university. Ethical clear-
ance for this study was obtained from Ethical Approval Committee of
Wolaita Sodo University.

Study Design and Sampling Procedure

Wolaita Sodo University has been established in Wolaita Zone, which is
located 383 kms from Addis Ababa, capital of Ethiopia. It started to operate
since 2007 and holds thousands of students attending undergraduate pro-
grams under various fields of study. A cross-sectional study was conducted
among female students in this university from June 1 to 30, 2011. Quantitative
2354 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

data were collected through structured, self-administered, and pretested

questionnaire. The sample size for this study was determined by single pro-
portion formula n = (Za/2)2 p (1-p) /d2 based on previous study in Addis
Ababa university on sexual coercion against female students (Tadesse,
2004). Having 34% overall prevalence of sexual violence at alpha level of
5%, the sample size determined using the formula was 345.

Za/2 = 1.96 p = .34 d = 0.05 (1)

n = (1.96)2 × 0.34 × (1-0.34) / (0.05)2 = 345 (2)

A total size of female students determined to be included in the sample

were 397 after 15% nonresponse rate was considered. Based on the sample
frame obtained from the university registrar, female students were stratified
into first year, second year, third year, and fourth year, and proportionate to
size, simple random sampling was employed to recruit participants.

Development of Questionnaire
A team of sociologists and psychologists have been involved in the develop-
ment of structured questionnaire based on the variables of interest identified
in sexual violence literature in Ethiopia and similar settings elsewhere.
Sociodemographic and other variables such as age, religion, year of study,
relationship status, and previous experience of sexual intercourse were
included in the questionnaire. Attempted and completed rape, verbal and
physical harassment, and forced sexual initiation were the major forms of
sexual violence perpetrations included. Questions were set to investigate
whether someone has attempted to rape using physical force or actually com-
mitted it, offended them verbally or physically, and or used forced sexual
initiation. For instance, attempted rape was assessed by asking female stu-
dents, “Has someone made any failed attempt to make sexual intercourse
using physical force or intimidation without your consent?” Completed rape
was also assessed by asking respondents, “Have you ever made sexual inter-
course without your willingness, failing to overcome the physical force or
intimidation of someone?” To assess physical harassment respondents were
asked, “Have you ever been beaten, slapped buttock, touched breast, kissed
forcefully, or experienced other forms of sexually initiated contacts without
your consent?” Verbal harassment was also assessed by asking, “Has some-
one ever insulted you or used offensive sexual languages against you or
given disparaging comments against your body?” To assess forced sexual
Tora 2355

initiation, respondents were asked, “Have you ever been initiated to make
sexual intercourse with someone who provided you financial or other bene-
fits in advance and insisted you to make sex in return?” Options were given
to respondents to trace the time they experienced sexual violence: childhood
(below Grade 8), high school, during enrollment year, and during second and
above years in the university. List of common perpetrators of sexual violence
identified in sexual violence literature were also included as options in the
questionnaire so that the respondents could trace one or more of them in their
responses. Family members, close friends, boyfriends, students, teachers,
strangers, school, and university employees were included. In this study,
family member or relative refers to any person who is related to the victim
because of family membership or blood relationship and who has a social
responsibility to take care of the child.
The questionnaire was pretested before the actual survey to check feasibil-
ity of the contents in context, simplicity to understand, and time required to
complete the questionnaire. The variables framed in the questionnaire were
found fitting into the situation of female students in the university. But slight
inconsistencies were observed among participants to understand some termi-
nologies and completing the questionnaire in the assumed time limit. As a
result, some modifications were incorporated into the final draft using famil-
iar words and reducing redundant questions.

Data Collection
Six women who have at least degree qualifications in behavioral and social
science fields have been provided training about data collection processes
particularly on how to reduce the social desirability bias and maintain quality
of data. The randomly selected female students from each stratum (first year,
second year, third year, and fourth year) were approached in their classrooms.
Those female students willing to participate were distributed the question-
naire with empty envelopes informing them that they can complete the ques-
tionnaire anywhere convenient for them. The facilitators arranged small,
locked ballot boxes around the classrooms, dormitories, and libraries where
respondents placed the completed questionnaire enclosed in the envelope.

Analysis
Data were first entered into excel and cleaned; 374 respondents completed
the questionnaire, whereas 11 refused to participate and 12 declined to return
it among 397 participants approached contributing to 94.2% response rate.
2356 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

Responses from respondents were transported to SPSS (Statistical Package

for Social Sciences, Version 16) and analyzed using descriptive statistics,
chi-square (χ2) tests and logistic regression.

Results
Participants

A total of 374 female students participated in the study. The average age for
the participants was 20, whereas the minimum and maximum age was 17 and
25, respectively. Of the respondents, 57.4% were from first year, 21.9% were
from second year, 18.2% were from third year, and 2.7% were from fourth
year (see Table 1).
Majority of the respondents belong to Coptic orthodox (52.3%) and prot-
estant religion (32.8%). Those who do not have boyfriends currently or are
single constitute 78%, whereas 17% indicated that they have boyfriends cur-
rently. Reported level of previous experience of sexual intercourse among
female students was 19.5%.

Prevalence of Sexual Violence

As presented in Table 2, the experience of attempted rape accounted for
23.4% (95% CI = 18.7-27.3), completed rape 8.7% (95% CI = 3.6-12.9),
physical harassment 24.2% (95% CI = 17.7-26.1); 18.7% (95% CI = 12.8-
20.3) of respondents indicated the experience of verbal harassment
whereas 11.3% (95% CI = 6.6-12.6) reported the experience of forced
sexual initiation.
The time respondents have experienced sexual violence was presented in
Table 3. Among the victims of attempted rape, the majority experienced it at
high school and during enrollment year in the university, which respectively
constitute 42% (95% CI = 29.2-49.9) and 30.9% (95% CI = 19.5-38.7),
whereas 16% (95% CI = 7.5-22.7) and 11.1% (95% CI = 3.9-16.9) of respon-
dents experienced it during childhood and second and above years in the
university, respectively.
As much as 35.7% (95% CI = 15.8-48.7) of completed rape cases reported
that they faced it when they were at high school, whereas 32.1% (95% CI =
13.1-45) became victims during enrollment year in the university. The expe-
rience of completed rape at childhood and during second and above years in
the university constituted 21.5% (95% CI = 5.5-33.3) and 10.7% (95% CI =
−0.73-20.1), respectively; 43.2% (95% CI = 28.5-49.6) of respondents
Tora 2357

Table 1. Background of Respondents.

Background of respondents Category n (%)

Age Mean 20 ≤19 135 (36.1)
  Standard 1.36 ≥20 185 (49.5)
  deviation  
  Minimum 17  
Maximum 25
Religion Protestant 119 (32.8)
Muslim 42 (11.6)
Orthodox 190 (52.3)
Other 10 (2.8)
Nonreligious 2 (0.6)
Year of study 1st year 214 (57.2)
2nd year 82 (21.9)
3rd year 68 (18.2)
4th year 10 (2.7)
Relationship status Single 280 (78)
Have boyfriend 61 (17)
Married 15 (5)
Previous experience of sexual Yes 72 (19.5)
intercourse No 298 (80.5)

Table 2. Responses of Respondents on Experience of Sexual Violence

Perpetrations.

Forms of sexual 95% confidence

violence Responses n (%) interval
Attempted rape Yes 86 (23.4) 18.7-27.3
No 281 (76.6)
Completed rape Yes 31 (8.7) 3.6-12.9
  No 326 (91.3)
Physical harassment Yes 82 (24.2) 17.7-26.1
  No 257 (75.8)
Verbal harassment Yes 62 (18.7) 12.8-20.3
  No 270 (81.3)
Forced sexual Yes 36 (11.3) 6.6-12.6
initiation No 283 (88.7)
Note: N = 374.
2358
Table 3. Time Sexual Violence Experienced.
Childhood 95% confidence At high school During enrolment 2nd year and
Variables (n, %) interval (95% CI) (n, %) 95% CI year (n, %) 95% CI above (n, %) 95% CI
Attempted rape 13 (16) 7.5-22.7 34 (42) 29.2-49.9 25 (30.9) 19.5-38.7 9 (11.1) 3.9-16.9
Completed rape 6 (21.5) 5.5-33.3 10 (35.7) 15.8-48.7 9 (32.1) 13.1-45 3 (10.7) –0.73-20.1
Physical harassment 9 (12.2) 4.2-17.7 32 (43.2) 28.5-49.6 23 (31.1) 18.3-37.8 10 (13.5) 5.1-19.3
Verbal harassment 8 (12.9) 4.6-21.2 24 (38.7) 26.6-50.8 24 (38.7) 26.6-50.8 6 (9.7) 2.3-17
Forced sexual initiation 5 (14.7) 2.5-25.2 12 (35.3) 17.9-48.7 14 (41.2) 23-54 3 (8.8) –0.6-17.4
Tora 2359

reported experiencing physical harassment at high school and 31.1% (95%

CI = 13.1-45) experienced it during enrollment year in the university. Majority
of the respondents experienced verbal harassment at high school and at first
year in the university, which constitutes 38.7% (95% CI = 26.6-50.8). Many
of the respondents indicated that they have experienced forced sexual initia-
tion during their enrollment year, that is, 41.2% (95% CI = 23-54), whereas
35.3% (95% CI = 17.9-48.7) experienced it at high school. Only 8.8% (95%
CI = −0.6-17.4) have indicated the experience of forced sexual initiation dur-
ing second and above years in the university.

Perpetrators of Sexual Violence

Perpetrators of various forms of sexual violence are found to be from all
walks of society. As Table 4 shows, majority of the respondents, that is,
34.5% experienced attempted rape by their own boyfriends and family mem-
bers or relatives constitute 23.5% in this rate of prevalence. Close friends are
also highly involved in attempted rape, which constitutes 18.5%, whereas
school teachers, strangers, and university students have also a nonnegligible
share, that is, 6.2%, 8.6%, and 4.9%, respectively. University instructors and
other employees in the university are also involved in perpetration of
attempted rape.
Of the raped cases, 36% were raped by boyfriends, whereas 28% were
raped by their family members and relatives. The university students and
close friends, university and school teachers, strangers, and other employees
in the university are also involved in rape. The same is true for physical
harassment, verbal harassment, and forced sexual initiation in which boy-
friends and close friends were found to be the key perpetrators. School teach-
ers, university instructors, and strangers have also a significant share in
forced sexual initiation of female students.
Sociodemographic and other factors associated with sexual violence perpe-
trations in chi-square analysis are presented in Table 5. Female students who
have experience of attempted rape are more likely to be below age 20 (χ2 =
7.44, p = .024), have no boyfriends currently (χ2 = 6.04, p = .049), and who
have previous experience of sexual intercourse (χ2 = 42.75, p = .000). The
experience of completed rape was likely to be higher among those who don’t
have boyfriends currently (χ2 = 24.56, p = .000) and who have previous expe-
rience of sexual intercourse (χ2 = 59.97, p = .000). The logistic regression
model also confirmed that female students who have previous experience of
sexual intercourse are more likely to report attempted rape—odds ratio (OR) =
0.099, 95% CI = 0.043-0.226, p < .01; completed rape, OR = 0.038, 95%
2360
Table 4. Perpetrators of Sexual Violence as Traced by Respondents.

Family member Boyfriend Close friend School teacher Other student University Other Stranger
Variables (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) (n, %) teacher (n, %) employee (n, %) (n, %)

Attempted rape 19 (23.5) 28 (34.5) 15 (18.5) 5 (6.2) 4 (4.9) 2 (2.5) 1 (1.2) 7 (8.6)
Completed rape 7 (28) 9 (36) 3 (12) 1 (4) 2 (8) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4)
Physical harassment 8 (11.1) 26 (36.1) 16 (22.5) 4 (5.6) 8 (11.1) 1 (1.4) 1 (1.4) 8 (11.1)
Verbal harassment 3 (5) 14 (23.3) 10 (16.7) 1 (1.7) 21 (35) 2 (3.3) 2 (1.7) 8 (13.3)
Forced sexual initiation 4 (11.8) 5 (14.7) 12 (35.3) 2 (5.9) 5 (14.7) 1 (2.9) 1 (2.9) 4 (11.8)
 Table 5. Chi-square Analysis: Sociodemographic and Other Factors Associated With Experience of Sexual Violence.

Attempted Completed Physical Verbal Forced sexual

rape rape harassment harassment initiation
Variables Category n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
Age ≤19 23 (31.5)* 8 (33.3) 31 (41.3) 24 (42.1) 9 (31)
  ≥20 50 (68.5) 16 (66.7) 44 (58.6) 33 (57.9) 20 (69)
Religion Protestant 31 (36.9) 13 (43.3) 31 (37.8) 19 (31.1) 16 (44.4)
Muslim 7 (8.3) 3 (10) 6 (7.3) 3 (4.9) 2 (5.5)
Coptic 45 (53.6) 14 (46.7) 43 (52.4) 33 (54.1)* 17 (47.2)
orthodox
Other 1 (1.2) — 1 (1.2) 4 (6.6) 1 (2.8)
Nonreligious — — 1 (1.2) 2 (3.3) —
Relationship status Single 59 (69.4)* 15 (51.7)* 54 (68.4)* 45 (76.3) 22 (62.9)
Have boyfriend 18 (21.2) 8 (27.6) 19 (24.1) 12 (20.3) 11 (31.4)
currently
Married 8 (9.4) 6 (20.7) 6 (7.6) 2 (3.4) 2 (5.7)
Year of study 1st year 43 (50) 15 (48.4) 41 (50) 29 (46.8)* 11 (30.6)*
2nd year 19 (22.1) 8 (25.8) 17 (20.7) 15 (24.2) 12 (33.3)
3rd year 20 (23.3) 7 (22.6) 20 (24.3) 13 (20.9) 13 (36.1)
4th year 4 (4.7) 1 (3.2) 4 (4.9) 5 (3.2) —
Previous experience Yes 38 (44.2)* 22 (71)* 26 (32.5)* 16 (26.2) 12 (34.3)*
of sexual intercourse No 48 (55.8) 9 (29) 54 (67.5) 45 (73.8) 23 (65.7)
*indicates statistically significant associations of sociodemographic and other factors with sexual violence perpetrations at p < .05.

2361
2362 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

CI = 0.011-0.134, p < .01; and physical harassment, OR = 0.429, 95% CI =

0.195-0.944, p < .05—compared to those who don’t have sexual intercourse
experience. Higher level of physical harassment was reported by those who
don’t have boyfriends currently, and the difference was significant (χ2 = 7.51,
p = .023). In addition, female students who indicated experience of verbal
harassment and forced sexual initiations are more likely to face it during
enrollment year in the university, χ2 = 18.69, p = .001, and χ2 = 17.54, p =
.002, respectively. Interestingly, verbal harassment was higher among Coptic
orthodox religion followers (χ2 = 13.87, p = .008).

Discussion
Studies indicated that adolescence is a time of vulnerability to many forms
of sexual violence for young women (WHO, 2002) and particularly for those
who live away from direct family supervision and care (Meyer, 2000).
However, inadequate literature is available on sexual violence against girls
and women in Ethiopia. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of
sexual violence against female students in Wolaita Sodo University.

Limitations of the Study

The study identified five forms of sexual violence perpetrations to be highly
prevalent among female students such as attempted and completed rape,
physical and verbal harassment, and forced sexual initiations. However, the
cultural sensitivity of the topic might influence the respondents to underre-
port their victimization experiences due to fear of blames and social stigma
though they were assured their responses would not be personally identified.
Hence, the findings in this study may be underestimated and may not ade-
quately represent sexual victimization experiences of girls and women in
other places and cultural settings.

Rape
The experience of attempted rape accounted for 23.4%, which is comparable
to 27.5% among female students in Addis Ababa University (Tadesse, 2004).
Consistent with previous studies that indicated that women aged 15 to 19
years are at increased risk to either physical or sexual abuse (Krug, Dahlberg,
Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002; WHO, 2005), experience of attempted rape in
this study was significantly associated with younger age (χ2 = 7.44, p =
.024). Interestingly, there is no significant difference among female students
Tora 2363

aged below and above 20 years in experiencing completed rape, physical and
verbal harassment, and forced sexual initiations. Comparable to a study in
Addis Ababa University (Tadesse, 2004), 8.7% of female students in the
present study reported experience of completed rape. This figure is smaller
when compared to 20.4% prevalence among high school students in Jima
Zone (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). Those female students who have previ-
ous experience of sexual intercourse are highly likely to report both
attempted and completed rape. This implies that most first-time sexual inter-
courses for girls and women are likely to be coerced or forced (Lellisa &
Yusuf, 2008; Tadesse, 2004; WHO, 2005). Surprisingly, female students who
have boyfriends currently seem to be relatively spared from both attempted
and completed rape and physical harassment. Having boyfriend currently or
being married may serve as a shield to nonpartner sexual violence in the
university though they are still susceptible to sexual victimizations by inti-
mate partners such as boyfriends.

Sexual Harassment
As much as 24.2% of female students in Wolaita Sodo University ever faced
one or other form of physical violence. A study in Addis Ababa University
treated physical and verbal harassment together and found the prevalence of
various forms of sexual harassment to be 58% (Tadesse, 2004). Another
study on high school girls in Jima Zone revealed that the experience of non-
consensual touching to be 31.2% and 28.2% of them experienced noncon-
sensual kissing (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). Higher level of verbal
harassment was also recorded (18.7%). This is congruent with that recorded
among high school students in Jima Zone (Mekonnen & Asresash, 2007). A
national survey on sexual violence on primary school girls in Ethiopia also
revealed higher level of verbal abuse across the country (Save the Children,
Denmark; Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Woman’s Affairs, 2008).
Interestingly, the experience of verbal harassment was higher among first-
year students (χ2 = 18.69, p = .001) and followers of Coptic orthodox reli-
gion (χ2 = 13.87, p = .008).

Forced Sexual Initiation

Another form of sexual violence assessed in this study is forced sexual ini-
tiation, which accounted for 11.3%. Female students who reported experi-
ence of forced sexual initiation are more likely to be first-year students in the
university (χ2 = 17.54, p = .002). This form of violence may be mainly
2364 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

backed by the disadvantage of girls and women in the share of power and
other resources as compared to men. The perpetrators forcefully initiate girls
and women for sexual intercourse through providing material, financial, and
other items. Bennett and colleagues argue that this form of sexual violence
may be consensual, but agreement is unwillingly given may be due to social
expectations of sexual availability in dating relationships, or to threats, trick-
ery, or blackmail of women (Bennett, Manderson, & Astbury, 2000). The
coercive circumstances may range from persistent begging such that compli-
ance is the only way of getting rid of the man, to threats of loss of employ-
ment opportunities or school marks (Bennett et al., 2000). It may initiate the
willingness of women through the supply of resources that they are badly in
need of. Those female students who lack money to fulfill their economic
needs and have poor academic performance may be more susceptible to such
kind of violence.

Perpetrators of Sexual Violence

Both intimate partners and nonpartners are dominantly involved in committing
sexually violent actions against female students. In this study, it was found that
majority of perpetrated sexually violent behaviors were committed by those
who are known to the victims. This is congruent with other studies that
assumed that the probability of women to be victimized by someone they
know, acquaintance, coworker, friend, or relative is very high (Crowford &
Unger, 2000; Mekonnen &Asresash, 2007; Tadesse, 2004). Boyfriends, close
friends, other students, school teachers and university instructors, and family
members and relatives were found to have a significant share in sexual victim-
ization against female students. According to Angol-McGinn (as cited in The
Panos Institute, 2003), strangers or nonmembers of the university are also
dominantly mentioned for sexual harassment particularly on the way to and
from the campus. Within campus, most sexually abusive behaviors are com-
mitted by male students, particularly around libraries and roads where there are
no street lights (Gender Study Group, 1996). A study on gender-based violent
behaviors of male students in Hawasa University confirmed that large number
of male students were found to be physically abusing against an intimate part-
ner or nonpartner (Philpart et al., 2009). Another study in Jimma University
also indicated that sexual harassment and rape are the major problems female
students are mainly worried about in the campus (Demise et al., 2002).
In conclusion, the reported level of all forms of sexual victimizations was
higher during enrollment year in the university and at high school. Relatively
smaller proportion of female students reported the experience of sexually
Tora 2365

violent behaviors during second and above years in campus. From this it is
possible to assume that female students are more likely to experience sexual
violence in their first year and may either learn to normalize it or cope with it
as their stay in the university increases. However, the prevalence of sexual
violence both before and during campus life is alarmingly high and need
intervention programs responsive to risk factors and perpetrators.

Appendix
Definition of Important Terms

 Rape: the use of physical force or intimidation or other coercive

mechanisms to insist women for sexual intercourse.
 Attempted rape: an attempt to make sexual intercourse without con-
sent of the girl but without the penetration of vagina.
 Completed rape: any nonconsensual penetration of the vagina by
using physical force or causing body harm, making the victim inca-
pable of defending herself.
 Sexual harassment: all acts and behaviors that do not involve pen-
etrative sex but demean the honor and body of women due to the
verbal and physical offences.
 Physical harassment: nonconsensual kissing, touching breasts and but-
tock, beating (ranging from moderate to severe pain), and other unwel-
comed and uninvited sexual contacts (Crawford & Unger, 2000).
 Verbal harassment: refers to offensive sexual languages such as
insults, belittling and disparaging comments, and other behaviors
that undermine the self-esteem of girls and women.
 Forced sexual initiation: forceful initiation of girls and women for
sexual intercourse through providing material, financial, and other
benefits in advance and use intimidation or force to initiate them for
sex (Bennett, Manderson, & Astbury, 2000).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
Financial support for this study was obtained from Wolaita Sodo University (Type
D/1800 - 1/Wolaita Sodo University, 2011).
2366 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28(11)

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Author Biography
Abebayehu Tora, MA, received his MA in sociology from Addis Ababa University
in 2010. Currently he works as educator and researcher in Wolaita Sodo University.
He has been assisting and conducting researches into neglected tropical diseases in
resource-limited communities in Ethiopia, which initiated his interest in public health
problems of developing countries, particularly on the rights and safety of girls and
women. He hopes to continue his work on sexual victimization against women in
institutions and workplaces in Ethiopia.