Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

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Journal of Structural Geology

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Non-planarity, scale-dependent roughness and kinematic properties of the

Pidima active normal fault scarp (Messinia, Greece) using high-resolution
terrestrial LiDAR data
Ioannis Karamitros a, b, *, Athanassios Ganas b, Alexandros Chatzipetros a, Sotirios Valkaniotis c
a
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Geology, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
b
National Observatory of Athens, Institute of Geodynamics, 11810, Athens, Greece
c
Koronidos Str, Trikala, Greece

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Terrestrial LiDAR (TLS), photogrammetric and field data were collected during the years 2014, 2015 and 2017,
LiDAR at a 20-m long limestone scarp locality along the N–S striking, 70� west-dipping, active Pidima fault (Messinia,
Earthquakes SW Peloponnese, Greece). This locality presents an artificially exhumed portion of an active fault plane, thus
Roughness
providing a unique opportunity to study kinematics and limestone scarp morphology (including its curvature and
Peloponnese
Messinia
roughness). The survey of 2015 offered a high-density point cloud of the fault scarp with 6-mm working reso­
Fault lution, creating a very close to real life representation 3D model. We found that scarp geometry is non-planar
with increasing convexity up-dip and increasing northwesterly dip-directions from north towards south, along
strike. Non-planarity is also recorded from the morphological data along strike with the appearance of several,
slip-parallel troughs and ridges with a mean distance (half-wavelength) of 0.75 m. The fault-plane roughness
(absolute values) is scale dependent. The roughness configuration attains a slip-parallel pattern for observation
scales above 1-cm. At observations scales less than 1-cm a slip-normal pattern is weakly visible. The obtained TLS
results agree with field data (manual compass measurements) and macroscopic observations. We infer an
earthquake magnitude of 6.2 � 0.2 for the last event along the Pidima fault based on the measured thickness of
the smooth stripe that was imaged by t-LiDAR along the non-exhumed surface of the scarp.

1. Introduction
The Messinia basin, SW Peloponnese, is bounded by highly active
fault zones, and has hosted several strong, destructive earthquakes (e.g.
Galanopoulos, 1949; Ambraseys and Jackson, 1990; Papoulia and
Makris, 2004; Slejko et al., 2010; Kouskouna and Kaviris, 2014). In
addition, it hosts a major city of Greece, Kalamata (pop. 70000 in the
2011 census; Fig. 1), and therefore it attains a significant societal value.
Research on neotectonic faults near Kalamata started after the
September 1986 Mw ¼ 6.0 strong earthquake that devastated most of the
old city (Anagnostopolous et al., 1987; Lyon-Caen et al., 1988; Papa­
zachos et al., 1988; Papanikolaou et al., 1988; Kazantzidou-Firtinidou
et al., 2016; Kassaras et al., 2018). The structural analysis of neotectonic
fault segments is essential for the investigation of stress field orienta­
tions, present-day geodynamics, fault kinematics, relation to historic
seismic events, potential reactivations of fault segments, and for the
evaluation of the fault activity along strike of a fault zone. Natural fault
scarps and exhumed fault plane segments are indicators of shallow
earthquake activity with earthquakes that cut the entire seismogenic
layer, involving magnitudes greater than M ¼ 6 (Stewart and Hancock,
1990; Ganas et al., 1998; Roberts and Ganas, 2000; Wiatr et al., 2013).
Several recent studies in Greece and Italy have attempted the
reconstruction of past earthquakes on naturally exposed limestone
bedrock fault scarps by using terrestrial LiDAR (t-LiDAR; e.g. Kokkalas
et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2009; Wilkinson et al., 2010; Bubeck et al.,
2015; Wiatr et al., 2013, 2015; Mason et al., 2016). Sampled fault scarps
include localities along normal faults that hosted recent earthquake
ruptures such as L’ Aquila (2009, M ¼ 6.3), Pissia (1981, M ¼ 6.7) as
well as well-known active faults with Late Quaternary activity in central
Greece (Arkitsa fault; Jackson and McKenzie, 1999) and Crete (Spili
fault; Caputo et al., 2006; Mouslopoulou et al., 2013; Wiatr et al., 2013).
The primary aim of those works was to enable the differentiation of

* Corresponding author. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Geology, Greece.

E-mail addresses: jkaram@noa.gr (I. Karamitros), aganas@noa.gr (A. Ganas), ac@geo.auth.gr (A. Chatzipetros), valkaniotis@yahoo.com (S. Valkaniotis).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2020.104065
Received 29 January 2019; Received in revised form 7 April 2020; Accepted 8 April 2020
Available online 13 April 2020
0191-8141/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I. Karamitros et al. Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

Fig. 1. a) Tectonic map of SW Peloponnese showing the N–S Eastern Messinia Fault Zone. 1) Main EMFZ fault traces 2) Verga fault surface rupture due to the 1986
earthquake (Mw ¼ 5.9) mapped by Lyon-Caen et al. (1988) 3) Secondary active faults/Older fault segments 4) Main fault segments numbers 5) location of Pidima
fault scarp. Barbs towards the downthrowing side of faults. Simplified syn-rift geological formations modified from IGME maps (Lalechos and Christodoulou, 1973;
Papadopoulos et al., 1997; Perrier et al., 1989; Psonis et al., 1982, 1986). Beachballs represent NOA focal plane solutions (Ganas et al., 2012; Kassaras et al., 2014).
Dashed box shows area of Figs. 1b and 2b) Geological map (simplified) of the greater Pidima fault area. Red dot 1 indicates location of TLS site, red dot 2 indicates
location of the paleoseismological section, respectively. Stereonet indicates a lower-hemisphere projection of fault planes and striations along the Pidima fault
segment. Legend as follows: Q is Upper Pleistocene – Holocene, Pt is Pleistocene, Pl is Pliocene and M is Mesozoic basement. Numbers indicate spot elevations across
the faults. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

earthquake ruptures along fault planes by exploring systematic rough­
ness variations on fault scarps without much success (e.g. Stewart, 1996;
Caputo et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2009). However, the advantages in
terms of sampling accuracy and spatial resolution are allowing a
growing number of studies to focus more on quantitative research
topics, in a way that was impossible using traditional field data alone (e.
g. Enge et al., 2007; Sagy et al., 2007). LiDAR images of fault scarps can
provide numerous along-strike data on fault geometry (dip-direction,
dip-angle), slip-rates (Mason et al., 2016) and fault kinematics (slip
vector plunge and azimuth; Wiatr et al., 2013; Kirkpatrick and Brodsky,
2014) that are very useful in studying the evolution of fault growth and
kinematic behaviour with time. T-LiDAR studies on bedrock fault scarps
and roughness analyses are also of decisive importance for supporting
cosmogenic isotope studies and dating paleoevents (e.g. in central
Apennines, Cowie et al., 2017; on Pisia fault, Corinth, Mechernich et al.,
2018).
In this article, we provide a detailed description of an artificially
exhumed carbonate fault scarp, along the Pidima active normal fault
(southwest Peloponnese, Greece; Fig. 1), using terrestrial light detection
and ranging (t-LiDAR or TLS). The Pidima Fault is the younger fault in
this N–S trending fault zone (segment number 9 on Fig. 1), as its location
right at the border between Taygetos Mt basement and sedimentary
basin suggests. In terms of seismic hazard assessment, this is very
important for the city of Kalamata as ground shaking is expected more
frequently than more “internal”, less-active faults. So, based on a) the
existence of a young active fault near Kalamata b) the well-preserved
fault scarp, & c) a possible rupture directly inducing strong ground
shaking into the sedimentary basin thus posing significant threat for
inhabitants from a hazard assessment perspective, make this locality a
crucial target for a detailed study.
The t-LiDAR survey was conducted during May 2015 with the aim to
generate a high-resolution model of the scarp surface to look for

2
I. Karamitros et al. Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

Fig. 2. a) Geological map of the Pidima scarp area (made by the authors). The scarp locality is shown with a yellow box. Red line shows the active fault trace and
older fault scarps. Curved black lines are 4-m interval elevation contours (digitised from Greek Army topographic maps). Black, dashed line A-A0 shows the trace of
the cross-section in b). c) field photo (taken on 18 August 2014) of the Pidima fault plane including the exhumed portion. Legend as follows: HI is Holocene deposits
(and swamps), Qsc, cs is Quaternary scree deposits, Pt,c is Pleistocene scree deposits, Pl is Pliocene deposits and Ls is limestone (Tripolis zone). (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

variations in scarp morphology that could be associated with the history
of earthquake ruptures. In addition, detailed field mapping of the fault
surface was carried out during December 2017 and data from a field
work of 2014 was added. We first provide a review of the tectonic setting
(section 2) and local geology (section 3), then we describe the TLS data
and proceed with data analysis and interpretation (sections 4 and 5).
2. Tectonic setting
The region of Messinia is one of the most tectonically and seismically
active in the Hellenic Arc, mostly because it is located near to the Hel­
lenic megathrust, where the African plate subducts below the Eurasian
one (Hatzfeld et al., 1989, 1990; Papoulia and Makris, 2004; Ladas et al.,
2004; Ganas and Parsons, 2009; Mariolakos and Spyridonos, 2010). The
carbonate (alpine) bedrock belongs to two major geotectonic units of the
Hellenides, the tectonic zones of Gabrovo - Tripolis and Olonos – Pindos
(Mountrakis, 2010). The central part of the basin is covered by sun-rift
sediments of Pliocene to Quaternary age, unconformably overlying the
alpine basement (Fig. 1). The thickness of these sediments in the central
part exceeds 280 m. On the western boundary of the basin the sediments
are deposited unconformably on the Olonos – Pindos unit rocks, mainly
on radiolarites, Upper Cretaceous limestones and flysch. On the north­
ern and the eastern part, the sediments are tectonically in contact with
the alpine formations, as a result of the activity of the boundary fault
zone of the roughly N–S developed graben (Fig. 1). To the south and
southeast, the sun-rift sediments cover the Tripolis unit flysch and
limestones respectively.
Crustal deformation of the upper plate (i.e. south Peloponnesus) is
accommodated by extensional faulting along NNW-SSE striking normal
faults (e.g. Papanikolaou et al., 1988; Armijo et al., 1992; Roberts and
Ganas, 2000; Ganas et al., 2012; Papanikolaοu et al., 2013). Most of the
deformation onshore Messinia is accommodated by the Eastern Messinia
Fault Zone (EMFZ), a series of west-dipping normal faults bordering the
western part of Taygetos Mt range and the west coast of Mani peninsula
(Fig. 1; Ganas et al., 2012; Kyriakopoulos et al., 2013; Valkaniotis et al.,
2015; Kazantzidou-Firtinidou et al., 2016). Papoulia et al. (2001)
assessed the seismic hazard of the offshore, basin-margin normal fault
zone (whose finite throw exceeds 5.5 km) in the same area and provided
a minimum long-term slip rate of 1.1 mm/yr.
The Eastern Messinia Fault Zone (EMFZ) is a complex system of
normal faults dipping westwards with a strike of NNW-SSE to N–S,
attaining a total length of more than 100 km from the northern Messinia
plain in the north to the southern part of Mani peninsula in the south
(Valkaniotis et al., 2015). EMFZ has its continuity disrupted by over­
lapping faults, which in turn form many relay ramp structures across its
length (Valkaniotis et al., 2015). Stress analysis of fault striation mea­
surements on fault planes along EMFZ shows a present regime of
WSW-ENE extension, in accordance with focal mechanisms from mod­
ern seismicity (Lyon-Caen et al., 1988; Hatzfeld et al., 1990; Kassaras
et al., 2014) and GPS extensional strain patterns (Hollenstein et al.,
2008; Chousianitis et al., 2015). A seismic swarm occurred in the central
part of EMFZ (south of Ichalia; Fig. 1) during 2011–2012 involving three
4.6 � M � 4.8 shallow earthquakes that caused ground deformation and
secondary effects on the surface (mainly ground cracks; Ganas et al.,
2012; Kyriakopoulos et al., 2013; Kassaras et al., 2014). The focal
mechanisms of the 2011 events (Kassaras et al., 2014) point to the
reactivation of west-dipping normal fault striking NNW-SSE (Fig. 1) that
involved slip migration from North towards South (supported by
geodetic data; Kyriakopoulos et al., 2013). The last event of the swarm
occurred on 10 October 2011 (M(NOA) ¼ 4.7) about 5 km towards north
of Arfara village (Fig. 1) close to the termination of the Pidima normal
fault. The Pidima fault belongs to EMFZ (Fault number 9 in Fig. 1); its
trace can be found in the western side of the Taygetus mountain range,
east of the Arfara and Pidima villages (Fig. 1).

3
I. Karamitros et al.
Fig. 3. a) Pidima fault scarp panoramic photograph (taken by SV on August 2014; view to the east; notice human to the right, for scale). The red rectangle indicates
the area that was scanned during the field trip of May 2015 b) instrument set-up against the scarp c) Backscatter intensity image of the scarp (on the right gray scale
0–255). In this configuration axis-X (red) is normal to scarp, axis-Y (green) is along scarp, and axis-Z (blue) is vertical (along scarp height). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
3. Geology - The Pidima active fault
During 2014–2015 under the framework of project ASPIDA (Val­
kaniotis et al., 2015; Kazantzidou-Firtinidou et al., 2016) the central
part of the EMFZ, from the town of Arfara to the city of Kalamata
(Fig. 1), was investigated by detailed field mapping of fault structures
and syn-rift sediments. The bedrock geology comprises carbonate rocks,
mainly limestones (the “pre-rift”). Upper Pleistocene – Holocene sedi­
ments and scree (the “syn-rift”; Fig. 2) occur inside the basin and along
mountain slopes, respectively. Our field mapping concluded that the
Pidima fault segment has a length of 8 km and it has created a footwall
relief of about 300 m during (Mid?-Late) Quaternary as a result of cu­
mulative, seismic slip. The fault is the youngest of two series of
sub-parallel N–S striking normal faults accommodating extension (see
Fig. 1; segments 9 and 5). Its young age is documented by the occurrence
of marine deposits of Plio-Pleistocene age that are found today at an
elevation of 360 m (Marcopoulou-Diakantoni et al., 1989) in the foot­
wall area of this fault (see syn-rift area of map between segments 5 and 9
in Fig. 1). Assuming an Early Quaternary age (2 Ma) of fault initiation
and 600 m of throw (given that basin depth is about 300 m) we obtain an
average throw rate of 0.3 mm/yr.
In the study area (Fig. 2) the footwall block comprises Mesozoic
carbonates of the Tripolis geotectonic zone (Ls). The hangingwall
comprises Holocene-age swampy and alluvial deposits (Hl in Fig. 2)
together with Quaternary fan & terrestrial deposits (Qsc, cs) that are
found stratigraphically below. We also mapped a narrow zone of Upper
Pleistocene scarp debris & breccia (Pt.c) resting next to the fault trace. Its
width ranges between 10 and 30-m. We found no field evidence for
bedrock fault planes in the hangingwall, so the Pidima fault is the basin-
bounding fault. In the limestone scarp locality, the local footwall relief is
70-m (see cross-section in Fig. 2b). The surface of the fault scarp com­
prises breccia sheets composed of limestone angular fragments on clay
breccia (or compact breccia sheets; Stewart and Hancock, 1990) and it is
cut by a network of extension fractures (mainly slip-parallel fractures at
high angles to the slip direction) without regular spacing. It is worth
mentioning that the fault scarp’s surface contains no comb-fractures.
The site of our investigation is appropriate to extract accurate infor­
mation of both scarp geometry and morphology as it is not affected by
4
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
landslides, nor it comprises an area of high erosion or deposition. We
checked the scarp surface of any human-induced damage bit and/or
weathering marks but we found no such evidence. However, we
confirmed human activity to a range of a few tens of metres to the west
and some agricultural activity (oil-trees) nearby, but the immediate to
the scarp ground surface after its exhumation was found undisturbed.
In addition, during the summer of 2015 a paleoseismological trench
was excavated near the village Pidima a few hundred metres to the north
of the fault scarp (yellow box in Fig. 2a). The trench was excavated along
an E-W orientation and colluvium samples were dated from post-
faulting colluvial deposits and fissure fills, in order to examine the
paleoearthquake record of the Pidima fault (Zygouri et al., 2015). The
t-LiDAR field campaign provided a supplementary dataset to the find­
ings of paleoseismology, mainly on fault scarp morphology, size of last
earthquake and fault kinematics which is the focus of this paper.
4. Methods
4.1. Characteristics of terrestrial LiDAR (TLS) data
LiDAR is a remote sensing technology (acronym of “Light Detection
and Ranging”) and its ground-based counterpart is called TLS (Terrestrial
Laser Scanning) or t-LiDAR. The technique comprises a non-intrusive
visual recording system, the high spatial and temporal resolution of
which makes it an effective method for morphological reconstructions of
geological settings, monitoring, and numerical modelling of geological
phenomena (e.g. Jones et al., 2009; Wiatr et al., 2013). This technology
can generate digital elevation models or virtual outcrop models, either
of which retain a wealth of quantitative information (e.g., x, y, and z
coordinate values). This results in a virtual model that is suitable for
interpretation, digitization and quantitative geological analysis (Buck­
ley et al., 2008). The device operates by emitting a laser pulse at known
azimuth and angle of inclination relative to the scanner towards a sur­
face (Fig. 3b). The time of flight of the emitted pulse and its reflected,
returning counterpart is used to calculate the distance between the laser
scanner and a surface. The scanner emits thousands of pulses per second
and incrementally is adjusting the direction, horizontally and vertically
to sample reflections within its 360� horizontal and 90� vertical line of
I. Karamitros et al.
Table 1
Information on the relation between processing product and analysis resolution.
Software used: CloudCompare.
Processing Product Product resolution Figure in this
study
Fault plane kinematics (dip-angle, dip- 1 cm 4, 5, 6, 7
direction, slip vector azimuth and
plunge)
Fault plane curvature 1m 11
Fault plane roughness 6 mm, 1 cm, 2 cm, 8, 9
10 cm, 1 m
sight.
When the pulses are reflected by a surface during a scanning session
the receiver detects portions of the backscattered signal (Jo €rg et al.,
2006; Wiatr et al., 2015). The infrared (1500 nm) laser scanner detects
monochromatic information of the backscattered signal in 256 intensity
gray values (Fig. 3c) that can provide information about a range of the
scanned surface properties (Wiatr et al., 2015; Schneiderwind et al.,
2016; Mechernich et al., 2018).The backscatter values mainly depend
on: a) the reflectivity of the target material (color as well as the surface
condition, roughness, etc.), b) the range to the target (due to beam
divergence the pulse becomes wider and less intense with distance), c)
inclination angle of the laser beam, d) atmospheric conditions (presence
of dust, rain, humidity levels, etc.).
Higher return intensities are associated with relatively smooth,
highly reflective surfaces, while the lower values with darker and
rougher (they scatter some of the energy away from the sensor). A
smooth reflective surface may also produce lower intensity returns if it is
tilted away from the direction of the incoming light pulse and thus re­
flects most of the energy away from the sensor (Fowler et al., 2011;
Penasa et al., 2014).
The resulting raw data is in the form of a point cloud, a densely
spaced network of elevation points based on the Cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z) of the reflected points. These three-dimensional coordinates of
the target objects are computed from the time difference between the
laser pulse being emitted and returned in association with the starting
angle of the pulse and the absolute location of the sensor. Multiple scans
can be used to collect data and the resultant point clouds are subse­
quently aligned and merged based on the identification of overlapping
zones and are typically assisted by algorithms implemented within
software platforms.
In this work we present an analysis of t-LiDAR data using a point-
cloud resolution (or scanning step) of 0.5–1 cm and we derive a num­
ber of kinematic and morphological products for the Pidima fault scarp.
The list of products is shown in Table 1.
4.2. Instrument setup and data acquisition
In our study, we used the laser ranging system ILRIS 3D from Optech
Inc., Ontario, Canada (7 mm at 100 m distance accuracy according to the
manufacturer’s specifications). The laser scanner was accompanied with
additional equipment, such as a self-rotating and tilting base for the
scanner, a mounting tripod and a power generator for producing power
in the field (Fig. 3b). The backscatter intensity value of each point ap­
pears on an 8-bit scale (0–255; Fig. 3c).
The field work took place on May 26, 2015 and the TLS instrument
was placed 10 m away from the fault plane (Fig. 3a). Determined af­
terwards from the 3D model (see Fig. 6), the length of the exhumed
Pidima fault scarp is 28.237 m and its (height 7.971 m. The scanner
originally measured the last return with scanning step 0.005 m (5 mm)
on the surface. We obtained about 10.5 million initial cloud points,
subsequently the scans were “cleaned” (vegetation and surface noise
points were removed) and aligned using Polyworks™ (for data handling
with Polyworks™ the reader is referred to Wiatr et al., 2013).
For computational purposes, the point cloud was reduced to 3.6
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Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
Table 2
TLS survey attributes and the resultant processing output from the point cloud.
Fault No of scan Scan length Point cloud Point Cloud
segments along strike (m) (total) (working set)
Pidima 4 28.237 10582758 3621287
million cloud points (about 66% less data; see Table 2 for data acqui­
sition summary) or 17k points per m2, without loss of quality, such as the
resulting 3D model is of millimetre (6-mm) accuracy. After data
reduction the file was imported to CloudCompare (an open source soft­
ware) for data analysis.
4.3. TLS data processing
We used the CloudCompare open software to process the TLS data
(Dewez et al., 2016; Valkaniotis et al., 2018; Tung et al., 2018). In order
to acquire information about the geometric features of the fault surface,
we first computed the surface normals. From the three-dimensional
perspective, a normal to a surface at a specific point is a vector that is
perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at that point. The
normal vector is often used in computer graphics to determine a sur­
face’s orientation toward a light source for flat shading, or the orien­
tation of each of the corners (vertices). The solution of estimating the
surface normal, as defined by the CloudCompare and PCL (Point Cloud
Library) software platforms, is an analysis of the eigenvectors and ei­
genvalues of a covariance matrix created from the nearest neighbors of
the query point.
For each point pi, the covariance matrix C assembles as follows:
1X k
[1]
⇀ ⇀
C¼ ▪ðpi pÞ▪ðpi pÞT ; C▪vj ¼ λj ▪vj ; j 2 f0; 1; 2g
k i¼1
Where k is the number of point neighbors, p represents the 3D centroid
of the nearest neighbors, λj is the j-th eigenvalue use of the covariance
matrix, and v the j-th eigenvector. To orient all normals !n consistently
⇀
j i
towards the viewpoint vp , they need to satisfy the equation:
�
�!
ni ▪ vp pi > 0 [2]
We obtained the following products on scarp morphology and ki­
nematics: computation of scarp point normals (vectors going outwards
from the scanned surface), scarp dip angle (Fig. 4c), scarp dip direction
(Fig. 4a) facets orientation and dip angle (Fig. 7), scarp surface mean
curvature (Fig. 8), roughness (Fig. 9) Below we present our results in
more detail.
5. Results
5.1. On the geometry and kinematic properties of the Pidima scarp
The basic kinematic properties of a fault plane are: dip angle of the
fault plane, dip-direction of the fault plane and slip-vector orientations
along the fault plane. First, we present the results on the dip-direction
(Fig. 4a and b), then on dip-angle (Fig. 4c and d) and we also extrac­
ted slip-vector orientations in selected locations on the scarp (Fig. 5).
The mean value of the dip-angle is 70.5� (Fig. 4d) with a standard de­
viation of 4.3� . The bell-shaped histogram of the values fits to a Gaussian
(normal) distribution. We also note that towards the higher parts of the
scarp dip-angle values become lower (Fig. 4c), i.e. the scarp attains a
convex geometry up-dip. The area of high values on the central part of
the plane corresponds to a zone of the brecciated colluvium (Fig. 6). The
mean value of the dip-direction is N250� E (Fig. 4b) with a standard
deviation of 18� . The histogram of the dip-direction values also fits to a
Gaussian distribution (Fig. 4b). We observe that the dip-direction of the
scarp changes systematically from North to South along strike (Fig. 4a)
I. Karamitros et al.
Fig. 4. a) Cleaned scarp image showing distribution of dip directions along strike b) histogram of dip-direction values (degrees clockwise from North). c) Cleaned
LiDAR image showing distribution of dip-angles along scarp strike (see scale on the right) and d) histogram of dip-angle values. The mean value of dip is 70.5� with a
standard deviation of 4.3� . The dominant WSW dip-direction is at a high-angle to the Pidima fault strike (Fig. 2) Data analysis with CloudCompare, N ¼ 3.6
million points.
with the northern part to dip more towards the SW while the southern
part to dip more towards the W. This is another piece of evidence for the
non-planarity of the scarp.
In addition, we used a method to calculate the 3D slip vector on the
fault surface, which is to manually create a line between two points on
the TLS data (e.g. Gold et al., 2012; Wiatr et al., 2013). We selected the
two end-points using the 3-D model with intensity values (shown in
Fig. 3c) where we can follow the linear features of the scarp surface
(identified in the field as slickenside lineations; see inset in Fig. 6 below).
This way we obtained 58 lines that represent the slip vector orientation
(Fig. 5) and measured their attributes together with the section of the
fault plane that hosted the line. For each measurement, the azimuth and
the angle of the line were extracted. A comparison with field measure­
ments of the rake of the slip vector (see Fig. 5) showed that the
6
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
Fig. 5. Field photograph of the Pidima scarp
showing sections sampled for slip-vector
data (red boxes with annotations; A1 to
A8): top) lower hemisphere stereographic
projection of fault planes and lines from field
data and b) lower hemisphere stereographic
projection of fault planes and lines from
corresponding TLS data. Inset box shows a
close-up of the fault plane (pencil for scale)
near section A8. The field data were
collected during December 2017. (For
interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the Web version of this article.)
difference of the mean values is 4.4� while both datasets exhibit similar
standard deviations (Table 3). The rake data indicate a small dextral-slip
component (between 5 and 10� ) of the slip vector at this locality. We
associate this small (but systematic) dextral component to the position
of our sampling locality along-strike the Pidima fault, i.e. the scarp is
located towards the south end of the northern segment of the fault
(Fig. 1b) where it is expected a strike-slip component of the slip vector in
normal faults (Ma and Kusznir, 1995; Roberts and Ganas, 2000; Hampel
et al., 2013). As the Pidima segment strikes N–S (on average) and dips
towards west, it is expected that a dextral component of slip would
develop near its southern end.
The zone of high dip-angle values in the centre-north part of the
scarp (Fig. 4c) was identified in the field as brecciated colluvium be­
tween two fault surfaces (Fig. 6; the brecciated colluvium is indicated by
I. Karamitros et al.
number 2). Field mapping showed that the north part of the scarp
consists of a partly polished fault plane (1) created on a colluvium
breccia, the clay-matrix breccia zone (2), while the south part of the
scarp consists of a polished fault plane on limestone breccia (3). We may
consider both planes to be localised fault-bound lenses of the Pidima
fault although we have no more data along strike. We also identify the
line of intersection (branch line) between the two sections of the multi-
strand fault scarp (black line annotated in Fig. 6; Childs et al., 1995;
Bonson et al., 2007). We then focus our analysis more on the scarp
sections 1 and 3 (Fig. 6). Consequently, the rough breccia zone was
removed from the 3D model. Both segments appear very similar in their
dip angle distribution resembling the distribution in Fig. 4, however, in
7
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
Fig. 6. Pidima scarp photographs: (left) strike normal
(right) along strike (view north). The branch line
(black) between the two overlapping fault lenses with
the colluvium slip surface (1) on top of the polished
limestone slip surface (3), between them the scarp
area (2), comprising rough colluvium breccia. Red
box indicates area shown in 8b. The non-exhumed
part of the scarp is visible as the gray area towards
the top, aligned with vegetation (marked with dashed
yellow line). Photograph taken on 7 December 2017.
C) The 3-D model of the Pidima scarp from TLS data
with color integration from the photographs taken on
the field trip of December 2017. The model was made
by the combined use of Agisoft Photoscan and
CloudCompare d) the trace of the fault plane 3 m
above ground (in map view). Blue is the limestone
part of the scanned surface. Red is the cemented
colluvium part of the scanned surface. The non-planar
geometry of the scarp is more evident on its central
part. (For interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
Fig. 7. Scarp TLS Data analysis: The result of the
planar facets analysis plug-in of CloudCompare with
an angular step at 5� (degrees). Each facet has indi­
vidual dip-direction and angle values. Left) a lower
hemisphere stereographic projection of the results of
the facet analysis is shown with inner circles depict­
ing range of dip-angles (0–90� ). Outer circle denotes
range of dip-directions. Colours inside the stereonet
denote facet density (blue small – red large). (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)
their dip direction they show a 25� degrees divergence (Fig. 7), that is
the north segment shows a mean value of dip-direction of N233� E, while
the southern segment N258� E, respectively. This result proves again that
the Pidima scarp is non-planar along strike.
To numerically confirm the non-planarity evidence along strike we
applied a second method, that of facet analysis on the TLS data from the
south segment (scarp surface labeled 3 in Fig. 6). We used the FACETS
plug-in in CloudCompare which is capable of performing planar facets
analysis by automatically extracting planar facets from point clouds
(Fig. 7). The analysis is based on the normal vectors of the surface it runs
on, and creates domains of planar facets. The program first recursively
divides the point cloud into sub-cells and then computes elementary
I. Karamitros et al.
planar patches and then regroups them progressively according to a
planarity threshold into larger polygons (Dewez et al., 2016). This can
be done by choosing the resulting facets minimum size (16 cloud points)
and angular step (5� ). The fault plane, in our case, was divided in groups
of small facets in order to more accurately illustrate the way
dip-direction changes along its surface. The dip-direction data, can be
exported for further analysis. The planar facets of the south segment
have a dip-direction between N244� – 295� E, giving a mean
dip-direction at N259� E (see stereonet in Fig. 7). The average fault scarp
strike is calculated at N170� E.
5.2. Roughness of fault plane
Fault scarp roughness (Fig. 8) is a fundamental geometric property of
a surface and it in this study is defined as the value of distance between a
8
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
Fig. 8. Surface roughness image of Pidima
Scarp at various scales (kernel-size) of
observation. The image is a point-cloud
product of CloudCompare. a) algorithm
kernel Size ¼ 0.02 m b) 0.1 m c) 1.0 m.
Vertical scale bars indicate absolute rough­
ness values, i.e. distance in m from the mean
plane of the sampled population of neigh­
bouring TLS points. Notice the rough, slip-
parallel stripes that are preserved at images
b) to c) but not in a) where a slip-normal
stripe with low roughness appears at the
top of the scarp. Bar scale on the bottom
right is in metres.
point and the best fitting plane computed on its nearest neighbors. The
radius (kernel) that CloudCompare uses to compute the roughness of the
surface, is defined as the radius of a sphere centered on each point and
can be determined by the user, in our case we set it to 1 m, 0.1 m and
0.02 m, respectively (Fig. 9a, b, c,; Table 1). Roughness provides useful
information on possible changes of the properties or irregularities of a
fault scarp including its degradation with time (e.g. Stewart, 1996). In
our analysis we focus on the Euclidean description of roughness (Power
and Tullis, 1991), that is on the geometrical analysis of our point-cloud
data, providing statistical descriptions of root mean square roughness at
various scales of observation (Fig. 9).
From the roughness analysis we were able to extract information
about the fault plane’s surface linear features and small-scale corruga­
tions. Larger kernel size means that more neighbouring points are taken
into the equation and larger structures predominate the smaller ones.
I. Karamitros et al. Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

Fig. 9. Surface roughness obtained by the TRI method (Riley et al., 1999). a) kernel size 6 mm b) kernel size 1 cm and c) kernel size 2 cm. Slip-parallel features are
visible at kernel sizes above 1-cm. At kernel-size 6 mm a slip-normal pattern is weakly visible.

Table 3 Table 4
Results for slip-vector analysis and comparison with field data. The sampled Roughness statistics. Units in m. Notice that mean roughness (R) increases with
surfaces are shown in Fig. 5. The field measurements were collected with a CLAR kernel size.
compass. Kernel size R min R max R mean R st. dev.
Measurement T-LiDAR data (N ¼ 59) Field data (N ¼ 36) 0.02 m 0 0.006 0.002 0.001
Mean of Slip vector rake 95.25� 99.70� 0.1 m 0 0.012 0.003 0.002
St. Deviation of rake 6.91� 6.26� 1.0 m 0 0.114 0.023 0.018

The resulting image helps us define the corrugation’s wavelength and
orientation on the fault’s surface. Our results for 1-m, and 0.1-m kernel
sizes indicate the existence of rough, slip-parallel stripes over the fault
surface and not slip-normal as it would be expected intuitively if
roughness was solely determined by erosion of successive earthquake
ruptures along the scarp base (that is scarp would be rougher as ruptures
getting older, i.e. rougher up-dip). An interesting result came up in the
case of kernel size 0.02-m where a smooth slip-normal stripe appears
towards the top of the scarp (Fig. 9a) which does not overlap with the
gray stripe at the level of vegetation towards the top of the scarp (see
Figs. 3a and 6a, for field views). In general, the results indicate that the
smaller the kernel size, and thus the scale of the analysis, the smoother
the surface (see Table 4 for statistics). In our TLS data the scarp mean
roughness decreases with reducing kernel size in a non-linear relation
(Fig. 10). The data are fitted better with an exponential function
(Fig. 10; R2 ¼ 0.99 vs R2 ¼ 0.88 for a linear fit).
We also calculated the terrain ruggedness index (TRI; Fig. 9) as area
roughness parameters provide more significant values than the profile
and can help determine the spatial distribution of ruggedness on a sur­
face (e.g. Riley et al., 1999; Wiatr et al., 2015; Mechernich et al., 2018).
The roughness pattern resembles the one computed by CloudCompare, i.
e. at kernel size of 1-cm and larger the roughness features are more

9
I. Karamitros et al. Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

Fig. 10. Plot of observation (kernel-size; X axis) vs. mean roughness values (Y) showing a non-linear relation of scarp roughness with increasing kernel-size (the
fitted-lines to data are shown for comparison). Roughness data are those from Fig. 8.

Fig. 11. Curvature analysis of TLS data: a) Cleaned scarp image showing distribution of mean surface curvature (absolute values) along strike by use of Cloud­
Compare (see scale on the right; n ¼ 3.6 million points) b) manual tracing of max curvature values over the image of a). c) histogram of curvature values and d)
sketch of curvature definitions along a scarp surface (not to scale; after Roberts, 2001) e) field photograph of the Pidima scarp that is included inside the red box of a).
Dashed red line is the same as in b). Algorithm kernel size ¼ 1 m. Zero curvatures are shown in blue, high curvatures (0.29) with red, respectively. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

slip-parallel (Fig. 9b and c) whereas at small kernel size (6-mm; Fig. 9a)
a slip-normal pattern is weakly visible. We note that the high
slip-parallel values are associated to rapid changes in dip-directions and
dip-angles.
6. Discussion
In this paper we examined the possibilities of integrating t-LiDAR
and point cloud creation technologies for mapping the kinematic
properties of an active fault scarp as well as its morphology in detail. As
the t-LiDAR technique offers a lot of new information for structural
geology, we were able to show (see section 6.4 below) that the t-LiDAR
measurements were reliable as we validated our results with field
measurements.
The Pidima area is of great seismotectonic interest due to the area’s
high earthquake potential and any additional data would be of signifi­
cant importance. The fault plane features gave many useful and inter­
esting results based on the point cloud analyses. Moreover, the structural

10
I. Karamitros et al.
analysis of the fault plane allowed for a detailed logging of its geomet­
rical characteristics, such as the plane’s dip and dip direction angles,
lineament and corrugation size and orientation. Below we discuss a few
important observations including the size of the last earthquake
occurred on this fault.
6.1. Scarp morphology: Curvature of fault plane
One of the interesting areas of research on fault scarps is the relation
between the formation of large corrugations on the fault plane with the
mechanics of the earthquake ruptures. Corrugations are believed to form
from overlapping faults by two main mechanisms, the lateral propaga­
tion of curved fault tips and linkage by connecting faults (Ferrill et al.,
1999). Corrugations may have their origins in the progressive break­
through of originally segmented fault systems (Jones et al., 2009). In our
study we identify two scales of corrugations: a) the corrugation of the
fault or a local fault-bend (Fig. 6c) which is defined by the deviation of
the fault trace from a straight line and b) the corrugations of the fault
plane itself which are developed in slip-parallel mode and maintain an
almost equal-half-distance of 0.75 m (in our 1-m kernel size dataset;
Fig. 11). We associate the former (i.e. the fault bend) with fault growth
processes although more field data are needed to establish the fault
linkage history of EMFZ (Fig. 1). The large-scale corrugations on the
fault plane (Fig. 11) may be related to the mechanics of faulting; a
component of strike-parallel horizontal strain may exist during earth­
quake nucleation and rupture propagation on the fault plane (i.e. Rob­
erts, 1996; Roberts and Ganas, 2000; Hampel et al., 2013).
The curvature of a fault surface (see Fig. 6a for a 3-D model of the
Pidima scarp showing its curved morphology) is another measure of the
divergence it has from planarity. Curvature analysis of geological sur­
faces can provide useful plots for quantitative measurements of folds and
fault geometry, such as corrugations and has also been employed to
describe the geometry of strata, to quantify the degree of deformation or
strain in deformed strata, and to predict fracture orientation (Bergbauer
and Pollard, 2003; Jones et al., 2009). The computation of curvature is
based on the surface normals, which were automatically generated by
the CloudCompare. In mathematical terms, curvature is a second-order
derivative of the surface and for that reason curvature values are inde­
pendent of the surface’s orientation. For a surface defined in 3-D space,
the mean curvature is related to a unit normal of the surface:
2H ¼ r▪!
ni [3]
Where H is the mean curvature (in units m 1) and ! ni is the normal unit.
The mean scarp curvature is shown in Fig. 11, on the whole Pidima
scarp surface in order to identify the changes of curvature along strike
with kernel-size of 1-m. The data analysis shows an alternation of low-
high curvature values (0–0.29) along scarp’s strike. The arrangement
of the curvature pattern is slip-parallel, i.e. the high and lows are sub-
parallel to the slip-vector. We identified in the field that most of the
high values correspond to large corrugations of the scarp, displaying a
mean half-wavelength of 0.75 m on both slip surfaces (Fig. 11b; i.e. the
distance between a corrugation “ridge” and a “trough”). Curvature is
aligned in slip-parallel mode over the fault surface except for the area
with colluvium (Fig. 11e) where a deflection was introduced probably
because of excavation works. In comparison to other t-LiDAR studies in
Greece such as at Arkitsa (Jones et al., 2009) our corrugation
half-wavelength is smaller (0.75 m vs 4.04 m peak-to-peak in Arkitsa)
however, the point cloud scale of analysis is not available at the Arkitsa
study. Although corrugations are ubiquitous on fault scarps in Greece (e.
g. Roberts, 1996; Roberts and Ganas, 2000; Ganas et al., 2004; Jones
et al., 2009) it is the first time that a regular “half-wavelength” of cor­
rugations is established. As we lack more data along strike of the Pidima
fault we are not certain that this “half-wavelength” is constant or it is a
value with local significance.
In addition, the scarp geometry-related products (dip-direction and
11
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
dip-angle) show that the scarp is non-planar. The range of dip-directions
is N206� E – N280� E (Fig. 4a and b; 3% trimmed either side of the dis­
tribution) along strike while the dip-angle range is 57� –79� (Fig. 4c and
d; 3% trimmed). We also observe that a) the distribution of the vari­
ability in the dip-direction along strike is not uniform (Fig. 4a), i.e. the
northern part of the scarp is oriented more to the SW than its central and
southern part, probably reflecting a local concavity (bend) of the fault
plane b) the distribution of the dip-angles strongly resembles a gaussian-
type with a mean value of 70� and standard deviation of 4� . We also note
that towards the higher parts of the scarp dip-angle values become lower
(Fig. 4c), i.e. the scarp attains a convex geometry up-dip. We measured
lower dip-angles on both higher parts of the scarp, natural and exhumed.
Therefore, it is demonstrated that the Pidima fault scarp is non-
planar, both along-dip (slip-parallel) and along-strike (slip-normal)
directions.
6.2. Roughness analysis and its kernel-size dependence
We investigated the roughness scale-dependence first by drawing a
set of 13 orthogonal line-profiles, six (6) along-strike or slip-normal (see
Fig. S1; profiles 34 through 39) and seven (7) along-dip or slip-parallel
(Fig. S1; profiles 22–28). In all profiles we start to see the roughness
variations at kernel size 0.1 m and above, because at 0.02 m the fault
scarp appears smooth with subtle variations in roughness (see Fig. 8a).
In along-strike (or slip-normal) profiles the shape of the profile is
similar (number of peaks – number of troughs) for all kernel sizes. The
roughness values scale with kernel size, i.e. the larger the kernel the
larger the roughness (as in the overall data; Table 4 and Fig. 10). For
kernel size 1 m we observe an increase in roughness from scarp bottom
to scarp top (see Fig. 8 for a “map” view). For all kernel sizes the increase
is systematic if we consider just the three bottom profiles (i.e. 34, 35 and
36; Fig. S2).
The along-dip (slip-parallel; Fig. S3) profiles display a mixed picture:
some profiles (e.g.26 and 27 in Fig. S3) present a similarity of shapes
irrespective of kernel size, however, profiles 22 to 25 present different
shapes. We attribute this difference to the location of these profiles at the
scarp surface, i.e. they are aligned along “ridges” and “troughs” of the
scarp.
Overall, we cannot discriminate between slip-normal and slip-
parallel roughness neither in shape forms or in absolute values. This is
due to a) the randomness in the selection of the profiles, i.e. we chose
regular spacing of about 1m and we did not pick the profile location on
purpose and b) to the local variations in scarp morphology which are not
discernible at the scale (kernel-size) of our investigation (lower limit 6
mm). The TRI analysis demonstrated that the slip-parallel features are
less dominant at 6-mm kernel (Fig. 9a) as opposed to the 1-cm kernel. It
is therefore probable that lower (smaller) kernel sizes are needed to
explore roughness variations along the Pidima fault scarp. This could be
achieved by reducing the scanning distance to a few metres. We note
that our TLS data resolution is not high enough to provide 1-mm kernel
size of the scarp surface or even less, so effectively our scaling-coverage
is only two orders of magnitude, that is 1-cm and 1-m, respectively.
6.3. Evidence for seismic slip along the non-exhumed part of the scarp
So far, we did not describe the non-exhumed surface of the scarp,
that is the narrow stripe that extends along the top of the scarp, parallel
to the line of vegetation (see Fig. 3 for a view in the field). Using the t-
LiDAR data (the backscatter signal intensity image) we were able to
measure the two dimensions of this feature (Fig. 3c) along strike and
along the dip direction, i.e. the stripe’s length is equal to 12.6 m and the
average width equals 0.31 m. We suggest that this well-preserved
feature represents the last seismic slip along this scarp as it comprises
a typical footwall feature of earthquake surface ruptures along limestone
scarps (e.g. Stewart, 1996; Ganas et al., 2004; Civico et al., 2018).
Assuming this value (0.31 m) is the maximum surface displacement of
I. Karamitros et al. Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065

Fig. 12. Validation of TLS data with field measurements: a) rose diagram showing dip-direction b) quarter-rose diagram showing dip-angle c) rose diagram showing
striation azimuth d) quarter-rose diagram showing plunge-angle of striations e) stereonet projection of fault planes where striations were measured f) stereonet
projection of striations. Sampling locations are presented in Fig. 5. Plots were produced from WinTensor.

12
I. Karamitros et al.
the last earthquake we obtain a surface magnitude (Ms) of 6.2 using the
Wells and Coppersmith empirical relationship (1994; W & C) for the last
event. We note that this estimate is in broad agreement with the length –
magnitude estimate by W & C (1994) because an 8 km long normal fault
is expected to generate an earthquake with 5.7 � M � 6.4 (using a
standard deviation of 0.34 magnitude units). Our approach is useful in
terms of estimating the magnitude of the last earthquake, however, more
data are needed (e.g. from paleoseismology) in order to provide a more
detailed and complete seismic hazard assessment for the Pidima fault.
6.4. Validation of t-LiDAR results with field data
We compare our image processing results to a set of field data
collected by a) S. Valkaniotis and K. Betzelou during the summer of 2014
and b) A. Ganas and I. Karamitros on 7 December 2017 along the Pidima
fault scarp. We want to investigate the consistency of our image pro­
cessing analysis and to validate our results with field measurements.
Although the population of the scanned fault surface reaches a few
million points of data we can draw coherent conclusions when compared
with field data because the exposure is limited (roughly 20 m long by 7
m high) and the overall kinematics of the fault is known. Our field data
indicate a mainly dip-slip fault dipping at high-angle towards the west
(see Fig. 5). Our measurements are accurate to about 5� in compass
azimuth/inclination. Our field data have been analysed and plotted by
the use of WinTensor software.
We validated the following products (Fig. 12): a) fault dip-angle di­
agram b) fault lineation plunge diagram c) fault strike rose diagram d)
fault lineation azimuth plot e) stereonet, lower hemisphere projection of
fault planes f) stereonet plot of lineations. In the field we measured the
pitch angle of striations using a CLAR-type compass. This set of mea­
surements was converted to line-azimuth and line-plunge by WinTensor
software, so that it can be directly compared with the analysis by
CloudCompare (TLS measurements). Our TLS results are depicted in
Fig. 12 (left panel) and are in close agreement with the field data (Fig. 12
right panel), The small differences are due to the fact that field data were
collected from particular patches of the fault scarp while our TLS results
originate from the analysis of nearly-identical areas of scarp (see red
boxes in Fig. 5) but not exactly the same lines or striations. In addition,
small differences may be due to the computation of the plane orientation
by the image processing software. Another reason is the (locally)
imprecise data recording of t-LiDAR as its view direction may vary
locally depending on fault surface details (grooves, small corrugations
etc).
7. Conclusions
1. The geometry-related products of the obtained point-cloud (dip-di­
rection and dip-angle; Fig. 4) show that the scarp is non-planar
(range N206� E – N280� E) along strike while the dip range is 57� –79� .
2. The TLS data indicate that towards the higher parts of the scarp dip-
angle values become lower (by an amount of up to 15� ), i.e. the scarp
attains a convex geometry.
3. Our TLS results are in close agreement with the field data (Fig. 7 and
Figs. S1–S3), as our mean field measurements for dip direction is
N250� E and for dip-angle is 70.5� .
4. A comparison with field measurements of the rake of the slip vector
(see Fig. 5) showed that the difference of the means is 4.4� while both
datasets exhibit similar standard deviations around their means
(Table 3). The rake data indicate a small dextral-slip component
(between 5 and 10� ) of the slip vector at this locality.
5. We mapped roughness patterns using the CloudCompare and the TRI
methods (Figs. 8 and 9). The fault-plane roughness (absolute values)
is scale dependent. The roughness configuration attains a slip-
parallel pattern for observation scales above 1-cm. At observations
scales less than 1-cm a slip-normal pattern is weakly visible. The
13
Journal of Structural Geology 136 (2020) 104065
results indicate that the smaller the processing kernel size, the
smoother the surface (Fig. 10).
6. In terms of scarp morphology, we observe that fault surface curva­
ture develops mainly in slip-parallel mode.
7. We mapped a 0.31 m wide, smooth stripe along the naturally
exposed (non-exhumed) part of the scarp that may represent the last
seismic displacement along this scarp. Assuming this value is the
maximum surface displacement of the last earthquake we infer that
its magnitude was M ¼ 6.2 � 0.2.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ioannis Karamitros: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Athanassios Ganas: Supervision, Writing - original draft, Writing - re­
view & editing, Funding acquisition. Alexandros Chatzipetros: Su­
pervision, Investigation. Sotirios Valkaniotis: Visualization, Software,
Data curation.
Acknowledgments
We thank one anonymous reviewer and Sascha Schneiderwind for
constructive reviews. We thank Iannis Koukouvelas, Vassiliki Zygouri,
Efstratios Delogkos, Elena Partheniou, Konstantina Betzelou, Babis
Fassoulas, Spiros Pavlides and Antonis Mouratidis for comments and
discussion in the field. The open-source software WinTensor & Geo­
Calculator can be accessed from http://www.damiendelvaux.be/Ten
sor/WinTensor/win-tensor.html and http://www.holcombe.net.
au/software/geocalculator.html respectively. This research was fun­
ded by the project KRIPIS-ASPIDA “Infrastructure Upgrade for Seismic
Protection of the Country and Strengthen Service Excellence through Action”.
This work is part of MSc thesis of I.K at the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jsg.2020.104065.
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