THE APPLICATION OF.

THE CLARINETIST'S TRAINING AND

KNOWLEDGE TO THE STUDY OF OTHER WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Music
The University of Southern California

In partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Music in Music Education

by
Richard Frank Bayard
August 1955
 UMI Number: EP61985

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FINAL THESIS APPROVAL

T h is thesis, w r i t t e n by

Richard Frank Bayard

u n d e r the s u p e rv is io n o f . G u i d a n c e Com­
m itte e , a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l its m em bers, has
been p re se n te d to a n d accepted by the E x e c u tiv e
C o m m itte e o f th e S c h o o l o f M u s i c , in p a r t i a l
f u l f i l l m e n t o f the re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f
M A S T E R O F M U S I C , w i t h m a jo r in

......... 1c tocajti on............

^ D e a U j School of M u s ic Bate

I
h airm ^ d a te
J
 Ï&BIB OP CONTENTS
I
!\CHAPTER B&GE
I I. "DBS PROBLEM j&mD KBVIEN OP TNB LITERATURE . . . . 1
The problem....................................1
Statement of the problem .............. 1
Importance of the s t u d y .................... 2
I Definitions of terms u s e d ...................... 3
I Review of the literature . . . ............. 3
Unpublished t h e s e s .......................... 4
i
I B o o k s ......................... 5
I Pamphlets............................. * . 6
i
i Periodical articles ...................... 6
Kinds of information needed ........ 6
i

Methods used for obtaining information. . . . 7

Factual information ................. 7
Opinions............................ 7
Organization of the remainder of thethesis . . 8
II. THE BASIS OP PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS AND
POSSIBILITIES...................................10
The acoustical properties ..........'......... 10
The quality, condition, and adjustment of
! the instrument............................. 19
Factors affected by quality, condition,
and adjustment............. . . . . . 21
 Ill
,CHAPTER PAGE
jlll. PRODUCING THE CHARACTERISTIC T O N E ............... 27
I Breathing..................................... 27
! E m b o u c h u r e ................................... 30
Aural concept of tone quality . . . ......... 32
A t t a c k ....................................... 33
j S u m m a r y .................... 36
i IV. TECHNIQUE.......................................38
I
I Foundation in acoustical phenomena............. 38
Difference in technique between the clarinet
I and all other woodwinds . ................ 39
I V. PROBLEMS IN ACTUAL PERFORMANCE.................. 4?
I Intonation.................................... 48
I
i Blend and projection .........................52
Range and transposition problems........... 54
Phrasing . . . . . . . . . ................. 55
, VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......................... 60
Flute and clarinet............................ 60
Oboe and clarinet............................. 65
Bassoon and clarinet ............ . . . . . . 69
: Saxophone and clarinet . . . . . . .......... 72
• Conclusions...................... 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY......... 78
 iv
APPENDIX A. The membership of the panel of
authorities interviewed for the study . . . . 83
APPENDIX B. Questions used as guides for
interviews .............................88
APPENDIX C. A glossary of terms which are subject
to varying interpretations ................ 91
î THE PROBIBM AND DEFINITIONS OP TERMS USED 1
! I

In many school music departments there has arisen in

recent years the practice of having most woodwind students ;
: in the elementary schools begin their instrumental study
with the clarinet and then transfer to some other woodwind
I
^ instrument. Also, there has been an increase in the numbef
of teachers who are "woodwind specialists" in the sense
I that they undertake to teach all the woodwind instruments; |
i i
I some colleges and universities now offer a program of |
I i
I studies designed to train these specialists (13:19). Manyj
I I
I of these people advance to a general study of the woodwinds!
; ■ !
from a background of many years' performance on the clari- |
' net. Moreover, current practice among professional woodwind
players often requires that they be proficient on more than!
: one instrument. ’

i I . THE PROBLEM I
I
; !

Statement of the problem. The purpose of this study

: was (l) to identify the aspects of clarinet performance :
I that may affect, either beneficially or adversely, the study
: of other woodwinds; and (2) to determine the degree to
! which this effect may be beneficial or adverse.
 2

! Importance of the study. A combination of three

factors gives importance to this study. First, the small
t
;colleges, with their limited budgets and small faculties,
i
Icannot afford to employ a teacher specializing in each of
Ithe orchestral and band instruments. As a result, such
jsmall colleges are forced to depend on teachers who can
jgive the necessary instruction on each of the instruments
Iwithin one family. This is true not only for woodwinds, but;
ifor strings, brasses, and percussion as well, although this
I
study deals only with the woodwinds.
I Second, the instrumental program of the elementary
(grades is and shall continue to be one in which many flute
;and saxophone students, and nearly all oboe and bassoon
students, will have their first introduction to the wood­
winds by means of a clarinet class. To secure balance of
instrumentation in our organizations and to provide oppor­
tunity for the greatest possible number of students to
participate in these groups, we must know how to transfer
pupils effectively from one woodwind to another.
Third, there is a definite scarcity of material
dealing with the transfer of musicians from one instrument
.to another. Although there is some material written about
the playing and teaching problems of each of the woodwinds
individually,» there is very little that deals with the
 3
family as a whole and the relationships between its members.
!This type of material can be of great benefit to the wood- ^
i I
jwind teacher-in-training by providing him with a means of j
'associating his present knowledge (particularly if he is a I
i , I
I clarinetist, in the case of this particular study) with i
I that of other instruments he wishes to learn* This type of
material can help the school band and orchestra director
;also, by pointing out in which areas his transfer students
;may encounter difficulties, and, conversely, in which areas'
!the student should be able to progress rapidly because of -
Ihis previous instrumental (specifically clarinet) training.I
; I
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED !

I
I In the course of this study, many terms were used j
I (

■which are open to a variety of interpretations. Since there

:were a considerable number of such terms, and they were used
I
often, their definitions were gathered together in a glos- ’
‘sary which may be found in the Appendix. |

III. REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE

; i
It was within the realm of possibility to include in|
' i
;this review all literature dealing with each of the instru-'
,ments individually, as well as that which dealt with the I
family as a whole and with the inter-relationships of the
 4
!Individual instruments. This, however, would have taken
ithe reader through an exhaustive list of material, some of
jwhich might have a direct hearing on this study but much of ■
■which surely would have no bearing on it. Hence, since none,
i

ibut relevant material is important to this study, only that

! j
material which bears directly upon the problems of the rela-;
itionshlps between the members of the woodwind family will j
I I
|be reviewed. j
i
I Unpublishedtheses. To this writer's knowledge, j
I i
only a few theses dealing with the subject to be investlga- j
jted exist, and only two of these were available to the i
writer. One which was not available, but which might have
been useful, was a comparison of flute, oboe, and clarinet
embouchures by Marcus E . Hahn (39).
The remaining two theses are teaching guides to the
woodwind instruments. These are: Teaching the Double Reeds
by William Smith (45), and A Teacher's Guide to Woodwind
Class Instruction by Raymond Pixel (38). As can be seen by
the titles, the work of Smith deals only with bassoon and
oboe, while Pixel includes flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon,
and alto saxophone. For this reason. Pixel's thesis was of
greater value to this study, although its value was lessened
by the fact that the instruments were not compared or con­
trasted. Instead, Pixel merely divided his book into five
 5
i
separate sections, eachdealing with a specific instrument.
'The book does, however, sum up, within the same volume, .
;playing and teaching philosophies for each of the instru-
I
Iments. Its value was enhanced because the philosophies
i j
:represented are authoritative, being largely those of the
;five woodwind instructors at the University of Michigan.^ |

! I
j Books. The only book in Englishthat could be loca-,
I I
ted which deals with all of the members of the family was
i

Teaching Techniques of the Woodwinds, by Harold G. Palmer

I '

; (lO). It is very similar to the above-mentioned thesis by

,Pixel, in that ittakes each instrument separately, leaving
to the reader thetask of ferreting out the relationships
between the instruments for himself. Again as with Pixel,
the book contains, within one volume and therefore more
easily compared, summarized playing and teaching philoso­
phies for each of the five basic woodwind instruments.
In addition to this fine reference, there is a
section about the woodwind instruments in nearly every
well known and generally accepted textbook on music educa­
tion.

The instructors whose views are found in this

work are: William Stubbins, clarinet; Nelson Hauenstein,
flute; Lary Wardrop, oboe; Hugh Cooper, bassoon; and
Dwight Daily, saxophone.
I
I
Pamphlets. Though there are many pamphlets published
^
about the individual instruments, none of them deals with ,
I
»
:
I
the similarities and differences between the instruments.
I
IHence none of this material was reviewed here. '

Periodical articles. A large bulk of information on

!the woodwind instruments was found in periodical articles.
I I
These are primarily from three sources, namely. Etude, The i
'Instrumentalist, and Woodwind Magazine. These articles are '
!so numerous that a complete listing here would be too long,
;hence these articles are listed in the bibliography.
j
' Summary. The writer was unable to locate any study
Ithat contained much information on the specific subject
under investigation.

IV. KINDS OP INFORMATION NEEDED

The findings of this study were based primarily on

two kinds of information: opinions of authorities, and
factual information. Standards of performance change from
.generation to generation and are based primarily upon the
opinions of the leaders of musical thought of a particular ;
time. For this reason, a large part of the information for
a study such as this, dealing as it does with performance
problems and practices, must be based on the opinions of
! 7
Irecognized authorities among performers and teachers. The
I
Iuse of this type of information has been justified in many
!

;studies. The establishment of factual information was

^possible, however, in someaspects ofthe study, such as I
j I
.those dealing with the known laws of acoustics.
i
' A third kind of information was also used in this
i
Istudy. This was drawn from that large body of general :
Imusical knowledge which is part of the equipment of every •
I
Igood musician. Some of the statements drawn from this body '
'of information may seem to the reader to be too obvious to
jinclude; they areincluded, however, for thesake ofcom- |
‘pleteness.
' I
V. METHODS USED FOR OBTAINING INFORMATION

Factual information. Where factual information was

available, the usual methods of obtaining it were followed.
The book, article, or publication where it was found has
been recorded in the text or in the footnotes.

Opinions. If opinions need to be used, then they

should be the opinions of the people who are considered by
their colleagues as expert, well versed on the subject, and
the leaders in their field. In an effort to obtain such
opinions, the author arranged for personal interviews with
several people in two types of positions: college woodwind
 8
( instructors, as well as high school, junior high, and ele- ;
mentary school instructors who do a great deal of work ■
I i
;with the transfer of woodwind students from one instrument |
Î ;
j to another. To increase the possibility of a real consensus
; of opinion from this group of authorities in the field of
'woodwind doubling, the writer formulated a question-guide
I to be followed in these interviews. A copy of this inter- ■
I view guide will be found in the Appendix.
I
! VI. ORGANIZATION OF THE REM&INEER OF THE THESIS

I For the purpose of this study, woodwind instrumental!

' i
I performance has been divided into a number of aspects. j
j ' I
I These aspects were chosen arbitrarily, though their names |
I and divisions are in quite general use throughout the |
teaching and playing professions. These aspects have been
: grouped into four similarly arbitrary, though logical,
groups under Chapter II, The Foundation of Performance
Problems and Possibilities; Chapter III, Production of a
:Characteristic Tone; Chapter IV, Technique; and Chapter V,
I
I Performance Problems. As each group and aspect was taken
i up in its turn, the instruments were each compared with
!

j the clarinet before going on to the next factor.

In the summary, the logical approach to meet the
1needs of this study has been taken. The instruments were
 9
, taken in turn and all of the factors were summarized in ;
j their relation to that instrument's application of the j
I I
I clarinetist's training and knowledge. j
I !
j Throughout this study, the instruments considered
i were the flute, oboe, bassoon, and alto saxophone. Ob- i
I I
I viously, the clarinet was omitted from this list, since
, the purpose of the study was to relate the other instru-
' ments to the clarinet. It was decided, for the sake of
I practicability, to deal with each form of woodwind in only
I one size variation--hence the exclusion of the piccolo and i
I I
I other flutes, the English horn, the various sizes of j
I I
I clarinets and saxophones, and the contrabassoon. ;
: CHAPTER II :

i î
I THE BASIS OP PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS AND POSSIBILITIES
I j
I When investigating instrumental performance prob- ;
I
lems, one is constantly reminded that the laws of acoustics,
I
and their application to the instruments in question are
I the governing factors in any performance. It is the physi-
Ical properties of any instrument which determine what
; things can be done with the instrument, and what things
; I
Iare impossible.In addition, these same laws of acoustics j
I I
I determine the methodsthe player must use to accomplish ^
! I
I his wishes. The performer, in the last analysis, must
I I
jset himself the task of utilizing those properties of the I
'instrument which he finds desirable, and of minimizing and |
overcoming those he finds undesirable. For this reason, !
any comparison of the performance problems of a group of |
:instruments must begin with a comparison of their physical |
I
' I
natures. i
I
I. THE ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES
; "i
; There are three acoustical phenomena which assume !
' ■ I
jimportance in a study of this type. These phenomena are ;
tone generators, resonators, and overblowing.
A tone generator is the means by which the vibration !
 11
in an instrument is caused. It may have a definite fre- i
quency, or it may be capable of varying frequencies. In
the wind instruments, it is a device which is capable of |
introducing air into the instrument in "puffs"— that is,
very fast oscillation between maximum air flow (maximum
iair pressure) and no air flow (atmospheric or minimum
Ipressure) (8 :175-6 ).
! A resonator is the means of amplifying the vibra-
I tions of the generator and transmitting them to the
surrounding air in sufficient quantity to make the sounds
more audible. In the wind instruments the resonator is a
tube which encloses a column of air and which is open to
I the atmosphere at one or both ends (8 :175-6 ). ;
! !
; Overblowing is thephenomenon whereby the vibrating |
column of air within an instrument divides itself into !
I
fractional parts of its original length, thereby producing j
I
one of the tones in the harmonic series instead of the j
fundamental tone of that series (2:16). !
It is in connection with these three acoustical j
factors that the woodwinds exhibit their greatest similari-;
ties, and at the same time their primary differences. The '
similarities arise from the fact that the instruments all j
!
employ the same laws of generation (except for the flute), '
of resonance, and of overblowing; while the diversity
 12
Iwithin the woodwind family is brought about by the many
I different ways in which the individual instruments realize
I these same laws.
j There is one significant difference between the
. clarinet and all of the other woodwind instruments in the
realization of the laws of overblowing. The clarinet is
'nearly closed at the reed end, and consequently exhibits
I
I characteristics which are very similar to those of a
' stopped cylindrical organ pipe. The most important of
these characteristics is the inability to produce any of
I the even numbered partials of the harmonic series. The
; clarinet does produce them, but they are very weak (15:
Il4l). Due to the near absence of these even partials, the
' clarinet is able to overblow only the relatively strong
odd numbered partials. The other reed instruments, having
Inearly conical bores, exhibit the characteristics of
Istopped conical pipes, which act like open pipes of the i
same length (15:112). The flute, being open at both ends,
I
Iis in fact an open pipe, and is very normal in its charac- j
; teristics, which include the production of all even as wellj
as odd numbered partials (15:113)• !
In his book. Musical Wind Ins truments ^ Adam Carse
'denies the validity of grouping the wind instruments into
;families by their materials of construction, since some of
 13
I
the brasses have been made of other metals and of wood, |
and since the woodwinds are not all made of wood. Instead,;
he substitutes a grouping by tone generators. Thus, the I
I
brass family embraces those instruments which have a lip- |
vibrating generator, while the woodwinds are those which !
have either a cane reed or else an "air reed," i . e ., an
edge tone. This grouping gives one primary similarity for i
all the woodwinds except the flute, as they all employ a :
cane reed generator. The same grouping also gives a pri­
mary difference for the flute in that it uses an edge tone
Î
generator, and therefore has a fundamentally different j
type of generator from that of the clarinet (2:1-7). |
Another similarity among the woodwinds, this time !
; without exception, is pointed out by Carse: the lengths i
of the resonance tubes of all of these instruments are ^
! ' i
: controlled by tone holes which pierce the walls of the ;
I
1 tubes and which shorten the effective lengths of the
i tubes (9:10). |

I I
I Flute and clarinet. Perhaps the most diverse pair j
I of instruments in this study is the flute and the clarinet.|
; These two vary in their realizations of nearly every acous-
I tical factor under consideration. In addition, they employ
different natural principles for their tone generation,
i the flute using an edge tone generator (4:130) and the
 , 14 :
clarinet employing a reed generator of the single reed |
I ,

I type (4:133)* Their tone holes are of different types,

I the flute having large tone holes approaching the size of |
] j

I the bore diameter (1:25-31) and the clarinet having

: smaller finger-covered holes which progressively increase
.in size from mouthpiece to bell. They do have one proper- ■
I ty in common, as their bore shapes are both approximately
! cylindrical. Even in this respect, however, there is some
I
! divergence - the clarinet bore ends in a flaring bell while'
that of the flute does not flare, and the clarinet bore has^
i a smaller diameter in relation to its length than does the :
II !
bore of the flute. ;
I I
I The spectrum analyses of their tones are quite dif- !
I
; ferent, also. The flute tone consists of very strong
II
I I
first and second partials, with great weakness in the j
Ihigher partials, while the clarinet tone consists of strong:
first, third, and fifth partials, together with an almost *
; total absence of the second, and great weakness of the other
even numbered partials (4:131-6). These differences cause
I the two instruments to overblow in different manners - the
:
I I
: flute can overblow both even and odd numbered partials, while
I . i
: the clarinet can overblow only the odd numbered ones.

! Oboe and clarinet. There is less divergence between.

i
: the tone generators of the oboe and of the clarinet than
 15 ,
: !
:between those of the flute and the clarinet, previously
1 '
I discussed. Both the oboe and the clarinet employ reed j
II I
generators, though the clarinet has one reed beating against
I I
I a mouthpiece while the oboe hastwo reeds beating against j

Ieach other. Also, the sizes of the reeds, and of the open-:
,ings for air to pass through, are quite different; both |
!the reed and the air opening of the clarinet are at least
itwice as large as those of the oboe.
: The resonance tubes of the oboe and the clarinet are
!quite different acoustically, as the oboe bore is conical, i
I j
Iin contrast to the cylindrical proportions of the clarinet [
1 I
Ibore. In addition, the oboe is somewhat smaller, being j
Islightly shorter and much smaller in diameter through most j
of its length. The oboe bore ends in a flaring bell,
though the bell is not as large in comparison with the
entire instrument as is that of the clarinet. Both of
these instruments have the small finger-type tone holes,
but on most better grade oboes these tone holes are cover-
1
ed with keys. I
j j
' The spectrum of the oboe tone quality reveals ;
.strong second and fifth partials and medium strong third j
Iand fourth partials (4:139). This allows the oboe, like i
the flute, to overblow both the even and odd numbered par- !
tials, in contrast to the clarinet's overblowing of odd
 16
numbered partials only.

i Bassoon and clarinet. The differences between the

i
^ bassoon and the clarinet may be compared to those between
! the oboe and the clarinet. Here again, the generators are
^ both reeds; here again the bassoon has a double reed, in
! contrast to the single reed of the clarinet. In this in-
! stance, however, there is less difference in reed sizes.
The width of the bassoon reed tip is similar to that of the;
clarinet reed, and the length of the vibrating "lay" is ;
; only slightly shorter. However, the cross sectional area i
! I
I of the tip opening of the bassoon reed is smaller, as the j
S reed is closed on the sides while the clarinet reed is ;
I !
j open down the sides. In addition, the bassoon reed is j
i ■
Ivery much smaller than the clarinet mouthpiece in cross
Sectional area at the throat. |
i
I
The bassoon differs again from the clarinetin that |
: 1
1its bore is conical. It is only slightly conical, how-
Iever, and very nearly approaches the cylindrical shape. ,
IThe bassoon tube is longer than that of the clarinet, in !
; i
:order to create a lower range. This requires that the '
I
tone holes be separated farther from each other than in !
I
shorter instruments. Indeed, they would be so far apart '
that a player could not cover all of them simultaneously |
with his fingers were it not for the technique of slant-
 17
jing the holes through a thickened portion of the tube wall,
Ithereby keeping their proper acoustical placement within
Ithe bore and at the same time bringing the outer ends with-
Iin the reach of the average human hand. In spite of this,
Ithe exterior ends of the holes are farther apart than are
'the holes of the clarinet. In addition, the bassoon has
■the tube extended to encompass an extra fifth on the bottom
'of the basic two-octave range, necessitating several extra
.tone holes and their pads and keys. The bassoon, in con-
;trast to the clarinet, has no bell, though sometimes there ,
i ;

iis a slight widening of the bore near the end. i

I I
I An analysis of the bassoon tone quality reveals the |
!presence, in amounts varying from medium to strong, of the ;
Ifirst four partials, with some of the fifth (4:l4l). j
I I
■Thus the bassoon, again in contrast to the clarinet, allows;
the overblowing of the even as well as the odd numbered :
partials. |

' Saxophone and clarinet. In one respect the saxophone

I is very similar to the clarinet, this being in the type of
i
Itone generator employed. The saxophone uses a single reed ■
jand beak mouthpiece as does the clarinet, the difference ‘
I
^being that the reed and the mouthpiece facing of the saxo-
.phone are wider and shorter than those of the clarinet.
The bore of the saxophone is a large cone, rather
 18 ;

i than a cylinder as with the clarinet. This cone is larger !

I and also has more taper than the oboe cone. Like the
' flute, it has the large-type tone holes. These saxophone
i tone holes approach the diameter of the bore at the point
I where the tube wall is pierced, and are too large to be
I covered by the fingers of the player. Consequently, they
' are covered by pads and key mechanisms, in contrast to the
I
I clarinet's open finger holes.
A spectrum analysis shows that the saxophone pro-
I duces strong first, second, and fourth, and relatively
!

iweak third and fifth partials (4:143). Therefore, the

I
j saxophone also differs from the clarinet in that both its
Ieven and odd partials may be overblown.

Summary. All of the other woodwind instruments

differ from the clarinet in generator type except the
I
saxophone, and the flute is more radically different in
this respect than the bassoon and oboe. The resonance
;tubes of the five instruments are all different in shape,
'with the flute and the clarinet having cylindrical bores
;and the others having conical bores, but with variations
j
^of these basic shapes (larger or smaller diameter in
relation to length, or more or,less taper of the cone in
■the case of the conical ones). The flute and saxophone
'have large tone holes, while the double reeds have the
 19 :
I finger-type tone holes of the clarinet. All of the other
i instruments in question differ from the clarinet in one j
! I
i other very important and obvious respect— they overblow
( I
I the even as well as the odd numbered partials, while the I
, clarinet can produce only the odd numbered ones. ;
I
For further discussion of the properties and prob- ;
I lems from an acoustical point of view, the reader is
I referred to the books cited in the bibliography, but
. particularly to those of Miller and Culver. This phase ;
: of the problem is of primary importance, since these j
I acoustical properties are the raw materials with which I
I the musician must create his art. j
II II. THE QUALITY, CONDITION, AND ADJUSTMENT
!j
OF THE INSTRUMENT

The quality, condition, and adjustment of the in­

strument itself are very large factors in the study of
! any of the woodwind ins truments as well as of the transfer
I
t from one tothe other. Some of the most important con-
I trasts and similarities between the clarinet and the other
instruments arise from the fact that a feature which might
be a result of quality alone on one instrument can be
controlled by adjustment on another, and by the condition
; Of the ins trument on still a tlLrd. On the other hand.
 20
! some of the most important similarities arise from the
I reverse--that is, from the fact that some of the separate
1 functions of quality, condition, and adjustment are the

' same for all the instruments.

This discussion must begin with a clarification of
; the present usage of the terms "quality," "condition,"
I and "adjustment." If a feature is such that it must be
I
I built into the instrument, and no amount of work by the
!

! repairman can correct it, it is said to be a function of

quality. If, on the other hand, it is something that the
j repairman can and normally does attend to, on all instru-
I ments regardless of quality, it is considered to be a
! function of condition. If it is something that the average
player could do himself with a minimum of tools, it is
' considered adjustment. The reader is reminded that re-
I
I pairmen do adjusting as part of their repair, but anyone

with a basic understanding of mechanics and the patience

to study those laws of physics which are involved oould
I also do adjusting.
The term "instrument" as used here includes those
parts of the instrument which are intended by the manu-
! facturer to fit together as a unit and not be interchange-
^able with parts from another instrument. For instance,
1 the reeds of the double reed instruments can be--and
 21
'indeed must be— changed often, and consequently are con- I
sidered here to be a function of adjustment rather than '
‘quality. The same is true of the mouthpieces of the single ;
Î
reed instruments, since they may be interchanged quite |
;easily and without the aid of the manufacturer or the re- I
pairman. On the other hand, the head joint of the flute
is considered a function of quality, as it is an integral
Ipart of the flute and may not be exchanged at will. Simi-
llarly, with the saxophone neck, and the clarinet barrel
joint and bell, exchange parts are not readily available,
though they may be changed if the owner is willing to go
.to the necessary trouble. Exchange is easier for clarinet :
Ibarrels than for the others mentioned. The bocal of the !
! i
jbassoon is nearly as exchangeable as the mouthpiece of the I
I - I
clarinet, and therefore is also considered a function of ,
I
adjustment. I
II
Factors affected by quality, condition, and adjustment.
I
Since basically the various instruments are merely ;
I
means of realizing the laws of acoustics, it seems obvious |
' I
that every acoustical property of an instrument would be |
'affected by one or more of these three functions— quality,
I
condition, and adjustment. This is especially true of the
three acoustical properties of generation, resonance, and
overblowing which were discussed above. In the following
 22

; section, these factors will be discussed: (1) the tone

i quality of the instrument; (2) the response of the instru-
Iment, i. e., its speed of taking up the vibration by the
I generator; (3) the ability of the key mechanisms to ac-
I curately and quickly control the effective length of the
i tube; (4) the ability of the instrument, when played care-
^fully, to place the tones at their proper pitch level,
Iparticularly regarding those instances where two or more
i tones are played by the same tube length; and (5) the
Iability of the Instrument to play throughout its compass
I
Iwith a reasonably uniform timbre rather than having one
I note sound out of quality with its neighbors.
I
I The inter-relations of quality, condition, and
I adjustment must be noted before proceeding further. These
Î
; three factors definitely influence each other, and yet,
. they are distinct and have distinct effects. The quality
, establishes the potential of the instrument, while the
I condition and the adjustment are the means of realizing
I
; that potential. The condition, on the other hand, not
■ only realizes the potential of the quality, but makes it
possible to play the instrument at all. For this reason,
;in any consideration of quality or of adjustment it must
'be borne in mind that a prerequisite is good condition.
Generally speaking, good condition means that there are
 23
no leaks, i. e ., no pads poorly seated, no cracks that
leak, no joints that leak, and a basic amount of adjust-
I ment to insure that all pads block completely and without
I resistance* Throughout the following discussion, it will
I
' be taken for granted that the instrument is in good
; condition, and therefore the two prime variables are
I
' quality and adjustment.
i
i
Flute and clarinet. Of the instruments under dis-
' cussion, the flute differs to the greatest degree from the
! clarinet regarding which of the five factors mentioned
: above are a function of quality and which are a function
I of adjustment. This great difference arises from the fact |
:■ I
I that the head joint of the flute is part of the instrument |
! and is not readily interchangeable, while the mouthpiece of
the clarinet may be selected from literally hundreds of |
I available models and types and then simply placed on the
• instrument.
■ The tone generator is a large factor in the tone
! !

; quality of the instrument, so it must follow that in the j

flute this timbre is a function of quality almost exclu­
sively while the timbre of the clarinet is a function of j
I I
! both quality and, to a large extent, adjustment. Since
the response is defined here as the speed of the beginning i
; of vibration by the generator, and the generators of the
 24
I two instruments are the source of their differences, it
I would seem that this factor shows the greatest difference. |
I 1
I This, indeed, is true. The response of the clarinet de- I
1
I pends to a large extent upon the adjustment of the mouth- j
I piece and reed, while that of the flute depends solely
i
upon the quality of the instrument itself.
The other three factors mentioned above are primari-
I ly functions of quality, for though they may be improved ;
1 somewhat by adjustment, the quality is the real determining
I I
I factor. They are controlled through the instrument proper,|
j and not through the generator alone. The one exception to |
I 1
I this is the intonation factor, which on the clarinet is |
affected by both mouthpiece and reed as well as by the |
I instrument itself, while on the flute it is entirely a I
: !

' function of the quality. !

I Oboe and clarinet, and bassoon and clarinet. Since |

the differences between the clarinet and the oboe are much '
i
i !
; the same as those for the bassoon, these instruments are |
i !
j here treated together. The timbres of these two double |
' reed instruments are determined by both .the instrument it- |
I self and by the reed, so it follows that quality and ad- |
! justment each have an influence. This is true also of the !
; I
clarinet, as has been explained. In the matter of res pons e|,
the reed almost entirely controls it, again as with the
 25
;clarinet. The agility of the key mechanism is a result
jof both quality and adjustment; the original design is a j
I function of quality, and this design determines the extent |
Ito which the mechanism can be adjusted. The pitch of the 1
i I
double reeds is affected more by the adjustment of the reed^
than is the case with the clarinet, particularly the gene-
jral pitch of the entire instrument. The relative pitch of
I
I

'the individual notes is largely a function of quality, and

i
!this likewise is true of the clarinet. Evenness of timbre
is largely due to quality, though the reed affects it to
jsome extent, and more so in the double reeds than in the
I clarinet.
!
!

I Saxophone and clarinet. The saxophone is the most

similar to the clarinet in all these respects, as it and
,the clarinet are the only single reed instruments. Like
Ithe clarinet, the saxophone timbre is determined by the
quality of the instrument as well as by the adjustment of
reed and mouthpiece. The key mechanisms of both instru-
Iments depend upon adjustment to bring out the potential,
but the inherent design determines that potential. The
Ipitch of both instruments is primarily a function of
quality, but in both instruments can be affected by
adjustment both of the instrument proper and of mouthpiece
and reed. The pitch of the saxophone can be affected by
 26
I i

adjustment of mouthpiece and reed more than that of the '

: clarinet. The timbre of both instruments is primarily a i
! I
I functionof quality. I

i I
i Summary. The flute shows the most divergence from
: the clarinet in that the tone generator is an integral
! part of the instrument, whereas the tone generator of the i
; clarinet is subject to an infinite variety of adjustments. ;
!For this reason, those acoustical factors that have their
I origin in the generator part of the instrument are entirely|
I controlled by quality in the flute, while in the clarinet j
I I
I they are moreeasilyimproved byadjustment. The double |
I I
I reeds are thenext most divergent in thattheirgenerators i
j are more changeable. The generator of the clarinet is
I composed of a reed and a mouthpiece, each equally impor-
; tant, while the oboe and bassoon have generators that are
!

;entirely reeds. For this reason, each time a new reed is

'put into an oboe or bassoon the change is greater than
;for a clarinet. The saxophone is the most similar to the
■clarinet, by virtue of its having a generator nearly iden-
I
*tical to that of the clarinet.
 I CH&PTER I I I
I

I
i
]Pl%()DlK2:[If(} T93IS <]]3jlftAlC'riSIl]:8T:[(3 !T()

I Before beginning the discussion in this chapter, it

Îmust be pointed out that a large part of the material in
.it came from the interviews that the author had with lead-
:Ing woodwind authorities. These men are listed in the
Appendix. In the following three chapters, the various
imajority and minority opinions are represented, and some-
Itimes individuals are quoted anonymously.
!

I I. ]BRm&THING
i
I The authorities interviewed were unanimous in their
I
!agreement that there is a basic breath control technique
jcommon to all of the woodwind instruments. This basic
technique may be found in any good treatise on the sub­
ject (23:645) for any of the wind instruments, or in an
accepted method book on singing. Such basic breathing is
often called "diaphragmatic" because the expulsion of the
•air from the player*s lungs is controlled by the muscular
'action of the diaphragm, and is characterized by the intake
!of breath into the lower lobes of the lungs, causing the
!

Visible effect to be generally in the waistline (6:100).

Coupled with this diaphragm action is the necessity for an
 28
: open, relaxed throat (9:284). The modifications of this
ibasic breath control technique from instrument to instru-
i

jment arise from the differences in the amount of air |

! 1

ipressure needed to make the various instruments play, and ,

■from the differing quantity of air that each instrument I
! :
needs.
I
Flute and clarinet. The modifications of the basic .
;techniques are different for these two instruments, as the !
:clarinet has much more resistance to the air flowing !
!through it than does the flute. Therefore, the flutist
i

Imust create an artificial resistance with his embouchure j

iand at the same time must hold back the flow of air with |
i 1
ihis diaphragm. The flute resistance will never quite equal !
that of the clarinet, however, so the problem for the
flutist is generally one of having sufficient air to play
the phrases and of metering out the air in his lungs to go ,
its maximum distance. On the other hand, the clarinetist,
though he need not be concerned with having enough air for |
' I
;the phrase, must try to get sufficient diaphragm pressure :
behind his air column to meet the greater demand of this !
'particular instrument.

Oboe and clarinet. The modifications of the breath

control technique for these two instruments are of the
 29 ,

I same type, but of different degrees. The problem is to ;

; secure sufficient drive, and still to have only the nec- ;
I !
Iessary quantity of air enter the instrument.Since the |
! I
I openings of thetwo instruments are so different, the ^
! I
I quantities will be correspondingly different. The oboe !
• requires much less air than does the clarinet; indeed, the '
!

player has the problem of expelling excess air so as not ■

: I

to suffocate. On the other hand, the oboe requires much !

I
I j
! more airpressure behind the air column than does the i
clarinet.

Bassoon and clarinet. The differences in breath |

; control of these instruments are the same as for oboe and
j clarinet, except that they are not as great. The bassoon
I has a larger orifice in the end of the reed than the oboe,
jbut it is still smaller than the reed orifice of the
clarinet, so the bassoonist must introduce a smaller quan­
tity of air into his instrument than must the clarinetist.
Again, like the oboe, the bassoon requires a great deal of
!air pressure behind the air column.

Saxophone and clarinet. The problem with the saxo-

;phone is of a different nature than with the double reeds.
The bore of the saxophone is the widest cone of all of the
woodwind instruments, and the reed orifice is the largest
'in relation to the size of the ins trument. For thi s
 :)o
I reason, the saxophone has less resistance than the clari-
I net, hence requires less air pressure and at thesame time I
I I
• a greater volume of air than the latter. |
I i
i I
! II. EMBOUCHURE !
!
!

All hut one of the authorities interviewed agreed

! that there is also a basic embouchure common to all of the
‘ woodwind instruments. The modifications necessary for each
! instrument are greater than for the breath control tech­
nique, however - and this point was the basis for the one
jÎ man*s disagreement*
:
He contended that if one worked from !
I the basic embouchure concept, the modifications would be
j
Ij
I so great that the playerwould lose sight of thebasis. \
! I
; However, since the panel wasso greatly in favor of the '
; i
' basic embouchure concept, this discussion will be from
j
that point of view. I
; The basic embouchure might be bestdescribed as all j
of the muscles of the face reacting upon each other to
; produce a mask of controlled, relaxed tension. The chin is
I I
kept flat, rather than bunched up, and with a slight dip *
I across its midpoint, while the corners of the mouth are *
j drawn in toward the center. This has the effect of pro- !
, ducing a round band around the reed, reed and mouthpiece,
I

or, in the case of the flute, the lip orifice. This basic
 31
shape must then be modified to fit the particular instru-
^ment.

Flute and clarinet. The panel was in general ag­

reement that the greatest differences in the necessary
;modifications were between the flute and the clarinet.
!One of the authorities felt that the flute came nearest
^to utilizing the true basic embouchure, while the others
!thought that the saxophone or clarinet used the embouchure
I
Iin its purest form. Since this study was from the view-
I point of the transferring clarinetist, the majority view-
I
Ipoint was taken as the basis of this discussion. This
j majority opinion held that the clarinet used the basic
I
;embouchure with almost no modification, while the flute
needs the most modification. For the flute, the lower
lip is more relaxed, and the upper lip must do the large
'share of the work of controlling the size and shape of the
'lip orifice. There is more of a "smile" in the flute em-
!bouchure, while that of the clarinet is the round "rubber
band" as is the basic embouchure.

! Oboe and clarinet. The modifications necessary for

Iplaying the oboe are not so great as for the flute, yet
some are necessary. Of primary importance is the need for
,the upper lip to form a cushion for the upper blade of the
Ireed, while the majority of the panel- of authorities
 32
I advocated the single embouchure for the clarinet. Also,
; the oboe embouchure must stress the inward pull of the
' I
. corners of the mouth, rather than the smile, or biting j
' force. I

Bassoon and clarinet. The modifications of the

: basic embouchure recommended for the oboe were also felt
to be necessary for the bassoon, with one addition. Be-
, sides the inward pull of the corners of the mouth, the
i lower jaw must be held back and down, creating a definite
overbite and elongation of the oral cavity.

Saxophone and clarinet. Of all the instruments

; studied, the saxophone necessitates the least modification i
! ' I
I of the basic embouchure. There is more relaxation of the j
, face muscles than for the clarinet, and the mouthpiece ,
I '
' comes straight out of the mouth rather than pointing down, ■
'but these differences were felt to be very minor. ‘

III. AURAL CONCEPTION OP TONE QUALITY

In general, the tone quality of an individual will

^be largely determined by his conception of the ideal sound |
I
'for that instrument (9:285-6). With this thought in mind,
;some of the authorites were asked, "Can the clarinetist
;take his aural concept of tone quality from the clarinet
 to the other woodwind ins truments, or must he go to the
,new instrument for a new conception of its sound?" They
'were asked to consider, for instance, the hypothetical
jsituation of a clarinetist who has never heard an oboe.
The question is whether or not he can produce a good tone
on the oboe, without ever hearing a good oboe tone from
'another instrument.
: Of those authorites who were asked this question,
'there were differences of opinion, with some feeling that
the clarinetist could produce a good tone and others being
of the opinion that the new tone of the other instrument
would not be very characteristic. The majority opinion,
however, seemed to be summed up in the reply of one of the
men. This idea was that if the clarinetist were producing
a really fine tone on the clarinet, using the proper basic
embouchure and breath control technique, and if he were
sensitive to a really fine clarinet tone, then he would
probably be able to produce at least an acceptable tone on
any of the other woodwind instruments. The result would be
contingent also upon the good condition of the instrument
and reed.

IV. ATTACK

Each of the authorities interviewed seemed upon

 34
first glance to have a different view about both the best
type of attack and about the differences between the clari­
net and the other instruments in this regard. Upon closer
examination, however, it became obvious that each had
merely his own individual way of expressing the same broad
basic concept. This concept was that of forming, with the
tongue, a valve with which to release a tone that was
already in operation as far as breath, embouchure, and
aural concept were concerned. The different ways of form- ;
; i

Iing and releasing that valve were the sources of the dif- ;
I I
jferences of opinion, and also the differences between the !
I I
Iinstruments. i
1 I
I There were two schools of thought among the panel |
' j
members as to the best method of forming the valve on the
clarinet, with some of the authorities feeling very strongly
:on one side of the issue, some on the other, and some will- ’
Iing to accept either, depending upon the individual stu-
I '
dent. The majority opinion was for the method of placing ■
I
^the tip of the tongue, or a spot very near the tip, at a j
jpoint just down from the tip of the reed, while the other !
.view held that the tip of the tongue must be anchored at |
I the base of the lower teeth while the top of the tongue
back from the tip touches the tip of the reed. In both ^
methods, the tone was released by withdrawing the tongue
 35
. from the reed.

Flute and clarinet. The panel was unanimous in the

I

opinion that the flute offered the greatest deviation from

' the clarinet in method of attack, since it has no reed
I against which to place the tongue. They also agreed that
' the best way to form the valve was to place the tongue
I
: against the upper teeth, and releasing the tone with the
! consonant sound, "T." The exact place at the upper teeth
I
I varied from high on the gums to the back sides of the teeth
; I
I themselves— indeed, the exact place was thought to vary |
; with the style of articulation and range of the passage. i
I I
I One panel member felt that a good way to learn attack on j
i the flute was with the tongue placed between the lips and I
i !
• then gradually moved back to the teeth as the student pro­
gressed.
; This attack on the flute is, of course, very dif-
! ferent in detail from that of the clarinet, as the clarin-
I etist forms his valve directly on the instrument (reed),
I while the flutist forms his valve in the air column before
i it ever gets to the instrument itself.
I
!

Oboe and clarinet. The majority of authorities

agreed that the attack for these two instruments was
; identical, while a few felt that there was a slight dif-
 36
iference in tongue placement between the oboe and the
!
I clarinet. Those who held the latter opinion thought that
:the tongue should contact the reed of the clarinet just
below the tip of the reed, while for the oboe that contact
should be made exactly at the tip of the reed.

Bassoon and clarinet. The authorities each held

i the same views about the differences between bassoon and
I
' clarinet as they did about oboe and clarinet. Again, the
!majority felt thatthere was no difference, while the
I
I minority held that the exact place of contact ofthe tongue!
I I
I and reed varied as with the oboe and clarinet. |

Ii Saxophone and clarinet. The panel was again divided}

I
^ I
I in opinion with this pair of instruments, this time with [
i
i only one person in the minority. This one authority felti
that the saxophone was tongued like the double reeds |
rather than like the clarinet, primarily because of the }
j angle of entry of the mouthpiece into the player*s mouth.
j
I This angle for the saxophone is more like that for the
double reeds than it is the clarinet. The other members
I of the panel were agreed that the point of contact for the
I tongue is the same for saxophone as for clarinet.

; SUMMARY
 37

I In reviewing the entire picture of tone production, ;

I
it appears that the breathing technique stems from the ,
' diaphragmatic method of the best vocalists and wind in-
; strumentalists, with modifications to allow for the dif­
ferences in the resistance and the air intake capacity of
' the instruments. The embouchures stem from the basic
I muscle reaction, pointed chin, "rubber band" embouchure,
i
with modifications to accommodate the different reeds and
I the embouchure plate of the flute. The attacks are all of |
I the tongue valve type, with modifications to accommodate |
I the varying types of tone generators. In general, the j
, flute exhibits the greatest deviation from the clarinet, I
I
while the saxophone has the least difference and the two ^
: double reed instruments fall somewhere in between the two ;
I extremes.
I CHAPTER IV

I TECHNIQUE

For the purposes of this study, technique has been

defined as the means of changing the pitch from any one
Inote to any other notes. This excludes the fine gradations
I of pitch which the sensitive player must make in order to
1
Iplay in tune with a group, since these fine pitch adjust-
Iments are taken up in the discussion of intonation in the
Ifollowing chapter. Technique includes only those means
whereby the intervallic changes of pitch can be effected.

I Foundation in acoustical phenomena. Two of the

!

!
;acoustical phenomena discussed in Chapter II are directly
responsible for the intervallic pitch changes on all of the
woodwind instruments. The first of these phenomena is the
!shortening of the effective length of the vibrating column
!of air within the tube of the instrument by piercing the
wall of the tube at a point near the end of the desired
Ilength of column. The second is the division--by a variety
'of means--of the column of air into segments which produce
Ithe tones of the harmonic series.
I
The similarities in technique throughout the wood­
wind family arise from the fact that the Instruments all
I
39
! employ these same two natural laws to make the changes of
! pitch that are here considered in the realm of technique,
j The differences arise from the different means by which
! the individual members of the family realize these natural
I
: laws,

j Difference in technique between the clarinet and

I all other woodwinds. A very important difference exists
between fingering of the clarinet and of all of the other
woodwind instruments. This variation of fingering is a ;
I I
1 result of the difference in the partials of the overtone j
j series that are present in the tone. The clarinet does [
; not have the second partial present, except for a very j
^ I
slight trace, and the other even numbered partials are ;
very weak. This virtual lack of even numbered partials
i
' causes the clarinet to overblow the odd numbered partials
I only, while the other woodwind instruments can produce all
I
I of the partials. Thus the first speaker raises the pitch
; a twelfth on the clarinet and only an octave on the other ;
I woodwinds. For this reason, while the other woodwind
I
! instruments require only seven notes in their basic scales,
i the clarinet requires a basic scale of eleven notes. Ex-
; cept for the bassoon, the player has but nine fingers with
which to work, since the thumb of the right hand is needed
to hold the instrument. This means that on the other
 40 :

i instruments each of the notes of the basic scale can be

i I
I assigned to a different finger, while on the clarinet some j
j _ i
I fingers must be able to play more than one note in this |
\ I
I basic scale. The fingers which do this double duty are the
j index finger and thumb of the left hand and the little fin-;
* gers of both hands. This extra technique problem provides
i the primary difference between the clarinet and all of the
I other woodwind instruments.
I

Flute and clarinet. In regard to the amount of |

I I
I double duty that the fingers have to do, the fluteis the |
! simplest in technique of the woodwind instruments. The i
!

Iflutist plays a chromatic scale through nearly three oc-

{
j taves with each finger moving only up and down on its
I assigned key. There are only four notes within the entire
three octave range of the flute that require any finger to
;move from its normal key to work another key.
I On the other hand, the clarinet has the added notes
jin its basic scale, and in addition has many extra keys to
i
jfacilitate the chromatic tones. The clarinet is built on
I
;the principle of avoiding contrary motion of the fingers
(14:125). This is accomplished by adding tone holes and
i
•keys to give the clarinetist a choice of fingerings for
Imany notes. The flute, on the other hand, is built on the
:theory of keeping the keys to a minimum and having the
 41
i player learn complete Independence of fingers, so that they
! can move quite easily in contrary motion.
I I
Another way in which the flute differs from the |
, clarinet in technique is in the part taken in producing |
'pitch changes for large intervals by the way of blowing
the instrument. To change from a note in the lowest regi-
'ster to one in the second register, the clarinetist need
i
I only open the speaker key, and if he is playing the low

:note correctly the upper one will play immediately with no |

I !
change of embouchure or blowing. The flutist, however, ,
;must make the change with his embouchure. Even if the up- I
Iper note also uses a speaker, it will usually require him |
I to make the change with his embouchure as well. j

A third way in which the flute differs technically j

from the clarinet is in the position of the speakers for :

: !

,the third, or highest, register. The clarinet uses one '

!tone hole--that under the index finger of the left hand--
Ito speak the entire register. The flute, however, has a
'different speaker for each note. This results in random
I I
Ifingerings, with their contrary motions, within that re-
I
Igister of the flute. i
The two instruments under discussion exhibit a greati
'deal of similarity, nevertheless, in that the pattern of |
;whole and half steps within the basic scale is the same for'
 42
both Instruments. The two half-steps occur between the
first and second finger of the right hand, and above the
first finger of the left hand, so that the finger patterns
of the scales are very similar.

Oboe and clarinet. The differences in technique i

between the oboe and the clarinet are greater than those
between the flute and clarinet. The reason for these vari-,
ations is that the pattern of whole and half steps is |
' different for the basic scale; whereas the clarinet has i
; the half steps between the first and second fingers of the ^
I ;
I right hand and above the first finger of the left hand, the:
j oboe has them above the first fingers of each hand. This |
placement of the half steps on the oboe makes the scale
I

ipatterns very similar to those of the old Albert-system

clarinet, but not to those of the Boehm-systern clarinet,
upon which this study was based. The highest register of
the oboe differs from that of the clarinet in a similar
Imanner to that of the flute, but not to the same extent.
IOn the oboe, there are several speakers used, but they
!are only the half hole and the two octave vents, while on
'the flute the tone holes themselves are used. Also, the
I
1 high register of the oboe is not as extensive, nor is it

inearly as often demanded by the composer, as that of the

I
‘flute.
I
43
I Another difference arises from the need for more
I than one speaker on the oboe. The clarinet possesses an
Iunusual ability to vent the entire range of the second
Î ■

Iregister with the same speaker hole, while the oboe re­
quires three speakers for this second register. These
three speakers must be manipulated by the player, although
:various mechanisms are available to combine two of them
Ifor operation with one key.
j

' Bassoon and clarinet. The bassoon exhibits the

;greatest difference from the clarinet in matters of tech-
I nique. This is due to several factors, among which are
!

Ithe fact that the highest register is composed of random

I fingerings (much like those of the flute, though not of

:as clear an origin); the need for the player to do much

:of the selection of register with his embouchure and blow-
!ing (as with the flute); the pattern of half steps being
'like that of the oboe rather than like that of the clari­
net; and the extension of the lower register around the
boot joint and up the bass joint, which brings the thumbs
of the player into greater use than on any of the other
woodwind instruments.
The majority of the differences between the bassoon
and the clarinet are due to the much increased use of the
thumbs, and to the fingerings that comprise the highest
 44
octave of the bassoon. The fingerings of the high register
of the bassoon have never, to this writer's knowledge, beenj
explained in terms of the acoustics of the instrument, i. I
e ., in terms of the length of tube and the placement of the'
speaker. They are similar to those of the high register of
the flute in that there is a great amount of contrary mo­
tion involved in their patterns, while the clarinet utilizes
one speaker and then follows the normal finger patterns, of |
the other two registers.
The use of the thumbs on the bassoon is brought
I
I about by the increased range in the bass end of the instru-
i ment. Whereas the clarinetist has two keys (in reality one
!

Ikey and one tone hole) for the left thumb and none for the
I right, the bassoonist has eight to ten keys for the left
thumb and four for the right one. The keys for the left |
I
thumb are both for tone holes and speaker holes, and must |
I
be used singly and in combination. i
I One similarity between the clarinet and the bassoon '
I i
:arises from the use on both of these instruments of open |
I !
■finger holes bored into the wood and covered directly by!
I
I the fingers themselves. The problem of learning to "feel" j
j
! these holes with the fingertips is the same for both the
'instruments.

Saxophone and clarinet. The saxophone and the

 45
clarinet are the least divergent of the combinations of
instrumen18 under study. The saxophone has the same pat-
i tern of half steps as does the clarinet, and since the
, saxophone has no third register, there are no random fin- i
; gerings with their contrary motion. This, of course, is
true only if the saxophone does not explore the so-called
■ "high tones," all of which have random fingerings. The
I only significant differences in technique between the saxo-
I phone and the clarinet are the overblowing of an octave in i
the saxophone (as with the other woodwinds) and of a
twelfth in the clarinet, and the arrangement of some of the,
! chromatic keys and of the keys for the little fingers of :
I I
!both hands. These little finger keys, on the clarinet, are|
i made in duplicates so that most of them can be played by |
•either hand, while the saxophone keys are fitted with j
i rollers and made singly so that the player may roll the

Isame finger from one to the other but must play each note
:with only one finger. Though the saxophone has two speaker;
I I
Ivents, both are controlled automatically by one key, !
I i
•giving the effect, for the fingers, of one speaker key as i
' i
'with the clarinet.
I
i
! Summary. The double reed instruments have one out-
I
;standing difference from the clarinet, in that the position
I

jof the half step in the basic scale is different. In

 46 ■
!addition, the double reeds have a partial octave of random !
Ifingerings. On the oboe, this register is not called upon I
I I
Ivery often, while the bassoon employs it as part of the |
Inormal playing range. Thus, the bassoonist has more of a |
i
problem with the random fingerings than does the oboist or ,
;the clarinetist. The bassoon has a further difference from
I the clarinet in the use of the two thumbs for so many keys,
both singly and in combinations.
I I
I The saxophone and the flute resemble each other in
Itheir technical differences from the clarinet. They have a ,
! i
I similarity where the double reedshave a difference— the |
; I
ihalf steps of the basic scale are in the same position as i
I they are on the clarinet. The flute employs random fin- |
^ I
•gerings for its highest register, in contrast to the double|
I
speaker and straight finger.patterns, of the highest register
i
of the clarinet. The saxophone uses this type of fingering|
,only if the player desires to explore the extreme range of
1the Instrument, where many artists can play but where very |
ilittle music is written. '
 CHAPTER V :
i
i
PROBIiEMSIN ACTÜàL PERFORMANCE |

I
In the preceding chapters the comparisons between
the clarinet and the other woodwind instruments were made
regarding the basic elements of acoustics of tone produc­
tion and of technique* There were still further problems
which needed to be considered in this study which would not
appear until a musician actually became involved in a per­
formance situation. As an example, the intonation problem .
would not become apparent until another instrument or in- j
Istruments were introduced in ensemble. Immediately the j
i !
jplayer must try to play in tune with theother instruments.|
IThe same situation holds true with the elements of blending I
the tone into the ensemble or, its opposite, projecting the'
solo through the general tone of the group.
Another problem considered in this chapter is that
of the range differences between the instruments. The ;
panel was asked whether this had any effect upon the trans-i
ferring clarinetist. At the same time, the panel was ;
Iquestioned about any problem which might arise from the t
Itransposition of the clarinet and saxophone.
The last element to be considered is not dependent
upon the presence of other instruments, but still was
 48 :
I I
considered to be within the realm of performance problems ’
^ rather than of basic techniques. This was phrasing, or I
I making the musical line apparent to the listener, |
i I
; The great majority of the material in this chapter |
' was derived from the interviews which the writer had with ;
I

the panel of woodwind authorities. As in previous chap-

, ters, the majority and minority opinions are presented,
I but the individual panel members, when quoted directly,
were quoted anonymously.
I

I. INTONATION I
S
i
I
I This study did not delve into the problem of train- ;
! ■ i
I ing the instrumentalist's ear to discern whether or not his|
I I
I tone is in tune with the group, since it was felt that thisj
: problem was not within the scope of the present work. i
Rather, it was thought to lie within the realm of a study
on training in basic musicianship. This opinion does not
mean that this particular problem is not deemed important;
: indeed, it is a necessary prerequisite to any techniques
that might facilitate the pitch changes of the individual
: instruments. The performer cannot utilize the techniques
for pitch change until he knows when a change is needed
and whether the pitch must be raised or lowered. For these
i reasons, this study concerned itself only with the tech-
 49
niques by which the small changes of pitch necessary to
I
Igood intonation may be made•
I One element of intonation which is the same for all
j
Iof the woodwind instruments is the part played by the
; i
iquality of the individual instrument. One of the five
I !
factors discussed in Chapter II as being affected by quali-
I
Ity and adjustment was the intonation of the instrument it-
Iself. This dependence of intonation upon quality consti-
!tutes a definite similarity among the instruments in
I ‘
Iquestion, as averylarge part of the intonation problem j
I is bound up in the instrument itself. If the instrument I
!jcan place the tone very close to the proper pitch level, ji
!the player has very little to do tomake the final adjust- |
I I
Iment ; on the other hand, if the ins trument places the tone j
;quite far from its proper level, then the player must pro- |
iduce a largechange in that pitch. Thegreater the neces- j
Isary change,the greater the problem of how to accomplish '
that change. ■
' I

■ Flute and clarinet. The panel was unanimous in |

i
agreement that in techniques for intonation the flute ■
Idiffered from the clarinet more than any of the other !
;woodwind instruments. Indeed, the authorities were agreed
generally that techniques for the reed Instruments were all|
very similar, while that for the flute was unique. The ;
 50
:clarinet was felt to rely upon five techniques, four of
i them in connection with the blowing of the instrument, and j
jthe fifth in connection with the fingering. The flute, |
!instead, relies upon only one technique - that of rolling jI
Itheflute in or out (or of rolling the head down or up, I
■ i
according to the preference of the individual player).
!The purpose of this is to cover more or less of the embou-
i chure hole and at the same time to decrease or increase the,
■distance from the slit in the lips to the edge of the em-
jbouchure hole. j
I The five techniques which the panel described for I
i I
Ithe clarinet, as well as for the other reed instruments j
j are: (1) firming and relaxing the facial muscles ; (2) j
i 1
raising and lowering the tongue within the mouth; (3)
putting more or less of the reed into the mouth; (4) apply­
ing more or less air pressure to the instrument, and (5)
'selecting an alternate fingering which will play a specific
'note higher or lower than its regular fingering. These
,techniques are all different from the one primary technique
Ifor the flute. Those techniques which are concerned with
'the tone production part of the instrument (numbers one
j through four) are not effective on the flute, while the
'selection of different fingerings is not necessary on the
'flute because of the extreme flexibility achieved by the
 51
one technique recommended for that instrument.

Oboe and clarinet, bassoon and clarinet, and saxo-

jphone and clarinet. Since the panel agreed that the five
Itechniques mentioned in the preceding paragraph were used
!

:for all of the reed instruments, these instruments are here

I
!discussed together. The divergence of opinion withinthe
!group of authorities interviewed arose about which of the
!

^techniques were better. Still, there was enough agreement

jto forma majority opinion. j
I I
! Of the eight members of the panel of authorities, |
I I
Ifive felt that the techniques were the same for all of the |
!reed Instruments. These five did not, however, agreeas |
I I
;to which of the techniques was themost effective. They all
Imentioned fingerings, facial muscle control, the amount of
IIreed in themouth, and differentamounts of airpressure. ;
I
; - I
.Three felt that the control of the facial muscles offered
i
!the best means of controlling the pitch, with one of these
!adding air pressure control linked to that embouchure con-
Itrol. The fourth was in favor of using a changing amount
Iof reed in the mouth on all of the reed instruments, while
'the fifth preferred the use of alternate fingerings where-
ever possible. Bach of these five agreed to the use of the
;other techniques when the preferred one was not sufficient.
The three remaining authorities also agreed on the
 52
use of these same techniques, with the exception of one who;
Î
felt that the arching and flattening of the tongue was the j
: i
, most effective for the clarinet. They d.iffered from the ;
j larger group, however, in that they felt that the best techk
niques for one reed instrument were not the best for the
others. For instance, one of them preferred the embouchure
, control for the clarinet and saxophone, with fingerings
t
as a second choice for the clarinet; for the oboe he thought
i the amount of reed in the mouth was best; and for bassoon I

,he preferred the alternate fingerings with embouchure con-

!trol as second choice.
i 1
I
Summary. The consensus regarding the most effective;
i I
jmeans of controlling the pitch of the woodwind instruments |
I
Iis that the reed instruments utilize the same means, while |
the flute is a rule unto itself. The preferences for the |
j
reed instruments ranged through the same five techniques, ,
with different panel members putting the emphasis on dif-
I
ferent ones but mentioning the others. At the same time, i
there was complete agreement on the best technique for ;
;control of the pitch of the flute. !

I II. BIEND AND PROJECTION j

I

The concepts of blend and projection are opposites i

but are here treated together, for their techniques are also
 55
opposites. The best way to describe these two opposing
; concepts is to consider the hypothetical case of a first
I clarinetist in a concert band. Most ofthe time, he must
blend his tone into that of the ensemble sothat no indi­
vidual instrument can be heard, yet, onthe other hand, he
sometimes is called upon to play a solo where his tone
i
j must be heard above the tone of the other clarinets. This
' is probably the most difficult background for a clarinet-
I
' 1st to project through because of the similarity between
his tone and that of the background.
I In this section, the instruments are not individu-
I
I ally compared to the clarinet, since the authorities in-
I terviewed were, with one exception, unanimous in their
' view that the same concepts and ideas were equally good
_ for all of the woodwind instruments. They all felt that
' the problem was one of musical conception more than one
' of specific techniques to apply to the instrument. They
; mentioned several specific techniques, but most felt that
these were definitely secondary to the conception.
The various techniques mentioned by the individual
panel members were: (l) the psychological faculty to
"think blend" and "think projection;" (2) discourage
brillance of tone for blend and encourage it for projec­
tion; (3) encourage a covered, "oo" sound for the clarinet
 54
Iand a small, compact, sweet sound for flute, for blend;
I(4) matching a vibrato within a section for blend; (5)
Islightly louder for projection and slightly softer for
jblend; (6) lower tongue arch for blend and higher for pro-
;jection; (7 ) vibrato helps in the projection, and (8) the
idea of "drive" helps in projection.

I Summary. The panel members were unanimous in

!their believing that these problems of blend and projection
i

'are primarily solved through the musical training of the

I
jstudent - only if he first has the concept will the tech-
I
iniques be of value to him. In addition, all but one of
Ithe authorities agreed that the same techniques held good
Ifor all of the instruments under consideration. The one
! I
■panel member who differed from the rest offered differing
techniques for the flute and for the clarinet, and gave no ■
specific ideas other than the psychological ones for the
other three instruments. Consequently, the conclusion
Imust be drawn that if there are any differences between the '
clarinet and the other woodwind instruments in the problems !
involved in blending or projecting a tone, these differences
,are so small as to be nearly inconsequential. '

i
III. RANGE AND TRANSPOSITION PROBLEMS ;
I !
Regarding the twin considerations of range differ- 1
 55
I ences between the clarinet and the other woodwind instru-
I ment8 and of the transpositions of the clarinet and the
' saxophone, the panel was about evenly divided between two
views. These views were that there was no problem at all,
and that there were slight difficulties in specific cases.
The range differences were thought by half of the
: panel to offer no trouble whatever, while the other half
I thought there might be slight trouble encountered by the ^
clarinetist transferring to the bassoon because of the |
different clefs that he would be forced to learn to read.
! Thus, the problem, if encountered, was not one of aural |
!
; transfer but rather one of music reading. ?
I Of the eight authorities, five felt that there !
I I

I sometimes was a slight difficulty in the case of a student j

jwho has perfect pitch who has learned to read music on the |
I
' clarinet. He would have had the aural image of b-flat in i
Ihis ear when he thought of the tone C. The five felt that :
this would be only a temporary difficulty, however. The I
I
other three had never encountered the problem.
I
IV. PHRASING
I

' The problem of phrasing is a difficult one to define

i
accurately. Generally the panel agreed that the problem '
I
: I

'is primarily one of musical taste and training, rather than:

 56
j of any specific instrumental technique. However, two ;
:definite considerations which applied to the instruments -
under study were brought out by the panel members. These |
I considerations were the problems of vibrato, and that of I
I i
!equalizing the differences in tone between notes and regl- ;
' 8ters on an instrument. The vibrato problem was mentioned
;by every one of the authorities; consequently it was added
t '
' to the interview guide on the third interview. The men
'were asked whether they advocate vibrato for the individual;
instruments, and if so, how do they teach it. The response
was of such a nature that this discussion of vibrato could
best be carried on about the family in general rather than ;
; i
iabout the clarinet compared with the other instruments. |
i With one exception, the authorities agreed that |
i
:some vibrato was desirable on all of the woodwind instru-
'ments. The one exception was a person who felt that
Ivibrato was not good for the clarinet but was necessary
for the other instruments. Another said that the theory
I ' i
i was good, but that vibrato had not been worked out suffi- |
jciently on the clarinet and consequently was not good for j
that instrument at the present time. The majority opinion I
i
j was therefore greatly in favor of vibrato on all of the •
I I
woodwind instruments. This opinion was qualified by every ;
jperson who held it, to the extent that the vibrato MUST be
 57
used only as an adjunct to the musical phrasing, and must
!

!be carefully controlled. This concept is also greatly

Istressed in an article on vibrato by Robert Vagner (34:
i311). The Idea was best summarized by one authority who
I
Isaid, "if you are conscious of the vibrato as such, then
it has detracted from the phrasing and is therefore over-
!done."
This near-unanimity of thought was absent when it
Icame to a question of how to produce the desired vibrato.
I The greatest agreement reached was when three of the men
I
I stated that any type of vibrato was acceptable provided the
I results were good. Two of these people stated that their
Ifirst choice was the intensity vibrato, but that anything |
I I
!was acceptable ifthe result was good. Despite the seem- |
! !
;ing differences of opinion as to which type of vibrato is ;
I I
best, most of the authorities agreed that the best vibrato I
for one instrument was usually best for the others. The
: only reservation to this opinion was for saxophone, which
I seems to be able to make better use of the lip vibrato
I
I than the other instruments, whereas the other instruments
iwere generally felt to do best with intensity vibrato of
j one type or another.

I The second of the two considerations mentioned in

I
I the first paragraph of this section— that of compensating
 I 58
for the unevenness of tone quality and volume in the
1 instruments themselves--was mentioned by only one of the
; panel. However, it seemed of sufficient importance to
Iinclude here. This concept was summarized by the panel
member thus:
one goes up to the high register on the
clarinet and the flute, he must be careful lest
the tone become too loud and piercing. Conversely,
on the oboe and the bassoon he must make an extra
effort to prevent the tone from becoming flat and
thin. The saxophone is about a midpoint between
these two extremes.^

I Summary. Since the problem of phrasing is primarily!

j one of musical training and discernment, there is very |
; f
I little difference between the clarinet and the other wood­
wind instruments. In two details, however, there are
differences of technique in bringing about that phrasing,
namely, producing a vibrato and balancing the dynamic and
tonal extremes of the range of the individual instrument.
In the techniques of producing a vibrato there is not much
agreement as to which is best, but the advocate of each
type feels that the type he prefers is best for most of the
i

;instruments. For this reason, it is felt that in produc-

I ing vibrato there is still very little difference between

; ^ Clement Hutchinson, The University of Southern

:California
 59
the clarinet and the other woodwind instruments. In the
techniques of balancing the ranges, the clarinet is very
similar to the flute, less similar to the saxophone, and
opposite to the oboe and the bassoon.

! i
I !
I I
 CHAPTER VI

■ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS i

i

Throughout the previous chapters, the organization

I has been to consider each aspect of woodwind performance
I
, by itself, and to make the comparison between the clari- ;
I net and other Instruments. Here, in the summary, the I

I approach was to compare each instrument in its turn with '

^ the clarinet, considering all of the performance aspects |
I together. When the comparisons were all made for any pair |
i I
I of instruments, the conclusions about the transfer of the I
1 I
1 clarinetist were drawn. The section of conclusions at the i
II end of the chapter is on the family as a whole rather than I
I
On the individual instruments.
I
I

I. PLÜTE AND CL&RINET

i
I

Similarities. The similarities between the flute

and the clarinet arise from the use by both instruments of
the same acoustical principles of sound resonance. This :
causes a similarity of fingering and of feeling regarding j
the use of separate registers. In those phases of per- I
formance whose origin is in the tone generation, these
I two Instruments are dissimilar, but in those phases whose |
I
! origin is in the resonator they are very much alike.
 I 61 ;

. Further, in those phases of performance which are primarily

j musical, the instruments are very decidedly the same. j
I In the problems of embouchure and of breath control,!
I ■ i
I although there are varying modifications of the basic

I ideas, the two instruments employ the same basic techniques'

i In tone production, attack, and intonation, the two in­
struments are less similar. In technique, the basic feel-
i
, ing is the same, although the details are different. The
I technique of the flute is more like that of the clarinet |
: than any of the other woodwind instruments with the possi-
i

I ble exception of the saxophone.

j !
I In all problems that involve basic musicianship, of 1
I I
Icourse, the instruments are verysimilar. Such considéra- j
I I
i tions as phrasing, blendand projection, music reading, I
!. :
I and range are definitelyregions of similarity for the two |
I instruments. I
I I
Differences. The flute has one primary difference
'
from the clarinet in that the tone generation of the flute |
: I
• employs a completely different principle than that of the |
: clarinet. This difference in generators makes all aspects i
t I
I of performance which are connected with tone production on ;
j the flute quite different from those of the clarinet. In I
I addition, the generator of the flute is part of the instru-i
ment proper, making the flute more dependent upon the
 62
I Quality of the individual instrument than for the clarinet.;

I This does not mean that quality has no part in determining i

! I
Ithe tone of the clarinet, but that adjustment can he |
I called upon to affect tone quality more than in the case |
Iof the flute.
The breath control techniques of the two instruments
'are different, although they both stem from the same basic
!

!technique. The clarinetist must employ more pressure and

Iless volume, while the flutist must use less pressure and >
Imore volume. In addition, the flutist must try to create !
I an artificial resistance to the air stream with his em-
I ^ I
Ibouchure. The embouchure of the clarinetist is directèd |
i I
I toward controlling the vibrations of the reed, and therefore
! I
I tend toward having a tight band of muscle entirely around |
' I
,the mouthpiece and reed. The flute, on the other hand, is j

directed toward controlling the air stream, hence needs

i more of a smile with a more relaxed lower lip while the
iupper lip does the most to control the lip aperture.
j
I In the field of attack, again the details are dif-
! I
^ferent while the basic principle is the same. The tongue
I
forms a valve which releases the air at the desired time. i
I !
I The difference occurs through the placement of the valve. :
,In the flute it is formed in the player's mouth at the
back and base of the upper teeth, while the valve in the
 63
I clarinet is formed at the reed.
The finger techniques of the two instruments are on
the same basic principle of covering tone holes bored into
I the side of the resonance tube walls. However, the work-
' ing out of that principle is different in several respects.
The flute is designed to have the fingers of the players
I
move only up and down on one key, but moving independently
j of the others. This system often necessitates one finger's
! moving up while its neighbor moves down, while the system
of the clarinet is designed to minimize the contrary mo-
; tion of the fingers by providing each finger with several
, keys instead of merely its basic one. This necessitates
; many more sidewise motions than for the flute. The over-
I blowing of the clarinet to the twelfth also occasions more
I sidewise motions of the fingers by introducing the so-
I
' called "throat tones" into the fundamental range, and
necessitating the use of both little fingers in the second
I
I register.
! The flutist must select the desired register with
! his way of blowing the instrument, while the clarinetist
I does his more with speaker keys and less with the manner
I of blowing. Even in the third register, where the clari-
I netist uses two simultaneous speakers for the entire
; register and the flutist must use a different speaker for
 64
^each note, the flutist must still do more of the selection
i I
I of register with embouchure and air pressure than does the |

Iclarinetist. |

The techniques for effecting small pitch changes for

Igood intonation are different for these two instruments;
the flute uses only one— rolling the flute toward or away
^from the lip— while the clarinet employs any or all of
'several, none of which is the same as that of the flute.
' Transfer of a clarinetist. The clarinetist who
!desires to transfer to the flute would be aided very much i
jby his previous training on the clarinet. He would be able
Ito apply his training in breathing immediately, with the
!slight adjustment in pressure and volume to fit the new
I I
Iinstrument. His embouchure would be changed for the flute,|
'but still only within the framework of the basic embouchurei
1 I
'His techniques for effecting good intonation would not be ;
of benefit on the flute, and consequently he would have to |
:learn the one technique for the flute. He would find it
i necessary to select the register more with his embouchure |
^ I
:and breath control than he had on the clarinet, i
; Many of the finger patterns that the clarinetist j
I I
jhad learned on the clarinet would be directly applicable
I !
!to the flute, so that with some concentrated study on the
register change and the fingerings of the third register
 I 6 5
: he could have an acceptable technique on the flute.
I The musical aspects of his performance would be :
II nearly the same as for the clarinet. If, like a great |
I
I many clarinetists, he had never learned to produce a vl- iI
brato, that study would need to be undertaken.
In general, then, his clarinet training would be of ‘
; great benefit to him in most aspects of playing, more in
I some and less in others, but he would still have to study
i the flute as a separate instrument. The general feeling
of the panel of authorities was that those things which
i would be difficult for him are the same things which would ;
I I
I be difficult for the flute student who had never played I
! '
I another instrument. The difference would be that the |
! i
' transferring clarinetist would find it easier to overcome |
I ' I
, these difficulties than the other student. j
I
I
II. OBOE AND CIARimT |

There are no differences between the oboe and the

i
clarinet in the basic acoustical principles used for tone j

generation and resonance, as there are between the gene- |

raters of the flute and clarinet. However, these basic |
I principles are subject to greater modificationbetween |
these two instruments than between the flute and the clari­
net. Both instruments employ a reed generator, but the
oboe uses a double reed while the clarinet uses a single
 66
, reed. Both Instruments employ the resonating air column,
I but that of the oboe is enclosed within a conical tube
I whereas that of the clarinet has a cylindrical tube. Con-
! sequently, although the performance problems arise from
I
: the same natural phenomena the realizations of these
I problems are different.

Similarities. The oboe and the clarinet are simi­

lar to a great extent in breath control. While the oboe
i
requires less volume of air and a slightly greater air
I pressure, these differences are actually only modifica-
I tions of the same basic breath control technique.
I The general opinion of the panel was that in attack,
I
I as in breath control, the oboe and the clarinet are very
i similar. Indeed, most ofthe panel felt that there was no i
!

difference between them, while a few felt that there were

, slight differences in the exact placement of the tongue
I
' on the reed.
Another definite similarity between the two instru- ,
I ments under consideration is their techniques for effectingl
I the small pitch changes necessary for good intonation. |
■ I
I The panel mentioned five different techniques which are i
; effective for the reed instruments, and felt that all were |
' good for both the oboe and the clarinet. As was the case !
! with the flute, the oboe is nearly identical to the clarinet
 67
In those phases of performance which are primarily musical
j rather than technical. This includes such problems as
I
I music reading, phrasing, and blend and projection.
1
1 Differences. The oboist is more dependent upon
I
! adjustment of his reed than is the clarinetist, since the
i
: oboe reed is the entire generator, while that of the clari-
' net is part of the generator in combination with the less
' adjustable mouthpiece. In addition, the reeds of the
i clarinet are cheaper and easier to obtain, and may be ;
I altered more readily. |
;I The embouchures of the oboe and the clarinet, though
I
I I
I arising from the same basic embouchure, are different to |
I the extent that the oboe requires a lip cushion for the |
upper blade of the reed, while the top of the clarinet
mouthpiece requires no such thing. Some clarinetists, how­
ever, use a double embouchure, and for these individuals ■
: there would be much less difference.
I There are three main differences in technique be-
; tween the oboe and the clarinet. The first of these dif- |
! i
ferences in technique is due to the differences in the '
^positions of the half steps in the basic scales of the two :
I
instruments, necessitating the many fingerings for the note,
!

F on the oboe. The second is due to the inability of the

clarinet to overblow the octave, with the resulting added
 68
notes and problems mentioned in the summary for the flute.
IThe third is due to the need for three different speaker
jvents for the oboe, necessitating the half hole technique
i

Iand the added speaker mechanism for the index finger of the
left hand.

j Transfer of the clarinetist. The unanimous opinion

jof the authorities interviewed was that previous training
I
Ion the clarinet would be of great benefit to the oboe
!

jstudent. His manner of blowing the ins trument would be

I transferable to the oboe, though not without some modifi-
Ication. He would find it necessary to learn to control a
Idouble reed, but this could be done within the framework
I
Iof the basic embouchure and breath control which he had
learned on the clarinet. His new methods of attack and of
pitch control would be nearly identical to those of the j
clarinet. In matter of technique, the clarinetist who is
taking up the study of the oboe would find it necessary to !
learn several new finger patterns, due to the three dif­
ferences mentioned above. However, the feeling for woodwind!
I
fingerings which he had developed on the clarinet would j
I
enable him to assimilate these new patterns with greater j
ease than would have been possible had he not trained his |
fingers on the clarinet.
In general, as with the flute, there would be much
 69
that Is new to the transferring clarinetist, but he would
j beable to learn these new techniques more easily than the ,
! I
I oboe student who had had no previous woodwind training. j

III. BASSOON AND CLARINET !

Similarities♦ An important similarity between the ;

! bassoon and the clarinet is in respect to those things
I which are a function of quality and which are a function of
i
I adjustment. The bassoon reed is more easily adjustable than
: the reed and mouthpiececombination, since on the bassoon |
i I
I each new reed is a complete unit in itself, while the reed I
I I
I of the clarinet is used in combinationwith the more stable!
j j
I mouthpiece.This situation is similar to that of the oboe.I
I !

However, on the bassoon there is an added factor - that of ‘

the bocal. This part of the instrument occupies a position
, in the quality-versus-adjustment situation very similar to
that of the barrel joint of the clarinet. It is not us­
ually interchanged as often as a reed or a mouthpiece, but ■
; can be interchanged without too great difficulty if the |
' player is willing to go to the trouble and expense. i
1
I
The breath control techniques for the bassoon are |
I very nearly identical to that of the clarinet. There are
I I
slight modifications for the increased pressure and de-
: creased volume of air demanded by the bassoon, but these
 70 ;

: are very slight.

; As was the case with the oboe, there is almost no
difference in attack between the bassoon and the clarinet, |
j A majority of the authorities felt that there was no dif- j
I I
I ference inattackbetween theclarinet and thebassoon, ^
I ;
while the rest of the panel felt that the difference was |
' only in the fine points of the exact placement of the tongue
I on the reed.
j Again as with the oboe, the bassoon was felt to em­
ploy the same techniques for effecting the pitch changes
:for good intonation as does the clarinet. The panel did I
: !
not agree as to which of the five techniques mentioned was I
' the best forwhich instrument, but a majority felt that |
! i
I the best onefor the clarinet was also the best one for |
I the bassoon. The minority felt that different ones were j

more effective for the different instruments, but still 1

!

selected them from the same five mentioned. j

Differences. The differences between the bassoon |

and the clarinet are generally in the areas of finger tech-’
I :

;nique and ofembouchure. Thebassoonembouchure derives j

! I
;again from the basicembouchure of the entirewoodwind I
: I
ifamily, but with a new modification. In addition to the j
feel of the "rubber band" around the reed, the lower jaw
■is drawn down and back. This produces the effect of the
 71
Ilower lip acting upon the reed very much nearer the tip of
I
I the reed than the upper lip. In addition, the lowering of
I :
I the jaw causes an elongation of the oral cavity, which has
i an effect upon the tone quality.
; The differences in technique between the bassoon
and the clarinet arise from (l) the third register of the
Ibassoon being composed of random fingerings, (2 ) the need
Ifor the player to do much of the selection of the register
!on the bassoon by his manner of blowing, (3 ) the pattern
of half steps being like that of the oboe rather than of
I
jthe clarinet, and (4) the extension of the range of the
;bassoon down through the bass side of the boot joint and
Ithe bass joint necessitating the use of the player's thumbs
for a great number of keys.

Transfer of a clarinetist. The bassoon student j

'would find, as with the other woodwind instruments, that '
I i
!his training on the clarinet would help him in matters
Iinvolving breath control, attack, and intonation, as well '
i 1
'as all phases of performance which are primarily musical j
!rather than technical. He would find it necessary to study'
I i
the bassoon embouchure separately to learn the modifications
of the basic embouchure necessary for that instrument. The
greatest new problem on the bassoon for the transferring ;
clarinetist would be the finger technique. Another new
 72
Iproblem would be the reading of the bass and tenor clefs.
;As was the case with the other instruments, the panel of
Iauthorities felt that the clarinetist would be able to
i
*learn those things which are different from his own in-
Istrument more readily than would be possible had he not
had the previous experience on the clarinet. In addition,
'many facets of bassoon performance would be directly ap-
Iplicable from the clarinet.

:[\r. :sj&2C()]PiiC)B03 cxijAiFtiifisgr

! Similarities. Of the instrlaments which were com-

I
Ipared to the clarinet in this study, the saxophone is the
,most nearly like the clarinet. The tone generator of the
Isaxophone is the only singlereed other than that of the
:clarinet. Although the resonance tube is of conical pro-
:portions, allowing the overblowing of all even and odd
Inumbered partials and creating less resistance than that
of the clarinet, the pattern of half steps is the same as
'that for the clarinet.
!

Another result of thefact that these two instru-

,ments are both single reeds, is an identical situation
^regarding the two variables of quality and adjustment.
:Both instruments may be fitted with a different mouthpiece
with equal ease, and the same holds true of their reeds.
 73
was the case with each of the other woodwind
jinstruments, the saxophone employs the same basic breath
I

!control and embouchure techniques. The breath control

!technique must be modified somewhat to allow for the slight
iresistance of the saxophone in contrast to the greater re-
,sistance of the clarinet. The only modification of the
;basic embouchure that is necessary is to compensate for
Ithe slightly larger mouthpiece and for the straighter angle
I of entry of the mouthpiece into the player's mouth.
The attack was felt by most of the authorities to
Ibe identical for the two instruments. In addition, all of
I the factors discussed in Chapter V under Problems in Actual
I
IPerformance were felt to be identical or very nearly so.
jThese are: intonation, blend and projection, range and
transposition, and phrasing. i

Differences. The differences between the saxophone ;

and the clarinet were felt to be largely in degree rather |
than in fundamentals. Each factor investigated in this j
I
study was found to be based upon the same principles for '
the two instruments, with two exceptions. These exceptions|
are the conical bore proportions of the saxophone, and the
large, pad-covered tone holes. These two factors of bore
and tone hole type were felt to exert a small influence
upon the problem of transfer of a clarinetist to the
 74 I
saxophone. The bore proportions reduce the resistance of !
I
the saxophone and enable it to overblow all partials. j
This lack of resistance and different overblowing were feltj
to be easier on the saxophone than on the clarinet, and j
Iconsequently do not constitute new problems for the trans- ;
ferring clarinetist. The same held true for the difference
ibetween the tone holes of the two instruments. The panel
ifelt that since it requires much less accuracy of finger
Iplacement for the keys of the saxophone than for the open
!
! ' i
:
Iholes of the clarinet, this difference would produce no !
j problems for the clarinetist. I

I V. CONCLUSIONS
I
The authorities interviewed were unanimous in their
belief that previous training on the clarinet is valuable
to a student of any of the other woodwind instruments,
though by no means absolutely necessary. They felt that
previous training on any other instrument is of value in
the training in basic musicianship which it would afford.
However, it was felt that training specifically on the
clarinet would afford more than merely basic musicianship
training. The training received in breath control, em­
bouchure , finger technique, and in every other phase of
performance would be of benefit to the woodwind student.
 75
iS orne of the panel members thought that training on the
saxophone or the flute would be just as well suited for
I
Ithis transfer, but such considerations were felt to be
within the realm of another study or studies paralleling
■this present study.
The panel of authorities felt that the clarinetist
would be able to apply his training more directly to the
I
!saxophone than to the other woodwind instruments, and that
I
Ithe flute would be the next in application. The double
reed instruments were felt to be nearly equal in their ap­
plication of the clarinet training, with the exception of
Ithe added burden of the thumb techniques on the bassoon.
iThey felt that the transferring clarinetist would find
^difficulty with the same fingerings as would the beginner
Who had no previous experience on an instrument, but that
the clarinetist would find it much easier to overcome these
difficulties.
The problem for the teacher who is transferring a
student from the clarinet to another instrument is not only
jto instruct the student in the playing of the new instru-
I
ment but also to point out the differences and similarities
between his old techniques for the clarinet and the new
techniques for the new instrument. This can be done both
privately and in class situations, though it is true that
 76
;the private lesson is the most effective medium for this
•type of instruction. The transferring student would find
;it easier to learn the new instrument because of the pre-
i
!vious experience, whether he were studying in a class or
privately.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

1. Boehm, Theobald, The Flute and Flute-playing in ■

Acoustical. Technical, and Artistic Aspects.
Originally published in German, 1871. Second
English edition, translated and annotated by
Dayton 0. Miller. Cleveland: Dayton D. Miller,
j 1922. 197 pp.
I 2. Carse, Adam, Musical Wind Instruments. London:
I The Macmillan Company, Limited, 1939. 281 pp.
! 3. Chapman, F. B ., Flute Technique. London, New York, ;
i and Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1951. 68 pp.
‘ I
I 4. Culver, Charles Aaron, Musical Acoustics. Third j
I edition, Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1951• 214 pp. j
I 5. Dunbar, Rudolph, Treatise on the Clarinet. London: |
I John E. Dallas and Sons,“Timited, 1939. 141 pp. i
I !
I 6 .Dykema, Peter W. and Karl ¥. Gehrkens, The Teaching j
and Administration of High School Music. Boston: '
C. C. Birchard and Company, 1941. 614 pp. i
7.
Larson, Glen, and Harry Baxter. Oboe Reed Technique. '
Los Angeles: Baxter-Northup Company, 19337 l5 pp. :
; !
i 8 . Miller, Dayton 0., The Science of Musical Sounds.
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922. 268 pp.
* 9. Normann, Theodore P., Instrumental Music in the ,
Public Schools. Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson ;
! Company, 1940. 349 pp.
;^0. Palmer, Harold G., Teaching Techniques of the Woodwinds
Rockville Center, Long Island, New York: Belwin,
Incorporated, 1952. 72 pp.
11. Rothwell, Evelyn, Oboe Technique. London, New York,
and Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1953. 106 pp.
12. Russell, M. E., Oboe Reed Making and Problems of the
L.
Oboe Player. Cedar Falls, Iowa: M. E. Russell,
194^. 48 p p .
 79 ,
' 13. School of Music Announcement. Ann Arbor: University
I of Michigan, 1953-1954, 1954-1955.
! 14. Willaman, Robert, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing;
i A Text for Beginners, Advanced Players, Listeners.
S’
alt Point, New York: Robert Willaman, 1949.
I 241 pp.
I
' 15. Wood, Alexander, The Physics of Music. London:
Methuen and Company, ljiiited, Ï945T 255 pp.

B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

i 16. Cheyette, Irving, "Basic Techniques for Wind Players,"

! The Instrumentalist, 3:32-3, March-April, 1949.
' 17 . Douse, Kenneth, "The Saxophone," The Instrumentalist,
2 :l4, November-December, 1947.
18 . Paulds, J., "Fingering for Reed Instruments," Melody
j Maker, 28:8,April 26, 1952.
' 19 . Pox, Hugo, "Factors to Consider When Buying a Bassoon,"
• The Instrumentalist, 6:46, March-April,1953.
!20 . Galper, A., "The Clarinet Air Column," Clarinet,
j 1:15-16, Fall, 1950.
I 21 . Golladoro, Al., "Singing on the Saxophone," Woodwind
Magazine, 1:3, July, 1948.
'22. Hilton, L. B., "Oboe Playing and Breath Support,"
; The Ins trumentalist, 5:23, May-June, 1951.
23 . Hinksley, Mark, "Common Points in the Playing of Wind
I Instruments, Etude,55:645, 683>October, 1937.
24 . Houser, R., "Bassoon Intonation," Symphony, 5:11-12,
! April, 1951.
25 . McCathren, D. E ., "An Experiment in the Overtones of
the Woodwinds, Woodwind Magazine, 3:4-5* December,
1950.
26. McGinnis, 0 . S., and C. Gallagher, "The Reed's Mode of
Vibration," Clarinet, 1:7-8, Fall, 1951.
 80
27. Mule, Marcel, "The Saxophone," Symphony, 4:7j November;
1950.
(28. O'Brien, H. E ., "Mouthpiece Bores and Chambers," j
I Clarinet, 1:22-4, Spring, 1952. I
; I
:29 . Farshley, Thomas, "The Art of Doubling," Woodwind I
^ Magazine, 2:3, October, 1949; 2:5, November, 1949. ■
30 . Porter, Maurice M., "The Embouchure and Its Problems ;
A New Approach," Woodwind Magazine. 7:5, September, ;
1954; 7 :8 , October. 1954; 7 :8 , November, 1954; 7:8,
December, 1954; 7:4, January, 1955.
I31 . Rascher, Sigurd, "The Rational Saxophone," Woodwind
; Magazine, 2:4, May, 1950.
i
:32 . , "The Saxophone," Woodwind Magazine, 1:4, June,
I 94BT ;

33 . Revelli, William D., "Vibratitis," Etude, 59:311, May,|

i 1941. j
^ ;
134. Vagner, Robert, "The Vibrato: How It Is Played and j
: Taught for Woodwind Instruments," Etude, 60:211, !
, May, 1942. I
: I
35- Walt, S., "The Modern Bassoonist," The Instrumentalist,-
4:18-19, March-April, 1950. i
i

36 . Holvik, K. M., "The Clarinet Attack," The Ins trumen- I

talist, 4:12-13, May-June, 1950. I

C. UNPUBLISHED THESES ;

37. Cimbalo, Lucio Lawrence, "The Saxophone, Its Develop- i

ment and Use in the School Instrumental Music ;
Program." An unpublished Master's thesis. The !
University of Southern California, Los Angeles,1951.'
38 . Pixel, Raymond R., "A Teacher 's Guide to Woodwind
i Class Instruction." An unpublished Master's thesis, 1
The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1950.
 81
■39* Hahn, Marcus E., "A Comparison of the Action of
j Musculature Involved in the Flute, Oboe, and
i Clarinet Embouchures." An unpublished Master's
I thesis. The University of Kansas, Lawrence, 194%.
I
I 40. Luoma, Matthew J., "A Study of Alternate Fingerings
for Flute, Oboe, and Clarinet." An unpublished
Master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus,
1946.
'4l. Magliocco, Frank Ralph, "The Clarinet: How It Has
I Developed and How It Is Played." An unpublished
Master's thesis. The University of Southern Cali-
' fornia, Los Angeles, 1949*
;42. Pullis, Richard Milton, "An Elementary Handbook on
' Woodwind Instruments— Two Hundred Questions and
j Answers." An unpublished Master's thesis, Sul
I Ross State Teachers' College, Alpine, Texas, 1945.
!

143. Rahn, John F., "The Beginning Bassoonist." An un-

I published Master's thesis. The University of
I Southern California, Los Angeles, 194?.
’44. Rathbun, Lloyd Raymond, "The Oboe Manual." An un-
I published Master's thesis. The University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, 1942.
45. Smith, William Burgess, "Teaching the Double Reeds."
An unpublished Master's thesis. The University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, 1953.
APPENDIX A
 APPENDIX A

THE MEMBERSHIP OP THE PANEL OP AUTHORITIES

INTERVIEWED FOR THE STUDY

Samuel S. Pain, Professor of Music, the University

of Arizona,
Education: Bachelor of Music, Northwestern University.
Master of Arts in History, The University
of Arizona.
At present a Doctoral candidate at the
University of Southern California.
Experience: Taught at the American Conservatory of
Music in Chicago, four years.
Taught in the Chicago public schools, nine
years.
Woodwind instructor at the University of
Arizona, seven years, six of those
seven years as Director of Bands in
addition.
Seven years * experience as clinician and
adjudicator in the Chicago and Arizona
areas.
Conductor of the Tucson Symphony Orchestra,
five years.

Jerome Glass, Teaching Assistant, The University

of Southern California.
Education: Bachelor of Science, New York University.
Master of Music, The University of Southern
California.
At present a Doctoral candidate at the
University of Southern California.
Experience Music instructor in the public schools of
Garvey, California.
Woodwind instructor. The University of
Minnesota.
Extensive experience in teaching all of the
woodwind ins truments priva tely.
 84
Justin Gray, Professor of Music, Montana State
University.
Education: Bachelor of Music, The Eastman School of
Music.
Master of Music, The University of Michigan.
At present a Doctoral candidate at the
University of Southern California.
Experience Taught in the public schools of Michigan.
Directed the band and taught theory at
Ohio State University.
At present. Band Director and woodwind in­
structor at Montana State University.
Well known adjudicator and guest conductor
throughout Idaho, Washington, and
Montana.
Familiar to Montana audiences through clari­
net performances on state recital tours.
Active in the College Band Directors* Nation­
al Association.

Russell Howland, Professor of Music, Fresno State

College, Fresno, California.
Education: Bachelor of Music, The University of Illinois
Master of Music, The University of Illinois.
At present a Doctoral candidate at the Uni­
versity of Iowa.
Experience Played professionally in New York and the
midwest several years before entering
the teaching profession.
Taught in the public schools in Fort Collins,
Colorado.
Taught at Eastern Colorado College of Edu­
cation, Greeley.
Woodwind instructor. The University of
Michigan.
Woodwind instructor, three years as band
director in addition, at Fresno State
College.
 85
Clement Hutchinson, Assistant Professor of Music,
The University of Southern California.
Education: Bachelor of Music, The Eastman School of
Music.
Master of Music, The University of Southern
California.
Experience: Extensive professional playing; the Rochester
Civic Orchestra, various rehearsal
orchestras in and around Los Angeles,
studio work in Hollywood, and much
chamber music.
Taught woodwinds at Eastman School of
Music, one year.
Taught woodwinds at Oklahoma *A. and M.
College, six years.
Taught woodwinds at the University of
Southern California, seven years.

Edwin Kruth, Coordinator of Instrumental Music, and

Director of Bands, San Francisco State College.
Education: Bachelor of Music, The University of
Michigan.
Master of Music, The University of Michigan.
Experience : Teaching Fellowship at the University of
Michigan, two years.
Taught in the public schools of Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Associate Director of the San Francisco
State College Band, three years.
Director of Bands, San Francisco State
College, five years.
 86

William Reeves, Director of Bands, Glen Palls, New

York, Junior and Senior High Schools.
Education; Bachelor of Arts, State Teachers* College,
Kirksville, Missouri.
Master of Education, The University of
Missouri.
Doctor of Philosophy, The University of
Southern California.
Experience: Sixteen years in the teaching profession,
primarily in the Glen Palls Schools.

Clarence Sawhill, Associate Professor of Music, The

University of California, at Los Angeles.
Education: Bachelor*8 degree, Bethany College, Kansas.
Master's degree. The University of Illinois
Also attended Northwestern University, The
Sherwood School of Music, and the
University of Kansas.
Experience Taught ten years in public schools.
Assistant Band Director, The University of
Illinois.
Band Director, The University of Southern
California, five years.
Band Director, The University of California
at Los Angeles, three years.
Extensive experience as adjudicator, clini­
cian, lecturer, and writer of articles
on bands and band instruments.
President of the College Band Directors*
National Association.
APPENDIX B
 APPENDIX B

QUESTIONS USED AS GUIDES PGR INTERVIEWS |

I. What are the things that "go wrong" most often mech- j
!anically?
I2. What are some ways of adjusting the intonation of the
Iins trument itself?
13* Do you feel that there is a basic embouchure common
I to all of the woodwind instruments?
: A. If so, what modifications are necessary for each
instrument?
B, If not, how would you describe the ideal embou- j
I chure for each instrument? ;
I '" :
|4. Do you feel that there is a basic breath control !
itechnique common to all of the woodwind instruments? !
I A. If so, what modifications are necessary for each ]
I ins trument? j
i B. If not, how would you describe the breath control |
I technique for each instrument? j
; ■ I
15* Which points of hand, arm, and playing position do you '
^consider most important? '
i6 . Which fingering combinations do you feel are the most ,
awkward?
;7 . Do you find any difference in the fingerings with
which new beginners and transferring clarinetists have
difficulty?
8. How do you feel concerning the use of vibrato on each
of the woodwind instruments?
,9. If you teach vibrato, which type do you prefer? ;
! ' I
10# Any comments which you might have on different approach­
es to the problems of phrasing.
II. Do you feel that a clarinetist could take his concept
of tone from the clarinet to another instrument, or must he
forget the clarinet tone and concentrate on the sound of
the new instrument?
 89 :
I 12. Which method of articulation (specifically attack and
I release) do you prefer? :
I ' I
I 13* How can one best make the fine pitch gradations which ;
I are necessary for good intonation? j
I ' I
! 14. What ideas and devices can be used to facilitatethe
Iblending of the tone into the tone of an ensemble? |
15* What ideas and devices can be used to facilitatethe
projection of the tone through the tone of an ensemble?
I
,16, Do you find any difficulty with transferring clarinet-
’ists regarding the voice ranges of the ins truments ?
17. Do you find any difficulty from the fact that the
'clarinet is a transposing instrument?
; ' j
I18 . What, in your opinion, are the most important similari-
! ties between the clarinet and each of the other woodwind I
!instruments? I
I - ;

I19 . What, in your opinion, are the most important differ- j

!ences between the clarinet and each of the other woodwind ;
!instruments? I
! i
I20. Any further comments, and any ideas which have been
omitted or which require further clarification.
Wherever applicable, these questions were discussed
about the instruments individually as well as together as '
;a family. 1
APPENDIX C
 GLOSSARY OP TERMS WRIOH ARE SUBJECT
TO VARYING INTERPRETATIONS

Adjustment: Any change In the instrument which the careful

player could effect with only the basic simple tools.
Air column: The vibrating air within the resonance tube of
a wind instrument.
Basic scale: The scale composed of all of the tones in the
j lowest register of a woodwind instrument.
'Blend: The quality of fusing the tones of the individual
! instruments into that of the group so that no single .
^ instrument can be heard above the others.
Condition: The ability of the instrument to be airtight,
and of the mechanism to function properly.
!Contrary motion: The act of raising one finger while an-
: othe;r finger is being lowered. |
I I
jFinger numbers: For the purposes of this study, the thumbs i
i were not numbered with the fingers. Thus, the first i
finger is the index finger, the little finger is the j
fourthfinger, etc. '
Frequency: The speed of vibration of a musical tone, usu­
ally expressed in cycles per second.
Generation: Theinitiation of the vibration of a musical ;
tone. i
:Generator: That part of an instrument which initiates the
; vibration.
Overblowing: The act of dividing the air column into its
; partial segments, thus producing the tones of the
' overtone series as the notes heard.
 92
Partial: A tone in the harmonic series. The nomenclature
J used in this study calls the fundamental tone the >
I first partial, the first overtone (the octave) the ;
I second partial, etc. j
• i
IProjection: The quality of enabling the tone of one indi- |
I Vidual instrument to be heard above that of the I
I . group. I
I I
'Quality: Those features which are built into the instru­
ment, such as materials, workmanship, design, etc.
!Random fingerings: Finger patterns which are characterized
: by much contrary motion. Generally, patterns which
' do not merely move one or two fingers up or down thei
! instrument.
1
'Resistance: The ability of an instrument to resist the
passage of air through itself.
Resonance: The amplification of the vibration in a musical,
tone and its transmission to the surrounding air.
Resonance tube: The main tube of a wind instrument, which :
acts as the resonator of the instrument. i
I
I I
iResonator: That part of an instrument which amplifies the |
I vibration in a tone and transmits it to the surround­
ing air.
Speaker: A tone hole which, when opened, causes the in­
strument to overblow a given note.
Technique: The ability of the player to effect intervallic
pitch changes rapidly, accurately, and smoothly.
The word is used in this connotation only when used
alone, rather than when used with another term, such
as "breath control technique."
Tone hole: A hole in the wall of the resonance tube which,
when opened,has the effect of shortening that tube
I or of acting as a speaker.

of SouFthern Cafffomfa Uorary