‫المرحلة الثالثة‬

‫م‪.‬م‪ .‬خولة حميدرشيد‬

‫‪2019- 2018‬‬
 negatively charged concave reflector made of
molybdenum. The focusing cup electrostatically focuses the
electrons emitted by the filament into a narrow beam directed at
a small rectangular area on the anode called the focal spot.
is the area on the target to which the focusing cup
directs the electrons from the filament.
• The sharpness of the radiographic image increases as the size of
the focal spot decreases.
• The heat generated per unit target area, however, becomes
greater as the focal spot decreases in size.
❖ To take advantage of a small focal spot while distributing the
electrons over a larger area of the target, the target is placed at an
angle to the electron beam.
 The projection of the focal spot
perpendicular to the electron beam is smaller than the actual size
of the focal spot.
• the target is inclined about 20 degrees to the central ray of the x-
ray beam.
• This causes the effective focal spot to be almost , as
opposed to the actual focal spot, which is about
• Another method of dissipating the heat from a small focal spot is
to use a rotating anode In this case the tungsten target is in the
form of a beveled disk that rotates when the tube is in operation.
• Bremsstrahlung is a German term that means "braking rays."
• emitted when electrons are decelerated or "braked" when they
are strike a metal target.
• When bombarding electrons penetrate into the target, some
electrons travel close to the nucleus due to the attraction of its
positive charge.
• The course of these electrons would be deflected, and a portion
or all of their kinetic energy would be lost.
• According to The principle of the conservation of energy:
Final KE of electron = initial KE of electron - energy of X-ray
photon
 Characteristic X-ray:
• As the fast electrons strike the target a part of the
electron energy will be absorbed within the target
atoms.
• Electrons from the inner shells of the atoms such as
L – shell or K – shell may either shifted to a higher
energy level causing excitation or leaves the atom
causing in this case ionization.
• When another electron fails immediately from the
upper energy level such as M or L shell to fill the
vacancy, it will give energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves (photons).
(characteristic X-ray) is a characteristic of the type of
material from which the target is made.
 When the exposure time is
doubled, the number of photons generated at all energies in
the x-ray emission spectrum is doubled, but the range of
photon energies is unchanged. Therefore changing the time
simply controls the quantity of the exposure, the number of
photons generated.
3. Tube voltage: Increasing the kVp increases the potential
difference between the cathode and anode, thus increasing the
energy of each electron when it strikes the target. This results in
an increased efficiency of conversion of electron energy into x-
ray photons, and thus an increase in:
a. the number of photons generated.
b. their mean energy
c. their maximal energy.
The increased number of photons produced per unit time by use
of higher kVp results from the greater efficiency in the
production of bremsstrahlung photons that occurs when increased
numbers of higher-energy electrons interact with the target.
D. Filtration:
• Although an x-ray beam consists of a spectrum of x-ray
photons of different energies, only photons with sufficient
energy to penetrate through anatomic structures and reach the
image receptor (usually film) are useful for diagnostic
radiology.
• Those that are of low energy (long wavelength) contribute to
patient exposure (and risk) but do not have enough energy to
reach the film.
• to reduce patient dose, the less-penetrating photons should be
removed.
• This can be accomplished, in part, by placing an aluminum
filter in the path of the beam.
E. COLLIMATION:
• A collimator is a metallic barrier with an aperture in the
middle used to reduce the size of the x-ray beam.
• Round and rectangular collimators are most frequently used in
dentistry.
• Dental x-ray beams are usually collimated to a circle 2.75 (7
Cm) in diameter.
• A round collimator (see Fig. below) is a thick plate of
radiopaque material (usually lead) with a circular opening
centered over the port in the X-ray head through which the x-
ray beam emerges.
• Rectangular collimators (see Fig. below) limit the size of the
beam to just larger than the x-ray film. It is important to reduce
the beam to the size of the film to reduce further unnecessary
patient exposure.

• INVERSE SQUARE LAW:

• The intensity of an x-ray beam at a given point (number of
photons per cross-sectional area per unit exposure time)
depends on the distance of the measuring device from the local
spot.
• For a given beam the intensity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source.
• The reason for this decrease in intensity is that the x-ray beam
spreads out as it moves from the source. As in the following
equation:

• where I is intensity and D is distance.

• Therefore if a dose of 1 gray (Gy) is measured at a distance of
2m, a dose of 4Gy will be found at 1m, and 0.25Gy at 4m.
A. COHERENT SCATTERING:
Coherent scattering may occur when a low-energy incident photon
(less than 10keV) passes near an outer electron of an atom (which
has a low binding energy).
• Coherent scattering resulting from the interaction of a low-energy
incident photon with an outer electron, causing the outer electron
to vibrate momentarily. After this, a scattered photon of the same
energy is emitted at a different angle from the path of the incident
photon, and the electron return to its place.
B. PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION:
• This type of interaction is happened when the electron of the
absorber atoms absorbs all the energy of x-ray photon.

• The electron uses part of this energy to escape from the atom.

• This electron deficiency (usually in the K shell) is instantly filled,

usually by an L shell electron, with the release of characteristic
radiation (see Fig. below ).

• Whatever the orbit of the replacement electron, the characteristic

photons generated are of such low energy that they are absorbed
within the patient and do not fog the film.
• The escaped electron uses the other part of energy in ripping
electrons from their atoms.
• The photoelectric effect occur more in the intense electric
field near the nucleus than the outer levels of the atom.
• It is more in atoms with high atomic number(z).
• C. COMPTON SCATTERING:
• Compton scattering occurs when a photon interacts with an
outer orbital electron.
• About 62% of the photons that are absorbed from a dental x-
ray beam are absorbed by this process.
• Compton absorption occurs when an incident photon
interacts with an outer electron, producing a scattered
photon of lower energy than the incident photon and a recoil
electron ejected from the target atom.
• The path of the incident photon is deflected by its interaction
and is scattered from the site of the collision.
• The energy of the scattered photon equals the energy of the
incident photon minus the sum of the kinetic energy gained
by the recoil electron and its binding energy.
• Scattered photons continue on their new paths, causing
further ionizations. Similarly, the recoil electrons also give up
their energy by ionizing other atoms.