OBJECTIVES

 Determine a good research

problem.
(Collaborative Competencies /
Creative thinking)
 State an acceptable research
problem. (Communication skills /
Creative Thinking)
 Research is systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer questions or
solve problems.
 The ultimate goal of research is to develop,
refine, and expand a base of knowledge.
 Nursing research is systematic inquiry
designed to develop knowledge about
issues of importance to nurses, including
nursing practice, nursing education, and
nursing administration.
 A scientific process that validates and refines
existing knowledge and generates new
knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences nursing practice.
 With evidence based practice, research
provides the best clinical evidence in
making patient care decisions.
 Nurses are accepting the need to
base specific nursing actions and
decisions on evidence indicating
that the actions are clinically
appropriate and cost-effective,
and result in positive outcomes
for clients.
 Nurses who incorporate high-
quality research evidence into their
clinical decisions and advice are
being professionally accountable to
their clients.
 Another reason for nurses to engage
in research involves the spiraling
costs of health care and the cost-
containment practices being instituted
in health care facilities.
 nurses need to document the effectiveness
of their practice not only to the profession
but also to nursing care consumers, health
care administrators, third-party payers
(e.g., insurance companies), and
government agencies.
Research enables nurses to
 understand a particular nursing situation about which
little is known,
 assess the need for an intervention,
 identify factors that must be considered in planning
nursing care,
 predict the probable outcomes of certain nursing
decisions,
 control the occurrence of undesired outcomes,
 provide advice to enhance client health,
 and initiate activities to promote appropriate client
behavior.
 Numerous clinical practice changes over the
past 2 decades reflect the impact of research.
For example, a recent nursing study
documented that “kangaroo care” (the holding
of diaper-clad preterm infants skin-to-skin,
chest-to-chest by parents) is now widely
practiced in neonatal intensive care units
(NICUs) in the United States (Engler et al.,
2002), but this is a new trend.
 As recently as the early 1990s, only a minority of
NICUs offered kangaroo care options. The adoption
of this practice reflects the accumulating evidence
that early skin-to-skin contact has clinical benefits
without any apparent negative side effects
(Anderson et al., 2003). Some of that accumulated
evidence was developed in rigorous studies by nurse
researchers in the United States, Australia, Canada,
Taiwan, and other countries (Chwo et al., 2002).
Nursing Process Research Process
1. Assessment 1. Knowledge of the World of
a. Data Collection Nursing
b. Data Interpretation
2. Nursing Diagnosis 2. Problem & Purpose
Identification
3. Plan 3. Methodology
a. Goal Identification a. Design
b. Planned Interventions b. Sample
c. Measurement
4. Implementation 4. Data Collection & Analysis
5. Evaluation & Modification 5. Outcomes & Disseminating
Findings
 Research Problem & Purpose

Literature Review

Study Framework

Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses

Study Variables
 Assumptions

Limitations

Research Design

Population & Sample

Methods of Measurement
Data Collection & Analysis

Research Outcomes

Communication of Findings
1. Descriptive – finds answer to the
questions who, what, when & where

Ex. “The management styles of school

administrators in Cebu City.”

“Smoking habits of health service

providers in government and private
hospitals”
2. Explanatory/Correlation - attempts to
explain the possible factors related to a
problem which have been observed in a
descriptive study
 Answers the questions why & how

Ex. “Relationship between Socioeconomic

Factors and Absenteeism among
High School Students in the City of
Cebu”

“Marketing strategies and Sales

Performance of Book Re-sellers in the
province of Antique”
3. Intervention/Experimental - evaluates the
effect or outcome of a particular
intervention or treatment
 Cause & effect

Ex. “The effect of Group therapy on the GPA

of Level 1 Nursing Students”

“ The effect of Malunggay on the BP of

eldery men at Pasay City”
 Experimental method – determines the
“causes & effect” relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled condition

 Survey/Descriptive method – obtains data

determine specific characteristics of a
group
- aims to describe the relationship among
variables rather than to infer cause &
effect
- serve as a starting point of theory dev.
or hypothesis generation
 Historical Method – a systematic collection
& critical evaluation of data relating to past
occurrences
- determine growth & development of a
group, organization or institution
- undertaken to answer questions
concerning causes, effects or trends
relating to past events that may shed light
in present behavior or practices

 Content Analysis – to ascertain the quality

of message or information found in a
document or in a mass media
Research Problem &
Purpose
 Major concepts
 Focused on areas of concern
 Key issues for practice,
education, & administration
 Examples: Chronic pain, Acute
pain, Self-care, Coping, Health
Promotion, Respiratory
pathology
 Area of Concern
 Gap in the knowledge base for
practice
◦ Not previously studied
◦ Conflicting findings
◦ Omission of a group of
subjects
 Significant for Nursing
  What is a Researchable Problem?

 There is perceived discrepancy between what is

and what should be.
 There are two or more plausible reasons for the
discrepancy
“Patients’ concerns about reporting pain
and using analgesics… are barriers to
adequate pain management…Despite
extensive attention to issues of pain
management…few studies have been
conducted testing impact of intervention
on cancer pain…”
Ward et al. (2000). An individualized intervention to overcome
patient-related barriers to pain management in women with
gynecologic cancers. Research in Nursing & Health, 23(5), p. 394.
 Little is known about...
◦ Findings of previous studies
are conflicting
◦ Few studies of this have been
done
 Nursing Practice
 Researcher and Peer Interaction
 Literature Review
 Theory
 Research Priorities
 Clear, concise statement
 Goal, aim, focus, or objective
of the study
 Includes variables, population,
& setting
 The purpose of this study was to
◦ describe...
◦ determine differences between
groups...
◦ examine relationships among...
◦ determine the effect of...
“The purpose of this pilot study was
to determine if information about
analgesic side effects and
information to counter
misconceptions would enhance
pain management in…women with
gynecologic cancer.”
Ward et al. (2000). An individualized intervention to
overcome patient-related barriers to pain management in
women with gynecologic cancers. Research in Nursing &
Health, 23(5), p. 394.
Current policy at most hospitals requires the
use of routine flushing of heparin locks after
administration of medication or flushing
heparin locks every 8 hours when not being
used for medication administration. However,
there is disagreement on whether flushes of
low doses of heparin are necessary to
maintain the patency of heparin locks....
1. External Criteria
a. Novelty. The practical value of the
problem due to its “newness” in the field of
inquiry (Polit and Beck: 2004)
b. Availability of Subjects. The existence of
people with the desired capability and
willingness to participate in the study; the
sampling of study participants must be
enough to ensure reliability and validity of
results
 c. Institutional or Administrative Support,
Sponsorship by a department or the
institution itself to help gather data and cover
the cost of the study: permission of those
concern for participation in the study of staff
members, the children, the aged and the
mentally retarded (Ardales, 1992).
d. Ethical Considerations. The conduct of
research must not pose unethical demands
on the part of study participants and the
researcher.
2. Internal Criteria
a. The motivation, Interest, Intellectual Curiosity
and Perceptiveness of the Researcher
The personal motive of research as cited by
scientist is pure curiosity, along with genuine
interest and the anticipated satisfaction or
enjoyment in pursuing research tasks through
completion.
b. Experience, Training and Professional
Qualifications
Knowledge and expertise as a result of
experience, constitute the researcher’s tools in
coping with the demands of rfesearch.
 c. Time Management
Studies must be pursued satisfactorily
through completion within the given time frame.
Thus, the researcher must set the time-table
prior to the conduct of the study.
d. Costs and Returns
Research is an expensive undertaking which
requires facilities and adequate funding which
vary with the kind and relevance of the study, the
methods of research used and statistical tools
required in data treatment.
 e. Hazards, Penalties and Handicaps
These could come up during the pursuit
of any scientific work, which the researcher
should be capable enough to cope with
intellectually, morally and materially.
 Characteristics of a Good Research
Problem

 Relevant – contribute to knowledge &

dev’t
 Feasible – worth the time, money &
effort
 Clear
 Ethical – does not impose danger in
the research subjects
Non-researchable Researchable Problems
Problems

Should nurses use What is the

massage therapy? relationship between
massage therapy and
pain?

Is imaging any good? To what extent does

imaging affect a
patient’s ability to
cope with health
crises?
 Problem statements
 Statements of purpose
 Research questions
◦ Quantitative studies
◦ Qualitative studies
The purpose of this study was to
evaluate the effectiveness of normal
saline versus normal saline containing
10 U/mL of heparin for maintaining
heparin-loc sites.
The purpose of this study was “to
describe, at the level of the
nursing care unit, the
relationships among total hours
of nursing care, registered nurse
(RN) skill mix, and adverse patient
outcomes” (Blegen et al., 1998).
The higher the RN skill
mix, the lower the
incidence of adverse
occurrence
on inpatient
care units.
Definition:
Objectives are declarative
statements which focus on the
identification and the description
of variables or concepts and
sometimes on determination of
relationships of variables.
The objectives of “this study were to: (a)
describe the self-reported physical &
mental health, disability level, & social
support of persons chronically ill with
multiple sclerosis; and (b) contrast rural &
urban residents in relation to health
description, social support, & perception
of health.”
Definition:
Research questions are
interrogative statements that focus
on what variables or concepts are
to be described and what
relationships might exist among
them.
What is the relationship
between reported
depressive symptoms and
rate of return to work for
patients following cardiac
surgery?
1. Factor-isolating Questions – “What is this?”
– eg. Cattegorize, name factors
andssituation eg. Demographic profile
2. Factor-relating Questions – “What is
happening here?” eg. What is the
relationship…
3. Situation-relating questions – “What will
happen if…? Eg. What are the effects
4. Situation-producing question – “How can I
make it happen?” eg. What program
Determine the process of coming up with a
review of related literature.
 Identification of a research problem and development
or refinement of research questions or hypothesis
 Orientation to what is known and not known about an
area of inquiry
 Determine any gaps or inconsistencies in a body of
research
 Determine a need to replicate a prior study in a
different setting or with a different study population
 Identification or development of a new or refined
clinical interventions to test through empirical
research
 Identification of relevant theoretical or
conceptual frameworks for a research
problem
 Identification of suitable designs and data
collections methods for a study
 For those developing research proposals for
funding, identification of experts in the field
who could be used as consultants
 Assistance in interpreting study findings an in
developing implications and
recommendations
 Electronic Literature Searches
◦ Mapping – is a feature that allows the researcher to
search for topics in his own words, rather than
needing a to enter a term that is exactly the same
as a subject heading in the database.
◦ The 3 electronic databases for nurse researchers
 CINAHL (cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature)
 MEDLINE (Medical Literature On-line)
 ISI (Institute for Scientific Information)
 Other Useful database
◦ AIDSEEARCH
◦ CancerLit (Cancer Literature)
◦ Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
◦ Dissertation Abstracts on Line
◦ EMBASE ( the Excerpta Medica database)
◦ ERIC ( Education Resources Information Center
database)
◦ HAPI (Health and Psychosocial Instruments
database)
◦ PsycINFO (Psychology Information)
 Print Resources
◦ Print indexes are books that are used to locate
articles in journals and periodicals, books,
dissertations, publications of professional
organizations, and government documents.
◦ Abstract journals summarizes articles that have
appeared in other journals
 For literature review, the researcher should
rely mostly on primary source research
reports, which are description of studies
written by other researchers who conducted
them.
 Secondary research documents are
description of studies prepared by someone
other than the original researcher
◦ Literature review summaries are secondary sources
 The adaptability to identify and locate
documents on a research topic is an
important skill that requires adaptability.
 Researchers are urged to consult with
librarians or to search for updated
information.
 Electronic Literature Searches – Even when
there are mapping capabilities, it may prove
useful on the researcher to learn the subject
headings of the database or the key words
that researchers themselves identify to
classify their studies.
 If researcher wants to identify all major
research reports on a topic, he needs to be
flexible and to think broadly about the key
words that could be related to his topic.
 If the topic includes independent and
dependent variables, it is necessary to do
independent searches for each.
 When searching a database through a
commercial vendor, it is usually possible to
combine searches to find only the references
that include only two or more topics.
Print Sources – If you are doing a completely
manual search, it is wise to practice to begin
the search with the most recent issue of the
index or abstract journal and then to proceed
backward.
 Screening references
 Abstracting and recording notes
 Organizing the review - Develop outline
 Writing a literature review -

◦ Should be objective, well-organized.

◦ Not a series of quotes not abstracts.
◦ Should summarize and critically
evaluate the overall evidence so as to
reveal the current state of
knowledge.
◦ Summarized at own words
 Style of a research review
◦ Should use phrases indicating
tentativeness of the results such as…
◦ Several researchers have found…
◦ Findings thus far suggests…
◦ Results from a landmark study
indicated…
◦ The data supported the hypothesis…
◦ There appears to be strong evidence
that…
1. Practicality – is the reference readily
accessible?
2. Relevance – how relevant is the literature to
the issue or problem under study?
3. Study’s methodologic quality – the quality
of evidence the study yields
1. Purpose of the study
2. Research design
3. Research instruments
4. Data analysis procedure
5. Implications
 1. Theory originates from the Greek word
theorem which means a proposition to be
proven.
 A theory (n.) therefore, is a supposition to
account for something; system of rules and
principles; rules and reasoning, etc., as
distinguished from practice (Webster’s
Dictionary an Thesaurus, 1991).

2. A Theory is a statement that is much
broader than facts; the basis of policies and
practices in a particular discipline that gives
direction to the researcher’s solution of the
research problem (Polit and Hungler, 1991).
 3. A Theory is a set of interrelated constructs
(concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among varibles, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).

A theory
- is a broad abstract characterization of
phenomena.
- is an abstract generalization that
systematically explains relationships among
phenomena.
- Descriptive theory thoroughly describes a
phenomenon.
 A theory has the following features: (1)
concept, (2) construct, and (3) proposition.
 CONCEPT. It is the building block of a
theory; a word picture or mental idea of
phenomenon, and a word or term that
symbolizes certain aspects of reality.
Concepts may be concrete or maybe abstract:

 Concrete Abstract

 The Human brain ------------

Intelligence
 The Human heart ------------ Care,
Love
 A nurse ------------ Nursing

 A caregiver ------------
Caregiving
 CONSTRUCT.
 used to specify a phenomenon or a situation
that cannot be directly observed but needs to
be inferred by certain concrete or less
abstract indicators of the phenomenon.

 takes its form from a concept which is

basically abstract.
 It can be ascertained only by using certain
observable and measurable procedures.
Physical health, Mental health, Wellness,
Stress, Preparednes, etc,. are some examples
of construct.
Mental Health maybe inferred through clinical
observations or laboratory data.
A very objective indicator of physical health is
the careful assessment of laboratory data,
while clinical observation may be a less
objective indicator of physical health.
 PROPOSITION.
- a statement or assertion of a relationship
between concepts.
- Theories or generalizations founded on
empirical data are sources of propositional
statements.
- For example, in Maslow’s theory of human
needs, a proposition may be stated as: Safety
needs take precedence over self-esteem
needs.
 A model symbolically presents a
phenomenon or phenomena.

 a representation of some aspect of reality,

concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness
which may be structural, pictorial,
diagrammatic, or mathematical (Bush, 1979).
Conceptual models consist of concepts and
propositions showing the relationships
between the concepts.

Although in abstract forms and not ready for

empirical observation, concepts identified in
conceptual models may be ready for use once
they are operationally defined and
categorized.

Conceptual models generally include common

concepts or elements, i.e., person,
environment, health and nursing.
 In research, the overall objectives of theories
and models are to make findings meaningful,
to summarize existing knowledge into
coherent systems, to stimulate new research,
and to explain phenomena and relationships
among them.
Schematic models (or conceptual maps) are
graphic representations of phenomena and
their interrelationships using symbols or
diagrams and a minimal use of words.
A conceptual framework is the conceptual
underpinning of a study, including an overall
rationale and conceptual definitions of key
concepts. In qualitative studies, the
framework usually springs from distinct
research traditions.
 Several conceptual models of nursing have
been developed and have been used in
nursing research. The concepts central to
models of nursing are human beings,
environment, health, and nursing.
 Two major conceptual models of nursing
used by nurse researchers are Roy’s
Adaptation Model and Roger’s Science of
Unitary Human Beings.
 Nonnursing models used by nurse
researchers (e.g., Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory) are referred to as borrowed theories;
when the appropriateness of borrowed
Orem’s Self-Care Model. Developed by
Dorothea Orem in the 1950s, this model
includes concepts about self-care, self-care
agency, self-care demand, self-care deficit,
nursing agency, and nursing system. The
theory of nursing systems, theory of self-care
deficit, and theory of self-care have
originated from Orem’s self-care model.
USES OF FRAMEWORK
 A research framework helps in the
organization of the study.
 It provides a background or foundation for a
study.
 It supplies a context for the interpretation of
the study findings.
 It is used in all quantitative studies.
 TYPES OF FAMEWORK
 Theoretical Framework. A theoretical
framework focuses on a broad, general
explanation of the relationships between
concepts of interest in a research study. It is
founded on one existing theory. Combining
or merging theories (two or more) may be
observed when conducting a research.
Conceptual Framework. A conceptual
framework is used to explain the
relationships between concepts. It is not
theory-based.
- links concepts lifted from various theories,
previous study results, or from the
researcher’s own experiences.
- - relates selected concepts in a logical way.
- may be considered a less well-developed
structure than a theoretical framework, but it
may serve as a basis for a theory formulation.
In some qualitative research traditions (e.g.,
phenomenology), the researchers strives to
suspend previously held substantive theories
of the phenomena under study; nevertheless,
there is a rich theoretical underpinning
associated with the tradition itself.
Some qualitative researchers specifically seek
to develop grounded theories, date-driven
explanations to account for phenomena
under study to inducted processes.
 c.4 Definition of the variables.
 A Variable is a characteristic or quality that
takes effect on different values. (i.e. varies
from one person or object to another.)
 c.5 Identifying the variables of the study.
 Continuous variables can take on an infinite
range of values along a continuum. Eg
weight.
 Discrete variables have a finite number of
values between two points. Eg. Number of
children.
 Categorical variables have distinct categories
that do not represent a quantity (eg. Gender)
 Dependent (outcome) variable is the behavior,
characteristic, or outcome the researcher is
interested in understanding, explaining, or
affecting.
 The Independent variable is the presumed
cause of, antecedent to, or influence on the
dependent variable.
 Moderator variables affects the strength or
direction of a relationship between the
independent and dependent variable.
 Mediating variables intervene between the
independent and dependent variable and
helps to explain why the relationship exists.
 d. Formulating hypotheses
 d.1Purpose of research hypotheses
 Hypothesis is a statement of predicted
relationships between two or more variables.
A testable hypothesis states the anticipated
association between one or more dependent
variables.
 Research hypothesis predict the existence of
relationships.
 Purposes:
 It unify theory and reality by evaluating theory on
the basis of observable facts or reality.
 It gives direction to research by determining
research design, data collection procedures,
analysis and interpretation of data. It also
determine the importance of data collected as
explained by a known theory.
 It enhance knowledge by including critical
thinking and deepening insights. They help the
researcher in the analysis and interpretation of
findings and in formulating conclusions.
 d.2Types of hypotheses
 Inductive hypothesis is a generalization
inferred from observed relationships.
 Deductive hypothesis have a starting point
theories that are applied to particular
situations.
 Simple hypothesis express a predicted
relationship between one independent
variable and one dependent variable.
 Complex hypothesis state an anticipated
relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more
dependent variables.
 Directional hypothesis predict the direction of
the relationship.
 Nondirectional hypothesis predict the
existence of relationships, not their direction.
 Hypothesis are never proved or disapproved,
they are accepted or rejected, supported or
not supported by the data.
 d.3Criteria considered when stating hypotheses
 1. Stated in declarative form.
 2. Identifies the variables.
 3. Identifies the population.
 4. Reflects the problem statement
 5. Empirically testable.

 d.4 Stating a hypothesis.

 A good hypothesis is worded in clear and concise
language. It should be worded in the present
tense.
 Conceptual definition describes the abstract
or theoretical meaning of the concepts being
studied.

 Operational definition specifies the

procedures required to measure a variable.