Unit – V

HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Population growth, variation among nations – Population explosion – Family Welfare
Programme – Environment and human health – Human Rights – Value Education – HIV /
AIDS – Women and Child Welfare – Role of Information Technology in Environment and
human health – Case studies.
POPULATION
Population is defined as a group of organism occupying a particular space which live in a given
area at a given time.

POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY

POPULATION SIZE:
Total size of population is generally expressed as number of individuals in a population. The
population size (N) at any given place is determined by the process of birth (B), death (D) , new
arrivals from outside or Immigration (I) and going out or Emigration (E).

POPULATION DENSITY
 Population is usually expressed in terms of number as population density.
 So, population density refers to the number of individuals of the population per unit area
(or) per unit volume.
FACTS AT A GLANCE
 Population in 1780: 1 billion
 Population in 1930: 2 billion
 Population in 1975: 4 billion
 Population by now: 6 billion
So, the fact is that if the same continues, the population would reach 10 billion
by 2050…..

CRITERIAS AFFECTING POPULATION SIZE

 Birth Rate,
 Death rate,
 Immigration,
Emigration

CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION GROWTH

 Exponential growth,
 Doubling time,
 Infant mortality rate,
 Total fertility rate,
 Replacement level,
 Male-Female ratio,
 Demographic transition.

DEFINITIONS AT A GLANCE:
Exponential growth: This refers to increase in population exponentially in the order 10, 10 2,103,
etc…,
Doubling time: It is the time required for a population to double its size at a constant rate.
Infant mortality rate: It is the percentage of infants died out of those born in a year.
Total fertility rate: It is the average number of children delivered by a women in her life time.
Male-Female ratio: It is the ratio of males to that of the females.
Zero population growth (ZPG): When birth plus immigration in a population are just equal
to deaths plus emigration it is said to be zero population growth.
Demographic transition: population growth is usually related to economic development. There
occurs a typical fall in death rates and birth rates due to improved living conditions leading to
low population growth. This is known as demographic transition.

ZPG = (birth + Immigration) - (death + emigration)

The Rate of Natural Increase (r)

rate of natural
increase (r) Birth rate (b) − death rate (d)

Birth rate expressed as number of births per 1000 per year (currently 14 in the U.S.)
Death rate expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 per year (currently 8 in the U.S.)

So the rate of natural increase is 6 per thousand (0.006 or 0.6%).

Exponential growth:
When a quantity increases by a constant amount per unit time.
Ex: 1, 3, 5, 7,.. it is called linear growth.
 
But, when it increases by a fixed percentage it is known as exponential growth.
Ex: 10, 102, 103, .etc.,
 
Let us the following equation
 
N = N0ert
where
N0 is the starting population
N is the population after a certain time, t, has elapsed, and
e is the constant 2.71828... (the base of natural logarithms)

Doubling time:
The time need for a population t double its size at a constant annual rate is known as doubling
time.
 
FOR EXAMPLE LET US CONSIDER SRI LANKA
Sri Lanka with an r of 1.3% (0.013)
When a population has doubled,
N = N0 x 2.
ert = 2

rt = (natural logarithm) ln 2 = 0.69

doubling time, t = 0.69 / r

So Sri Lanka with an r of 1.3% (0.013) has a doubling time

t = 0.69/0.013 = 53. (53 years)

Total fertility rate

The total fertility rate (TFR, sometimes also called the fertility rate, period total fertility rate
(PTFR) or total period fertility rate (TPFR) of a population is the average number of children that
would be born to a woman over her lifetime if the age specific birth rates remain constant.
The value of TFR varies from 1.9 in developed nations to 4.7 in developing nations.
Infant mortality
Infant mortality is defined as the number of deaths of infants (one year of age or younger) per
1000 live births.
The most common cause of infant mortality worldwide has traditionally been dehydration from
diarrhea.
(NOTE: Oral rehydration therapy, (also called ORT, oral rehydration salts or solutions (ORS),
oral electrolyte. a solution of salts and sugars which is administered orally)
Infant mortality rate in countries
The top and bottom five countries by this measure (taken from the The World Factbook's 2008
estimates) are shown below.

Infant mortality rate

Rank Country
(deaths/1,000 live births)
 1 Angola 182.31

Sierra
2 156.48
Leone

3 Afghanistan 154.67

4 Liberia 143.89

5 Niger 115.42

218 Iceland 3.25

219 Hong Kong 2.93

220 Japan 2.80

221 Sweden 2.75

222 Singapore 2.30

AGE STRUCTURE:

Population Structure or age structure

The population structure of a country is how it is made up of people of different ages, and of
males and females.
 
Age structure of population of a nation can be represented by age pyramids, based upon people
belonging to different age classes like pre-reproductive (0-14), reproductive (15-44 years) and
post reproductive (45 years and above).
We get three types of age pyramids

AGE STRUCTURE

PYRAMID BELL URN

SHAPED SHAPED SHAPED
PYRAMID SHAPED:
It reveals the rapid rise in population.
Very good example is India.
In this type young population is more and old people are less.
The large number of individual in very young age will soon enter into reproductive age.
Other countries belong to this category – bangladesh, nigeria, etc.,.

BELL SHAPED:
Very good example is France.
In this types birth rates have in the past one or two decades declined resulting in people of almost
equal number of age group 0-35 years.
So the reproductive age group is not going to change much.
Other countries – USA and Canada

URN SHAPED:
Very good example is germany
In this types very young class is smaller than the middle reproductive age class.
In the next 10 years the number in reprodcutve age class will thus become less and results in
decline in population growth.
Other countries – Italy, Hungary, Swedan and Japan.

POPULATION EXPLOSION:
Sudden increase in the population of a species is known as population explosion.
If the population suddenly decreases it is called as population crash.
Both of these cause problems to the particular community.

In the year 2000, the world population was 6.1 billion and it is predicted to grow four times in
the 100 years. This unexpected growth of human population at alarming rate is known as
population explosion.
Population explosion does not mean overpopulation or population density. The problem occurs
when the economic development fails to maintain the pace with population growth.

Causes of population explosion

The main causes of population explosion are
Increase in food production and distribution
Improvement in public health like water and sanitation.
Improved medical sevices along with education.
Drop in death rates.
Effects of population explosion:
Overstress of natural resources:
Population explosion will overstress the earth’s natural resources.
All people want to be fed, clothed, housed and need clean water. To meet these
requirements, natural resources like water, forest, land, etc will be over exploited.

Over production of wastes:

The greater amount of waste from larger population puts more stress on ecosystems. Since the
consumption is high the production of wastes materials will also increases. Though good
methods are used for the regeneration; still it creates lot of pollution.
Food problem:
As the population increases, the food problem will become more predominant. Need of good
nutrient will also increases and due the population growth there will be the problem of under
nourishment.
Pollution:
Due to the increase in population, all the forms of the natural resources will be contaminated.
Especially, water, air, heavy metal and soil pollution will predominant of all the pollutions.
Unemployment:
Unemployment is the major problem that creates due to the population growth.

HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are "rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled.
Fundamental rights which humans have by the fact of being human, and which are neither
created nor can be abrogated by any government
These include cultural, economic, and political rights, such as right to life, liberty, education and
equality before law, and right of association, belief, free speech, information, religion,
movement, and nationality.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris.

The Declaration has been translated into at least 375 languages.

The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the
first global expression of rights to which all human beings are entitled.

It consists of 30 articles.
Article 1 and 2: Right to freedom from discrimination

Article 3: Right to life, liberty and security of person

Article 4: Freedom from slavery

Article 5: Freedom from torture and cruel and unusual punishment

Article 6: Right to personhood

Article 7: Equality before the law

Article 8: Right to effective remedy from the law

Article 9: Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention and exile

Article 10: Right to a fair trial ·

Article 11.1: Presumption of innocence ·

Article 11.2: Prohibition of retrospective law ·

Article 12: Right to privacy ·

Article 13: Freedom of movement ·

Article 14: Right of asylum ·

Article 15: Right to a nationality ·

Article 16: Right to marriage and family life ·

Article 17: Right to property ·

Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion ·

Article 19: Freedom of opinion and expression ·

Article 20.1: Freedom of assembly ·

Article 20.2: Freedom of association ·

Article 21.1: Right to participation in government ·

Article 21.2: Right of equal access to public office ·

Article 21.3: Right to universal suffrage

Article 1. Right to freedom from discrimination

 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2.

 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to
which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other
limitation of sovereignty.

Article 3. Right to life, liberty and security of person

 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4. Freedom from slavery

 No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5. Freedom from torture and cruel and unusual punishment

 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment.

Article 6. Right to personhood

 Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7. Equality before the law

 All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation
of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Article 8. Right to effective remedy from the law

 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 9. Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention and exile

 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 10. Right to a fair trial

 Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge
against him.

Article 11. Presumption of innocence

 (1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until
proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary
for his defense.
 (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission
which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it
was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the
time the penal offence was committed. Article 12.

 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13.

 (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of
each state.
 (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his
country.
Article 14.

 (1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.
 (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-
political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 15.

 (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.

 (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change
his nationality.

Article 16.

 (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage,
during marriage and at its dissolution.
 (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
 (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.

Article 17.

 (1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
 (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18.

 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.

Article 19.

 Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20.

 (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
 (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21.

 (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
 (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
 (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage
and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Article 22.

 Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to
realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the
organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights
indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

Article 23.

 (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
 (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
 (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by
other means of social protection.
 (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his
interests.

Article 24.

 Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25.

 (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary
social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability,
widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
 (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,
whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

Article 26.

 (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
 (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
 (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.

Article 27.

 (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to
enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
 (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting
from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Article 28.

 Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms
set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

Article 29.

 (1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development
of his personality is possible.
 (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such
limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and
respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality,
public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
 (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.
Article 30.

 Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person
any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the
rights and freedoms set forth herein.

VALUE EDUCATION
Education:
Education is nothing but getting knowledge. Education can be calssified as formal education and
value education.

Formal education:
It is the academic education. It makes one to learn and write. Formal education is a concept,
referring to the process in which students can learn something. The process is as follows:

 Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning toward identified objectives,

 Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the
student.
 Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific
knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.

Value education:
It can be defined as gaining sensibilities in moral, cultural, spiritual and the ability to make
proper judgment and applying it in life.
The main aim of value education is to create and develop awareness about the values, their
significance and role.
It shapes life.
It makes the person happy, his family happy and his neighbors happy.
It is an education that reveals to
Live life happy
Find happiness
Make others happy
Behave and communicate with other
Grow and succeed in right manner
Manage al kinds of people.

Phases of value education:

Different phases of value based education are as follows:
Value awareness
Value orientation
Value appraisal
Value selection
Value commitment and
Value action.

Value based environmental education:

Environmental education can be made value based by blending following measures:

Social values
Cultural and religious values
Ethical values of earth
Global values like human civilization
Spiritual values like the principles of self restraint, self discipline, etc.

WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE:

WOMEN WELFARE:
Women usually suffer gender discrimination and devaluation at home, at workplace, inpublic,
etc. the human rights of women are also violated oftenly in male dominated society.

The status of women in society can be elevated by following things:

Providing good education to all.
By imparting training.
Generating awareness
Improving employment opportunity

Schemes formulated for women welfare:

Department of Social Welfare:

The Department of Social Welfare successfully implementing various welfare

schemes/programmes.

1) The Department maintains 11 Training -cum-Production Centre and 2 Typewriting Institution.

Various Income Generation Activities are provided to around 225 unemployed girls.
2) Widow Pension is also provided by this Deptt. to 464 needy widows @ Rs.350/- per
beneficiary.
3) One (1) Working Women Hostel with 32 bedded capacity is maintained by the Department
and proposed to establish 3 more Working Women Hostels during 10th Plan. The Department is
also campaigning against dowry, child marriage, prostitution and immoral traffic.
Support to Training and Employment Projects (STEP)

The programme of STEP, launched in 1987, aims to upgrade the skills of poor women, mobilize
and provide employment on a sustainable basis to women in traditional sectors such as -
agriculture, dairying, fisheries, sericulture, handlooms and handicrafts. In addition to training and
employment support, the three special features which this programme includes are - 'gender
sensitization', 'women in development (WID) inputs' and provision of 'support services'.

Training-cum-Employment-cum-Production Centres (NORAD)

The second major programme of 'Training -cum - Employment -cum- Production Centres' which
is commonly known as 'NORAD assisted Training Programmes for Women' extends financial
assistance to public sector undertakings/corporations/autonomous bodies/voluntary organisation
to train women in non-traditional trades and provide employment on a sustainable basis.

Priority is given on training in areas like electronics, electricals, watch assembly and
manufacturing, computer programming, printing and binding, handlooms, garment making,
weaving and spinning, hotel management, fashion technology and tourism. Since the inception
of the programme in 1983, more than 50,000 women and girls have benefitted from training as
well as employment opportunities provided under this scheme.

Socio-Economic Programme

The third major programme of employment and training for women is the Socio-Economic
Programme (SEP) implemented by the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB).

SEP provides 'work and wage' to needy women such as destitutes, widows, economically
backward and the handicapped. Since the inception of the programme, 154,000 literate and
illiterate women have been given 'wage and work' in the traditional as well as agro-based and
non-traditional industries.

Condensed Courses of Education and Vocational Training for Adult Women (CCE & VT).

The scheme of condensed courses of education and vocational training for adult women started
in 1958 and was recast and redefined by the CSWB in 1975.

This scheme aims to provide new vistas of employment through continuing education and
vocational training for women and girls who are school drop-outs. Since the inception of this
programme, about 800,000 adult women and young girls have undergone vocational training.

Indira mahila yojana

If was empowerment for women fromed 28000 small homogeneous women’s group upto 1997-
1999.

CHILD WELFARE:
A large number of Indian children below 6 years of age live in such economic and social
environment that affects the physical and mental development of the children.
Around 20 million children in our country are estimated to be working as child labors in various
hazardous industries lke match industry, firework industry, etc.

Mainly children have the following problems

Child labour
Sexual abuse
Lack of nutritious food
Poverty

Schemes for the welfare of children are:

Department of Social Welfare:

The Department of Social Welfare successfully implementing various welfare

schemes/programmes

1. Day Care Services is rendered to the children whose parents go out for work. The department
is maintaining 5 (five) Day Care Centre in which 250 children are provided such facilities: -
2. Home for orphan Girls is also maintained by this Department where in 25 Orphan Girls are
provided care protection, education and vocational training.

Government of india proclaimed a national policy on children in august 1974 declaring children
as supremely important assets.

The programme of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) was launched on 1975 to
provide good development of child.
HIV – AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that
causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),]a condition in humans in which the
immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections.

HIV infection in humans is considered pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO).
From its discovery in 1981 to 2006, AIDS killed more than 25 million people. HIV infects about
0.6% of the world's population. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed an estimated 2.4–3.3 million lives,
of which more than 570,000 were children.

History:

In 1981, a men with symptoms of a disease that now are considered typical of the acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) were first described in Los Angeles and New York. The
men had an unusual type of lung infection (pneumonia) called Pneumocystis carinii (now known
as Pneumocystis jiroveci) pneumonia (PCP) and rare skin tumors called Kaposi's sarcomas. The
patients were noted to have a severe reduction in a type of cell in the blood that is an important
part of the immune system, called CD4 cells. These cells, often referred to as CD4 T cells, help
the body fight infections. Shortly thereafter, this disease was recognized throughout the United
States, Western Europe, and Africa. In 1983, researchers in the United States and France
described the virus that causes AIDS, now known as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
and belonging to the group of viruses called retroviruses.

HIV/AIDS Transmission

HIV is transmitted when the virus enters the body, usually by injecting infected cells or semen.
There are several possible ways in which the virus can enter.

 Most commonly, HIV infection is spread by having sex with an infected partner. The
virus can enter the body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum, or mouth during
sex.

 HIV frequently spreads among injection-drug users who share needles or syringes that
are contaminated with blood from an infected person.

 Women can transmit HIV to their babies during pregnancy or birth, when infected
maternal cells enter the baby's circulation.

 HIV can be spread in health-care settings through accidental needle sticks or contact
with contaminated fluids.

 Very rarely, HIV spreads through transfusion of contaminated blood or blood

components. Blood products are now tested to minimize this risk. If tissues or organs from an
infected person are transplanted, the recipient may acquire HIV. Donors are now tested for HIV
to minimize this risk.

 People who already have a sexually transmitted disease, such as syphilis, genital herpes,
chlamydial infection, gonorrhea, or bacterial vaginosis, are more likely to acquire HIV infection
during sex with an infected partner.
The virus does not spread through casual contact such as preparing food, sharing towels and
bedding, or via swimming pools, telephones, or toilet seats. The virus is also unlikely to be
spread by contact with saliva, unless it is contaminated with blood.

Diagonising HIV:

There are two primary types of HIV testing:

The ELISA / Western Blot - The standard screening test for HIV is a blood test known as the
enzyme immunoassay (EIA) or ELISA for short. This HIV testing requires a small sample of
blood from the person being tested. Typically, the test requires two visits; one to receive pretest
counseling and have your blood drawn and the second to receive HIV testing results, post-test
counseling and medical referrals for HIV care if the results are positive.

The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or enzyme immunoassay (EIA), was the first
screening test commonly employed for HIV. It has a high sensitivity.

In an ELISA test, a person's serum is diluted 400-fold and applied to a plate to which HIV
antigens have been attached. If antibodies to HIV are present in the serum, they may bind to
these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. A
specially prepared "secondary antibody" — an antibody that binds to human antibodies — is
then applied to the plate, followed by another wash. This secondary antibody is chemically
linked in advance to an enzyme. Thus the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount
of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by
the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. ELISA results are reported as a number;
the most controversial aspect of this test is determining the "cut-off" point between a positive and
negative result.

Western blot

Western blot test results. The first two strips are negative and positive controls. The rest are
actual tests.

In the Western blot procedure, cells that may be HIV-infected are opened and the proteins within
are placed into a slab of gel, to which an electrical current is applied. Different proteins will
move with different velocities in this field, depending on their size, while their electrical charge
is leveled by a surfactant called sodium lauryl sulfate. Some commercially prepared Western blot
test kits contain the HIV proteins already on a cellulose acetate strip. Once the proteins are well-
separated, they are transferred to a membrane and the procedure continues similar to an ELISA:
the person's diluted serum is applied to the membrane and antibodies in the serum may attach to
some of the HIV proteins. Antibodies which do not attach are washed away, and enzyme-linked
antibodies with the capability to attach to the person's antibodies determine to which HIV
proteins the person has antibodies.

RAPID TESTS:

Although these tests have high specificity, false positives do occur. Any positive test result
should be confirmed by a lab using the Western Blot.

OraQuick is an antibody test that provides results in 20 minutes. The blood, plasma or oral fluid
is mixed in a vial with developing solution, and the results are read from a sticklike testing
device. Usually detects HIV 1 and HIV 2.

Orasure is an HIV test which uses mucosal transudate from the tissues of cheeks and gums. It is
an antibody test which first employs ELISA, then Western Blot.

Uni-Gold is a rapid HIV antibody test the provides results in 10–12 minutes. A drop of blood is
placed on the device with developing solution. Uni-Gold is only FDA approved to test for HIV 1.

Clearview Complete HIV 1/2 and Clearview HIV 1/2 Stat-Pak are rapid tests for the detection of
HIV 1 and HIV 2 antibodies in blood, serum, or plasma samples. Results are provided within 15
minutes.

HIV/AIDS Treatment

Medications

Over the past 10 years, several drugs have become available to fight both the HIV infection and
its associated infections and cancers. These drugs are called highly active antiretroviral therapy
(HAART) and have substantially reduced HIV-related complications and deaths. However, there
is no cure for HIV/AIDS. Therapy is initiated and individualized under the supervision of an
expert physician in the care of HIV-infected patients. A combination of at least three drugs is
recommended to suppress the virus from replicating and boost the immune system. The different
classes of medications include

 Reverse transcriptase inhibitors: These drugs inhibit the ability of the virus to make
copies of itself. Examples include

Nucleoside or Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). These include medications

such as zidovudine (AZT/Retrovir®), didanosine (ddI/Videx®), zalcitabine (ddC/Hivid®),
stavudine (d4T/Zerit®), lamivudine (3TC/Epivir®), abacavir (ABC/Ziagen®), emtricitabine
(FTC/Emtriva®), and tenofovir (Viread®).
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIS) are commonly used in combination
with NRTIs to help keep the virus from multiplying. Examples of NNRTIs are efavirenz
(Sustiva®), nevirapine (Viramune®), and delavirdine (Rescriptor®). Etravirine (Intelence®), a
newer member of this class of drugs, was approved by the FDA in 2008.

 Protease inhibitors (PIs): These medications interrupt virus replication at a later step in
its life cycle, preventing cells from producing new viruses. These include ritonavir (Norvir®), a
lopinavir and ritonavir combination (Kaletra®), saquinavir (Invirase®), indinavir sulphate
(Crixivan®), amprenavir (Agenerase®), fosamprenavir (Lexiva®), darunavir (Prezista®),
atazanavir (Reyataz®), tipranavir (Aptivus®), and nelfinavir (Viracept®). Using PIs with
NRTIs reduces the chances that the virus will become resistant to medications.

 Fusion and entry inhibitors are newer agents that keep HIV from entering human cells.
Enuviritide (Fuzeon®/T20) was the first drug in this group. It is given in injectable form like
insulin. Another drug called maraviroc (Selzentry®) binds to a protein on the surface of the
human cell and can be given by mouth. Both drugs are used in combination with other anti-HIV
drugs.

 Integrase inhibitors stop HIV genes from becoming incorporated into the human cell's
DNA. This is a newer class of drugs recently approved to help treat those who have developed
resistance to the other medications. Raltegravir (Isentress) was the first drug in this class
approved by the FDA, in 2007.

Antiretroviral viral drugs stop viral replication and delay the development of AIDS. However,
they also have side effects that can be severe. They include decreased levels of red or white
blood cells, inflammation of the pancreas, liver toxicity, rash, gastrointestinal problems, elevated
cholesterol level, diabetes, abnormal body-fat distribution, and painful nerve damage.

 Pregnant women who are HIV-positive should seek care immediately because HAART
therapy reduces the risk of transmitting the virus to the fetus. There are certain drugs, however,
that are harmful to the baby. Therefore, seeing a physician to discuss anti-HIV medications is
crucial.

Prevention

Despite significant efforts, there is no effective vaccine against HIV.

The only way to prevent infection by the virus is to avoid behaviors that put you at risk, such as
sharing needles or having unprotected sex.

In this context, unprotected sex means sex without a barrier, such as a condom. Because
condoms break, even they are not perfect protection. Many people infected with HIV don't have
any symptoms. There is no way to know with certainty whether a sexual partner is infected. Here
are some prevention strategies:

 Abstain from sex. This obviously has limited appeal, but it absolutely protects against
HIV transmission by this route.

 Have sex with a single partner who is uninfected. Mutual monogamy between
uninfected partners eliminates the risk of sexual transmission of HIV.

 Do not share needles or inject illicit drugs.

 If you work in a health-care field, follow national guidelines for protecting yourself
against needle sticks and exposure to contaminated fluids.

 The risk of HIV transmission from a pregnant woman to her baby is significantly
reduced if the mother takes medications during pregnancy, labor, and delivery and her baby
takes medications for the first six weeks of life. Even shorter courses of treatment are effective,
though not as optimal. The key is to get tested for HIV as early as possible in pregnancy. In
consultation with their physician, many women opt to avoid breastfeeding to minimize the risk
of transmission after the baby is born.

Environment and human health

In general terms a physically fit person not suffering from any disease is called a healthy person.
But millions of people dies every year due to illness caused by environmental pollution. The
poor suffer most since they live in unsanitary conditions, also faces malnourishment and are not
in the reach of good medical facilities.

Reason:
Deadly pollutant of water creates many water borne diseases. They cause disease like diarrhea,
typoid, etc.
Each year four million people (mainly children)die due to diarrhea all over the world. More then
70 million people die eac year dye to drinking polluted water. About 70% of the world’s
population breathe unhealthy air. The use of leaded petrol and traffic congestion in developing
nations create lot of air pollution. It creates disease like cancer, heart and lung disese, genetic
defects and mental retardation.
Large population are exposed to hazardous wastes from refineries, power plants, nuclear plants,
tanneries and chemical industries.
Rural people attracted to urban industrial areas in the hope of jobs are to live with unsafe water,
toxic fumes and densely populated conditions.
They are prone to diseases like TB, viral infections, asthma, etc.
In rural areas, hunger and malnutrition also causes death.
African in every three and one asian in every five does not eat enough to its body.

Issues of environment and health

The various issues of environment and human health are given below:

Urban environmental health:

In urban area around the world, the living conditions of hundrends of millions of people threaten
their health. This crisis in the urban environment is causing most immedieate effects on human
health. The poor in the urban areas usually suffer high rates opf diseses and deaths du lack
knowledge and loack mecidinal aids.

Water quality and health:

Water quality have significant effect on human health due to waterborne diseases, inorganic and
organic chemical contaminants and radioactive contaminants.
As estimated 170 million urban and 770 million rural inhabitants lack safe and adequate drinking
water supplies.
Water borne diseases are the largest single category of communicable disease contribution to
infant mortality. The most of the disease agents that contaminate water and food are biological
and come from animal and human faces.
Air quality and health:
According to an estimate more than 1000 million urban residents worldwide are exposed to out
door air pollution levels higher than those recommended by WHO.
In many cities, people are becoming more susceptible to respiratory diseases due to air pollution.
Industry and health:
Industrial practices cause adverse health effects through the release of air and water pollutants
and generation of hazardous wastes. Some of the common disease due to the industrial practices
are silicosis, pneumoconiosis, lead and mercury pensioning and skin diseases.
Noise pollution is also a majore pollution due industrial sector which makes high h BP, heart
attacks and mental disorder.

Energy health:

The four energy and heal issues identified are:

Urban air pollution resulting from fossil fuel combustion .
Indoor air pollution resulting from domestic use of coal and biomass fuels for cooking and
heating.
Accident prevention and control.
Possible consequences of climatic change.
Important hazards and their health effects:
Hazards Health effects
Physical hazards: Affecgts the cell in the gbody and produce
Radioactive radiations cancer
Uv radiation Skin cancer
Global warming Temperature increases an famine mortality.
Chemical hazards: Astma. Bronchitis, etc.
Combustion of fossil fuels
(oxides of nitrogen, carbion and sulphur)
Industrial effluents Kill cells and cuase cancer
Pesticides like DDt Affect the food chain
Biological hazards: Diarrhea, malaria, anaemia, cholera, etc.

Bacteria, viruses and parasites

FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME:

India consist of 16.87% of the world population. Family welfare programme was imprlementaed
by the government of India as a voluntary programme.

It is an integral part of overall national policy of growth covering human health, maternity,
family welfare, child care and women’s right.
India launched the National Family Welfare Programme in 1951 with the objective of "reducing
the birth rate to the extent necessary to stabilize the population at a level consistent with the
requirement of the National economy. The Family Welfare Programme in India is recognized asa
priority area, and is being implemented as a 100% Centrally sponsored programme

Programmes:

Different programmes like

Family planning (later on renamed as family welfare)

programmes like Maternal and Child Health, Universal Immunisation Programme,
Diarrheal Control Programme,
Acute Respiratory Tract Infection Control Programme,
Other nutritional deficiency control programme

During Ninth Five year plan period these all programmes were brought under one umbrella with
greater service packages and wider coverage i.e. Reproductive & Child Health (RCH)
Programme in year 1997 in India.
To stabilize and check population, to have longevity of life, care for reproductive and child 
health etc.
Taking up of various family welfare and family planning programmes.
To conduct health awareness programmes.
Maternity benefit schemes / Reproductive Child Health

Main components of the programme

The following are the main components of Family Welfare programme :

Child health

Population control/stabilization

Materrnal health

In Tamil Nadu:

The demographic scenario of Tamil Nadu for 2009 is furnished below :

1. Crude Birth Rate                              15.8/1000 population

2. Crude Death Rate                            7.2/1000 population
3. Infant Mortality Rate                      35/1000 live births
4. Maternal Mortality Ratio                 0.9/1000 Deliveries
5. Natural Growth Rate                       0.86 percent

Health and Family Welfare Department - Government of Tamil Nadu is attempting to achieve
the following demographic goals in Tamil Nadu by the end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan i.e.,
as on March 31, 2012.

1. Institutional Deliveries 100%

2. Infant Morality Rate 20/1000 Live Births
3. Crude Birth Rate 14/1000 population
4. Total Fertility Rate 1.4
5. Maternal Mortality Ratio 45/100000 Live Births

Role of information technology in environment:

The distribution of information through some medium by using computers is called information
technology.
It has tremendous potential in the field of environmental education. Number of software’s has
been developed for this purpose. This is very easy to collect process and distribute many things
related to environment.

DATABASE:

Database is the collection of inter related data on various subjects. It acan be retrieved at any
time when it is needed. It has various information regarding environmental areas like number of
extinct species, datas relating hot spots, various biodiversities, etc. in a particular manner which
ccanbe sorted by using any criteria.

NATIONAL MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (NMIS) of the department of

science and technology has gathered a data base on research and development projects along
with information about research scientists and other related items.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (ENVIS) this was created by the ministry of

environment and forests, government of India. It functions in 25 different centers all over the
country. ENVIS collets the information regarding f\the following things:

Pollution control
Clean technologies
Remote sensing
Coastal ecology
Biodiversity
Renewable energy
Desertification
Media related to environment
Ecology
Mining

Global Resouyce Information Database (GRID):

GRIC was established by UNEP in 1985 to bridge the gap between the scientists and decision
makers for the purpose of environmental policy making. It also provides the global society with
updated and reliable environment information.GRID network has fourteen centers.

GEOGRAPGHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS):

This is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number
of inter related or interdependent aspects.
GIs has proved to be a very effective tool in environmental management.

Applications

Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources.
GIS technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and
analytic power of traditional mapping.

GIS enables the combination of various sources of data with existing maps and up-to-date
information from earth observation satellites along with the outputs of climate change models.
This can help in understanding the effects of climate change on complex natural systems. One of
the classic examples of this is the study of Arctic Ice Melting.

The outputs from a GIS in the form of maps combined with satellite imagery allow researchers to
view their subjects in ways that literally never have been seen before. The images are also
invaluable for conveying the effects of climate change to non-scientists.

Prediction of the impact of climate change inherently involves many uncertainties stemming
from data and models. GIS incorporated with uncertainty theory has been used to model the
coastal impact of climate change, including inundation due to sea-level rise and storm erosion.

The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding
satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in
Earth processes over days, months, and years.

As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to
determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic, known
as a normalized vegetation index, represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two
variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag
between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.

NEED OR APPLICATION OF GIS:

Many thematic maps containing digital information on a number of aspects like water resources,
industrial growth, human resettlements, soil type forest land crop land are superimposed in
layered form in computer using various soft wares. Such information is very useful for future
planning.
This give an clean idea regarding various endangered, endemic and extinct species.
They also provide information regarding monsoon, ozone layer depletion, global warming, .
etc.,.
It also gives information regarding the availability of types of minerals in particular area.
This gives an idea about the control of various pollutions in different places.
Interpretation of polluted zones can be monitored
Checking of degraded lands can also be made.
Planning for locating suitable areas for industrial growth is done by ZONING ATLAS.
GIs serves to check unplanned growth and related environmental problems

Sustainable development

Proper planning
 Using GIS

Remote sensing:
Remote sensing refres to the process that is used to gather information about an object withut
actually coming in contact with it.
Any force like gravity, electromagnetism can be used for remote sensing.

Remote sensing and Environment:

The human dimensions of global environmental change consist of the driving forces and the
resultant actions of mankind capable of affecting the Earth system and its processes. From a
fundamental perspective, the relevant types of human actions are those that have accompanied
the historical development of civilization and technology, and that now are reaching epic
proportions due to the continually expanding human population.

In "A Framework for Research on the Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change,"
Jacobson and Price (1990) group such actions into five major categories:

1) fossil fuel consumption

2) biomass fuel consumption

3) land use change

4) agricultural activities

5) halocarbon production and release.

Human actions involving biomass fuel consumption, land-use change, and agricultural activities
all involve direct interaction with the global land surface. The extent of these interactions has
prompted concern about the possible effects on the global physical, chemical, and biological
systems. In particular, large-scale changes in land use at rates unprecedented in human history
are provoking considerable concern. Land-use change is frequently accompanied by alterations
or changes in land cover, which may possibly contribute to subsequent environmental change.

Satellite remote sensing is an evolving technology with the potential for contributing to studies
of the human dimensions of global environmental change by making globally comprehensive
evaluations of many human actions possible.
Satellite image data enable direct observation of the land surface at repetitive intervals and
therefore allow mapping of the extent--and monitoring of the changes--in land cover. Evaluation
of the static attributes of land cover (types, amount, and arrangement)

Applications:

In agriculture:

In India, the agriculture sector the livelihood of around 70% of the population and contributes to
about 35% of the net national product. It needs management of land and water resources along
with yielding variety seeds, optiml fertilizer input, etc. remote sensing can provide valuble
information for land and water management.

In forestry:

Sustainable forest management requires reliable information on the type, density and extent of
forest cover, wood volume and biomass, forest fire, etc. remote sensing provides all such
information.

In land cover:

Spatial information on land use is required at different scales depending upon use. Remote
sensing data is converted to map, the spatial resolution plays a role on the scale of mapping.

Water resources:

Remote sensing data has been used in many applications related to water resources such as
surface water body mapping, ground water targeting, wetland, inventory, food monitoring, etc.
by using remote sening the ground water can be predicted clearly.

Disaster management:

Disasters like floods, tsunami, etc., can be predicted earlier by using remote sensing. By using
this death toll can be reduced.

WORLD WIDE WEB:

A vast quantum of current data is available on World wide web.
It provides the current and relevant information on preinciples, problems and doubts of
environmental sicences
It provides procedures for conducting various test relating the environmental problems
It give the information regarding the permissible limits.
Is has files of photos presentation, animations etc., which are useful to all regarding
environmental studies.

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN HEALTH

Information technology plays a key role in human health. It has changed the human life style
completely.
Application of IT in health :

GIS:

It helps in identifying the several disease intectded areas which are prone to some vector borne
diseases like malaria, typhoid, etc., base on mapping of such areas. This will be very useful
planning the service camps.

INTER NET:

It gives all the in formations regarding all the diseases and also the correct curing methods.
Many classes of medicines will be available for almost all diseases and the corresponding
doctors will give their ideas in on-line.

For example homeopathy system www.homoeomiracles.com , www.homoeocures.com, etc were

serv in for the affected persons.

At the time of emergency regarding blood transfusion many websites like www.indian
blooddonors.com were very useful.

Many organizations such as WHO, maintain their websites with information about endemic,
epidemic and communicable diseases to inform people about dangers involved.

Informations regarding new drug release, their mode of action, indicatons and risks are also
available on websites.

Recent informations regarding surgery are also available on net for clarification and awareness.