Topic 1. Introduction to signils.

Definitions- Classifications. Some basic

continuous- and discrete-time signals.
Definition of signals
Srgna/s are scalar-valued functions of one or more jndependent
variables. They might be human speech, blood pressure varjations
with time, seismic waves, piclures or images, radar and sonar
signals or temperature values at the output of a temperature
measurement sensor. Some signals a se naturally, llke acoustics
signals (sounds produced by dolphjns) biological signals (b.ain and
hearth waves) cosmic signals etc. Other signals are man-made,
like communication signals (telephone, radio, t.v. signals), audio
signals (music), control and telemetry systems etc. When the signal
is electric, the varying function might be electrical voltage or
current. For optical signals (light over a fiber optical cable) it is the
light intensity.
For one-dimdnsional signal the independent variable is referred
as "time" (x(t) or s(t)), but for multi-dimensionat signats these varj-
ables might be, forexample, space coordinates (as in still pjctures).
ln this course mainly one-dimensjonal signals will be considered.

Deterministic and random signals

A signal is deterministic when there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time, or random when there is some
degree of uncertainty before the signal actually occurs.

Fig. 1.1. Example oi deterministic signat (tetephone ione No 8 combined

h^/o sine signals with frequencies 852 Hz and 1336 Hz)
-
 Deterministic signals are easily modeled by explicit
rriathematical expressions, what is not possible for random signats.
When examined over a long period, however, a €ndom signal,
also referred as a /ardom process, may exhibit certain regularities
that can be described in Ietms ot probabilities and sfaflslica/
ayerages. AII signals that are carrying information are random!!!l

-0 o.? 0..r !.6 0.s r 1l t..r 1.6 t 3

r(srG)
Fig. '1.2. Example of random signal - the value of lhe signal is changing
chaotically

Continuous and discrete time signals. Quantized and

nonquantized signals
Signafs can be either cortrruous or discrete in both time and
amplitude.
A continuous-time signal is a signalthat is defined at each and
every instant of time. lt can be represented by a function of time
x(a) where -- < t< -

Fig. 1 .3. An example of a continuous-time signal

A discrete-time signal can be represenled by a function of time
 x(rl) where --<n<-

F6 1 4 An examole of a drsctele-tiTe signal (obtained flom the srgnal ;n

Fiq. 1.3 afre' sampling it every T seconds r'e at inslants nI)

and is a constant (usually a llxed time-interval) Later in the

f
course we shall drop the time-interval f' using the alternative
notations x(r) or ii
Signals discrete in amptitude are often called quantized signals
A no-nquantized signal can assume any value within a given range
(like the ambient temperature).
A quantized signal can assume only a finite number of discrete
value! within a given range (like the ambient temperature as
measured by a digital thermometer)
Thus, the signals can be subdivided into four types, as shown in
Fig. 1-5, namely:
. continuous rime or analog signals nonquantized x(f) (conti-
nlrous in time and continuous in amplitude) (Fig 1-5a);
. discrete-time (sampled-time) nonquantized x(nT), (discrete ln
time and continuous in amplitude) (Fig. '1.5b);
. discrete-amplitude continuous'time (quantized box-car ot staiP
case fype) signals xq(f) (Fig. 1 5c);
. discrete-time discrete-amplitude (quantized) sig,a/s xq(n)
(Fig. 1.5d), called also digitat. l^ fact digital are signals taking
onlt values of "l" and '0" as shown in Fig. 1 6-
 (a) C!.'tinuo!s-1ine, nonqraliDd (bl orsc€re-tme, nonq@ntzed

{c) conti.uoueime, q€n.i4d id) Dis€le{ime, quantized

Fig. 1.5 Four types of signals

Fig- 1.6. Obtaining digitalfrorn an analog sighalthrough sampling,

quantizing and coding
 Digital signals are obtained from cliscrete-time di;ete ampliiude
siqnalsiFiq. '1:5d) after coding, consisting ot representation of {he-
q,iuniirinq'i.u"t. in uinary form (rrg '1.6) Thus the conversion of an
analog signal to digital includes the following 3 steps:
- sampling;
- quantizing;
- coding.
Tnese S"steps are carried out in a device called Analog-io'Digital
con;erter (Abc). The opposite conversion is performed by a device
called Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC). These devices are
oiouiainq-tn" int".fa"e tetween the anatog world of the humans and
ihe dioiGlworld of the telecommunications. audro- and video-
techn;logies, computers and data-bases medical eleckonics etc .
eoC *itt o. studied in the course about DSP The signals
"niOnb
from Figs. 1.5b,c are existing mainly within these devices'

Digital vs. analog signals

Most of the.signals that are encountered in nature are analog
sionals. The main reason for this ls that physicalsystems cannot
reioond instantaneously 1o changing inputs. We human are
Droducino and understanding analog signals. There is however' a
iotal traniition fiom analog to digital signals in lelecommunications
and all othur hu.an .ctivities. Analog signals are dif{icult io transmit
and store, because they are vulnerable to any kind of noises Digital
.ionals v.ry easv t; be separated from the noises added to lhe
"re
siinats thev aie easilv (and economically) stored in digital memo-
rie"s {compare a tape-iecorder, recording analog signals and
a USB
or memory chip, memorizing huge volumes of digital information)
anJ, mo"t'ot tt'.y are ealily processed by computers ln the.last
"it,
io vears a new Reld appeared and grew up immensely - the fleld of
the'Diqital Signal Pro;sing (DSP). About a half of the present
course- will tr;at different as,ecb ofthe basic theory behind
DSP
and next semester a course, entirely dedicated to DSP will be
taught.
Periodic and aperiodic (non-periodic) signals
An analog signal x(t) is periodic ii
it is deUn;d ior all possible values of f, -- < | -, and
<
there is a positive realvalue Io, ihe period ofx(f)' such that
x(t+kTd = x(f)
Ior any integer k.
The period of x(f) is the smallest possible value ol f0>0 lhat
makes the periodicity possible. Thus. allhough NIo for an rnleger
period
N>1 is also a period of x(t), it should not be considered the
Example 1.1
Cdnsida ih€ ffiloe riBl$id
:{, = n@too! +a) -5<t<e
D€r.mine th. pedod of $i3 .igD.! .nd indi@E fd {hd ftequd<t fi€ P"iod of rlr) is oot
'!o
Solutim
Trt dBlqs treguacy = 2dlTo 5 ?o =:'/oo
is 5lo t th' Faiod- whtn.q ro ' 0 (or flo > 0)
.h* sinustda! aE Pdiodic For itrtrin<e @n'ide'
!G)=2.61r-tl2l
:s Fdod is fo$rl by notidns ih'rlh! tisnat hs d ,rq fi'qudcv !h = 2 = 1F o !!dlsej'
* i lov requ-q = rJt : if,' 'o &.. ra = t t th€ tEi€d itr !@'{L- l}* this is thc
"r1o itt gdN,
Fiodflbljs tora!

rir: lil;t : 2..6Gg + | - j!1t:7d(2t + )nN - ' la\

^II.
:2dx-tj2;:rir]
i'd hu!*9te.t?r}:. ib. 'r€!E dihe @nft sir€'rne on€inat aele :i fu: o-
aild:ng zr N {n
Otre ac dqr*q'- :leisioa .r$or b€ (!d"d b€13s o{rhednisi'! bt m *ho trdieg

Example 1.2
cF- g.i"o. of to: D.i!mi* wtEths ih€ toitoFitr€ tigm:s e lErisdic
"lpl "tt Pdiod
sd il so "tnd then @regouliEg Fioi!!

ili liri = rr,, -.r,,,r

*'r b Pdio<ti( orPedod r, = NIo shse N s r P'suE drcs@
i"i .t,r =Xir "+'*
sbR s(,) i' Pdiodi. ot Fn'd n, qot nt(lsrit' ' DUltiPI' of 70'
"lr)
D.;miE undd wh !,(t) @dd b<
@nditioB Psiodic

SoldtoD
lsl
'-' Ad&E n @n$nt b d ttdiodi..isnal dG rcr cbDge th' Pdiodi(itv so )rr ' 6 p'dodi( of
G"ai;-'r'* * r".",i iEk€dr.-lr + rTD) = r - (i + [Tor = i - nr I ;na Fd t Pniodi<

&) Th: pdiod Tr = r"16 ofv(O r:hD. Fiod ortro, xld sdt i' P€riodic of P6od r: 3ine
t6 y i!l4!r h
,(t+14, {t+}1) v',lls} + t!} =r(rr + {1)
+ t{: + I'T1} =nr
= '
Si6 ttr! u{+H,t =ttt,,.!d rhd !-{ i5 iltgq s !b't rir -i $'Io, = r8,' The Psi-
"oai.ity
* t. **oli,"a ry *sidd€ fi.. i! oR Fibd af 4ti F GD Pre' N Psiods
 \r.
l.l fte.mdnio! {or llJj 10 b€ p"!i&li. L thr dr ilio oa dr€ psid& atr! ll &a of r(ti bc
?rN
fuu
where M ard !l rE Plsidlr irn386 nor aiviliblllt ari or:rr$ rls! liill) = i.lo lte.dm6
rbe p€d.dofa,(a lnlt in

(.+nilit:{ril,tl!J *r/i,+rltTr)=t{rrNrydr!r'1+t L) =nt+ !(4

Example 1.3
llt {4 = i2 ad y(rl =.'r, iqd oeids rnei! sm da =r(r} +t{rt rtd rlEn prcdua eO =
{rxrt. D.r.oiDC iril0 dd r{4 {€ pdiadi.. n d ia6 6od rl:.irpsiod.. } Xr} = O + rir)Xl +

lfttdin€ b [qlcls idFtirt,

{O = cosrlD.}iiin(:t
(o(!r) +i5inF0
/{t) =
indi.!'ir8 {r) i' pdiodic of penod ll = (ft. frqu€dcy ofri4 ! oo = ! = 1Elli,).'d {r) l5
'
nsiodi.6{ pdiod 7j + 2 (rh. tuqlch<toftrr F nr - r = 2rllr )
IorE(rl .o be tdattic Rquiu *!t l/T0 b. ! Btlo.nl !v6b$ vhLh lt mt ft. @E * 1'' /]; *-
2/r. $o !(11 h not Fdiodii
Ih. produ.r ir u(r) = x(r)/(r) = dir'4!)t = c(f},4 + j.iD(orr) *hG O: e t +u = l'lL F
lhlt Ir : 2tl(2 + il. ro !(o ii p.risdi. r,t l'eriod Ir.
Illt t.mr I +i(t) atrd I + Xr) iE rsiodic oltrsidd 10 =r rnd T, - 2, rnd fsD rh. of6.
pftductrbm, one ruld hopE rlir pftilu.t b. rdi.dic. tardftEt(r) = I t" rl4 +r(r)'R
+ (r'dl]
qld !(r) + {4 is bt p&id.uc {h.r p(4 ir not pe'iodL, I
lmportant Conclusions
r.lsLlg3lilsrdrdt€ql@crao>0dep*iodioo(pGrjodIo*!'/9u!th=o,$etcnidiinor
ElldaE dd
. TIF 6{Eol t{o leicdicrg$b {n ed lO,.a !6io& q ed r:. !s a.dod!. iit Oe 6bro.{ i!. Fiods
7lflr ilEdlitul.rabs Nll.l, wiin N ddM b€ilg M.llisible t16!edod dl}les6iiattj : NIl.
i lidprrd Drolrw sirMtrte i. Fi!d)!. nB F.d!.1oiim!di.dic aigtis ir.ot .l)l**@ilv tsjodlc
Finite Energy and Finite Power signals
pcible dsinddon of si$str is ba{d dn t}En 6er6' qd loffi Tbe toft€pls .f€ner$'
lbd Fd*r drodMd ,n.iru,! rh.or! d h€ ddd.d b.nt denil. RdU rh.t ld! dtbr o, mt
^xorter
Bi$ e j& iE d!@61rtrr G gi$ 6y

!1O = ]lt i, = i2{o = trl'

rvhR ill) ad r{u c dp ltrrm nd KIrnCr in 6E Eird the,r4erin the .6irb for & idEel
lr.,rr l, ordlInid T =., - rn, it 6s.amdrnnon dri!tuhbe power06 tE. rinz b6€1,

t\ = J'I dt\tt : JI t nat - )l,|rNl!

The p.lM il rlE idffil T =n- ;s G ttlr as.g€ adBt

n I |1,'"'a=il;"*
1d rhi'dd b: an€ E;ror {..d fo. ejtltd Fu F{t ab. €l6ic @crpaqJ
.oE6poEdi.€ b ib.
Th€ FRr @..F& @ dG !.6it sdE:r4.
@4gy.*d
k@87sdln ;leroteEn6!.q jsslr{aeetcdrj€le*dhtued@drEie:sa
t
g, = | trrrtr*
.,
p,= nrn I / mor,a

ftsF,!!d4t iEdersadtlleG€I!€.s-T. dsqr*n!E$E!&.e*Elerct

€.=oc
?ie ciq 3i ie ssid *lk"e€lire FoirE:l
9: <.4
Remarks
, wtidM 4.taxr d d tw @ edhl &\ a nsF/ d i@ u irtu@
118.|xD. rM r
t"ib.1@d7 ted x a
4.int ia n aat '9!a
r 4dtdF€d d6idds3 llstdibi6 Ant*stisHhhiit$,6,{ts
h nE fum1nttq aery
w, a d e 9N1E s Mgnw q rA" sgr, tprr..'L.d s Er lnn enJr,, b rq,i,dtdr k
a A.Kli4'. ee ab* &{tui!t@ dti'ib-eg tis&r! te a Fw tnd4 it de es of aE n,',t
:r*i.i trn ,.EJ < *, 4sr
p.- r-9 n

. t' Ml.4j,srd d:, n

'.in
b &.!6dlndy idlsrE5re iitr{4 tsti$6 tu&tr r4
iE
f
.
/ Ii{'rld -

Example 1.4
tird rhe a.!$,_ !.d rlE p*cr of itE totttr;.€:
{at +'€ Fdiodi<rtE!:l {t = @s{..Jr -. -14),
(b) t6e mds rr'r'F/',6ro. r. rortrdeorfietYE
(') lh€ F$. d') 'sn'l,,i4
= Lloro<r<rgedmo.hwie
Darfui*dxt5€rdi* iiEE:k* &,ipelts:.6f,ir FIre u loiL
I}r 6.r!y in .hs. :;:"ali; rEplrld ar tolos;

t\. I @ztrt/) | "l{tdt -&

E = I u + n4't'tt dt - 7 1 dt. 20
'l!

*=
"J [ t,='o
shd *€ ur.il l(r.rrlok4!l, : ll-riFls'rv:f = lt ijP = ?- ftB r(i, ir s iridis4se, sis-
ftd wlil€ r() ard z(r) .re 6rile{€rg siqnrtu. Xte p(]{g of t(il dd dt) E ,e b€we thry
h3E 6bne q{lF,- l lre poEer.lx(t) (D b! cnl.d'l.d ny $ing ahe crn*rly ofihg}igml qured

P, - tin ;r .l 6ltztt !.r rlo,d' =l- I

=,1'a,,,, *',*i,. "u,a,

^-"'. I i I "
Irt!*rlt€ riEo.mesi. id6!i!t
**i.r/z + .z,r: :i lc*rrr + ri:t -;. :1

r,, - i /*<",""rla,+ | /,r, =o+or - o,s

Ttl! [Bl ioqtll ix d! al?, of&e iinuloid @{ tw of it' ?edbdr th6 pb- So w h*. thar riO
ir i tiire-poicr bur inclit!€rsryr iiSDAL httil. }{t) lnd !G) d! 6nli+pfl6 and fi!n(-&ew
d8rdL f
Example 1.5
CoBids 6! rpdiodit sig'lr i(4 = ,-d,, > o, Ior . z o od {tro oth@i!, ltd rhc cnqB/ dd
the pokr of dlh ritoul ud dc(qoim wh.tb!. lb! dsn.I i! 6rdl! qr6r tu{k r!N, or both.

rl'c dErRy of4!} is eieo bt

r-,-
'! /i-a,- r..*
for.nyulft o{! } o. llkprmr{.{.} i. ibd e.Thur r(l is,6n1l.{fta8i, ?Bd inite-Fee
t
 Example 1.6
U.dids t!€ t ntrili &nloesiqrHl, wlndl w €U r &dd si.eid b€ffe ir is zft trr r < 3:

f -'6,ar -,. 4, r . o

fbis ii rhe kind otsieDal rhd tbu Mnd Ad 6om n.iEEl €en6rc rnar ii Brannd er a ctui.
initi.l iie (ir ttis aF c) .Ed rbd mdn@ erdl rhe {qrat ssa€rlr ii ssn.h€d aF iiE rhii
!6 F$ibry iafnirt), D€rmF itrhie sigDd nd.ic sgS. n.ir. aak !.!!d!

clqlb, rb€.lrlog dignal {il h* iaiaie ceq:

E-
-l= I t,r"r

J
/"*,,., ,,.,,,.-
tltbarsh &n sign5l ;d inirie .Er€t i. hs fni@ ?ss. L{jng T = Nl. w|s*ao i tbe peiod
of2dsilt rl{] (q I' = ?rlrJ, ihf! iBFlffi is

!m-rr'r,/r,
A f-. tt J lm rrJ
r-6 _txLrJdr

r. 1".
fu."i,,r,. 'ro'a,
!.O ,\.ID J ITA J

rhi.h ir taualls{li&d trd€f.R&dgal l* trii€ p$s bd itr6nit 6€tg)', ,l

A. m qiL R brer ir tE lt'uie. sis reg@.e.!o4 ar_$ p.riodi. sqEd ir ftF?mr3l)l€ $ n rc
ii:ny iltiaile s@ oarinNiih of SegudiE$dlills ofrn€ nEd,fr€nt l neqlsry .trtF tE odic
lig,t !.ine ryidlrn€a 1a€ f*W:u.:!s,!c r4id la be n,r'mintll, ElJt d, dd t6. rhis d* ihe
Fodoftie 3iCEa! i id@ ro be lhe *rn rfthe !tu oaach oarhe sirGoiila:6b9d66-thr:
it al$e L :lperpdirili! ct fte !(r€ This $I,erpcitto! is Ritl p{$ibk .*!s n $q ofsinusoids
el$ i .orF*iodi. sigaal
In [I] @xanple l.I4)it is shoM dlat

:AeFEdes@akiIIN&.
,rn-Irro,(er'i-Ilr{i
w]& i@j'-& d @irl'll,]Rir r€laEd E€qMis ls&1, is &€ M or 6r !d@ d 6d .t tna

.1* IP*
 Some Basic signals
Continuous Unit-step function and Unit-impulse function
coBider r Ecungular puke of d!di@ A dd uir
'B
[! ,r,n ., .
P^U' : I
nrt
[o^ I< A/2rndr>a/2

-Al::rS d/2

pdl)

Fig. 1.7. Generation of 6(l) and u(0 from limit as a-0 ofa pulse pd(l) and
its integral ua(t)
suP@ln.ra + o, rh6
r The pub€ ta{!) .iiI h- a en IM blr } o dtrd.ly lrjl:w psbg lt! dll 6ll rhe lioi( dE

,tO- liE pa,r,

rhid! ir @ f.( lrl Et'rs oa{ 6cet d r - odE ;B qnR n mr i,€6r,rd.

. Th€i €sBl r!{.}, sA - ot6si€tnt&lidicf,a(<) r c.nda!:814{iikliEi.of!!1.) +
l-tot$RirE n6isar. > o, mdair=oilb VallG .IE limit n
 Ignonng rhe ule d.= o R d.6oe llP !,n !2p agErl x
i rl r-o
u(rl
' = Ilo d
'.
Yd @ *rink of th. u(tl d the.withitrg o,n d<iiguteaqror fi@oFro s! *hn ofti i*r€r
Rrens pulse ofvar shor! dldior
Final definitions
nE Ep'be Gird ,(ir E:
. Teeer*i*.:csdrn disinw!.EiriElEErdreEddFdte,a(O=o,r+0,3ndrd&€C

j"'*=l;::l
4')=lo ,<o
llie l{rl .!d u{r e dar.d 6 ldross:

,lrl = -f,-

r Sr@ a(li ir &i a @l!@6 fu',6nta. it funpa lnh o b t iEla@tddy dw.l t=o, Jd dt
ttuV ha he a Cai@tis. nd 6lr) is fts .L'i@tiw n'4 b' t'ra virt
L.t.urs rFint of uiw it
ealncttn, ukidl d&$ ta 6lt' i8rd, ,&o rBti.iM $!.n t''dE a\ ,@, bc h'fl@$! t'In d
aiir de d&7 rtdisrl'4i@
r Il. imp,B! t(t) i! intdrildr to gM.nt ltfiagF lat danaata wlbf,4 ?u&6 of ctt *4F, h
i br dsiwl ufut9blb6 or f@tiB dife@t i@ {E Et'aubr pkz l* E4. r.zz). h' Fo,Iat
|., At tls Rn of nE dttla n k inilidal tw it d be Antutl l@ €idiq d annrdarA,&, d r pE
tv aid aftsit,@
, Srrndrt n'rn imr ,ir(at@it6 N U E w.Ed B tv tu tf . ma6wa igad rnn Mr-tt p
ixu! !r rtn di@dsid< I,lit it tehn ia @.vulire dt dFi@t@ qf d'& qrerr
A very important property of 6(t) is so called sifting ot sampling
property
lx(t)6(t - to)dt = x(tl)
It means that at a mo-ment t=fo the unit impulse multiplier is
selecting (sifting) a sample x(lo) ofthe analog signalx(t), equal to its
specific value at that moment, as shown in Fig. '1.6-
 ln the literature the unit-impulse funaion is know;lso
as Dirac-
unit-step functions is called
function or Delta-function, while the
sometimes Heaviside-f unction.

It is quite easy to define, in analogy to u(t) and 6(f)'

discrete-
time unit-step {,l(n) and unit-impulse 6(') functions
'.
u\nt=
l0forn'o
\1 1or n>o

lO fot n+0
-' '' lt for n=o
6(n)=l'
We shall need these functions to describe and study discrete-
time systems

- RamP sional
'Ihi rcIap d$Ei isddDEd as r(t')
(il =I !(l)

]Frdatioi to ihe !!it-dEp ed *.[!dt irp'lbE sigDtlsi3

d'{o
?=dn
4=*o
dF

ln fact, it can be given as

(t for t20
a0= r .o
lx"y",
Tk rrmp i, a G$1i!oor$ tuldiot dtd il: dsi?ariE i' givaEv

?:{P=*n"'$:4i}+r'(')
=u(!)+or(l]=dr)
The samplinq function
A functior frequentlY ercourtered itr spectral alralysis is lhe sampling fuoction
Sa(J), defircd bY
sa(r) :
 Fig. 1.8. The sampling functions Sa(x)and sinc(x)
Sitroe thc denominator is an bcreasing function of.t and the numerator is bounded
(lsinrl < 1), sa (x) is simply a damPed sine wave. As se6n from Fig. 1.8a it is
an cvco tunction of '' having its PeBk at r = 0 and zero-orossings a! t = The value izt
of rlc luncrion at , 0 is eslabiished by uling I'Hopital's rule A closelv relired func'
-
lion is sinc r, which is d€nned bY
sin rrt
sincx -::: 6X = Sa (nx)
It is obviously a compressed version of Sa(x) with a compression factor rr'

ExPonential siqnals
A complex e:{ronennal i5 a siQllal ol lhe tolm

\(0 = Ad't
= lr{ll lodaotia) +isio(oor+r)l --<r<€
wherc -a = FLde , and u : r+ joo ale compl€x rumbe,'s

, sutpM tlvt A MA.4 Ne Btl, ther

@<r<6
"(t):M'
is a neoins exponenlill I a <a, anA n stuine e"n.ntial il a > o'
. Il A is Eol, blrt c = ion, tton
"E
tuE
t(t) : Adroor

=A.os(9ot+iAsin(oot)
 tql 9.fr t\tJ iJ ra'l{Ol= 'l'osatt 'n' dre indriAq FM oj ta) is !ntn\l:
aheft de oJ

-{snrrAo.t,.ndr: v= I
n nud bM:iL- 4n*h b@tan)
. i:,,,,-ii,,"".":-u*tttEa'o ptu lpnat nnd
inasi-rry ,til,. Ft i@arc. rta E ] Nn iDaidt x
,(r) = R?14)l
= l--11/ .6{a.t + 6}

vfnandd <n *e s1t tish4l is a d'n\ed situoi'I d rl uha/> o don E() 8d'
'
as illusl@ted in Fig l9

:
:1

o 2 0
t
(a) {b)

E2
s, s,
.

30 ;

2a |
a-
G) (o

growing
F'd 1 I Analoo exDonenlrals: (a) de.aying exponential (b)
exponental(c) decaying and (d) growrng
t"-atrnodulated
""l,"""ntia, "'ii
sinusoidal siqnals

The second case (a purely imaginary, a=./o,, and

A real)' then
x(t) = Ae$rrt = Acosqot+/sinool
part Acoso ot is a real sinusoid
'' a- complex sinusoid and ltsofreal
is
l <5" i" tn. tr"quency the signal in radians Per second
. 6 is ihe ohase in radians (Hz)'
we oien write o" = 27rfo, where fo ls the frequency in hertz
 of phase by rrl2
The cosine and ih- sine signals as andicated above' are out

The beliod rrs found by the relation

t'=1lT
and will be
This inverse relation between time a;d frequency is very impodant
used often in the next part of the course

CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT TERMS

Aperiodic signal Frequency (in radls and Hz)

Analog signal Periodic signal
Analog-to-Digital Period (of a Periodic signal)
Converter(ADC) Phase (in radrats)
Continuous-time siqnal Quantization
Delerministic signal Quantized signal
Delta-function Ramp signal
Dirac-function (imPulse) Random signal
Digitalsignal SamPling ProPerty
Digital-to-Analog Sifting ProPerty
Converter (DAC)
Sinc function
Discrete-time signal
Sinusoidal signal
Exponential signal
Unit-step function
Finite Energy signal
unit-imPulse function
Finite Power signal