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The total current required by inductive loads such as motors, transformers, and
fluorescent lighting may be considered to be made up of two separate types of
current.
Active current (or power producing current) is the current, which is converted into
usual work such as turning a lathe, providing light or pumping water. The power
produced by this component is the kilowatt (kW).
The total current is the current that is measured on an ammeter. It is the sum of both
the active and the reactive components. The power produced by the total current is
measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).
The relations between the various power components and the system voltage are
illustrated in the power triangle shown in Figure 11-1. From Figure 11-1, it is
apparent that the active power component is in phase with the applied voltage while
the reactive component occurs 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage.
Power factor is the ratio of Real Power Consumed to Total Power Consumed
(kW/kVA) and is in fact, a measure of efficiency. When the power factor reaches
unity (as measured at the utility power meter), it can be said that the plant is
operating at maximum efficiency. Depending on the local utility rate structure, a
power factor below unity may result in higher utility power bills than are necessary.
Figure 11-1
Power factor can be improved by either increasing the active power component or
reducing the reactive component. Of course, increasing the active power component
for the sole purpose of power factor correction would not be economically feasible.
Thus, the only practical means for improving a systems power factor is to reduce the
reactive power component. One method of reducing this component is to provide
reactive power locally at the load. This method will improve the power factor from the
point where the reactive power source is connected back to the source. As an
example, consider the load in Figure 11-2a. The total power required is 100 kVA of
which 80 kW is active power and 60 kVAR is reactive power. If the reactive power is
furnished locally (Figure 11-2b), the power system has to carry 80 kVA (80 kW).
Thus the power factor (from the point where the reactive power is locally supplied
back to the source) is improved to unity.
Figure 11-2
Properly selected, capacitors offer an ideal means for improving the power factor of
an inductive load. When a capacitor is connected to an inductive load, it acts as a
reactive power generator locally furnishing the necessary reactive current required
by the inductive load. In fact, power factor capacitors are rated in kVAR to indicate
their reactive power generating capability.
Capacitors are able to perform this function since they draw a leading current which
will effectively cancel lagging inductive current, complete cancellation of the two
current components occur and the reactive power component will be reduced to
zero. This is illustrated in Figure 11-3.
The result of improved power factor is reduced utility demand resulting in lower utility
demand charges, released system capacity and lower system losses.
Figure 11-3
The application of shunt capacitors to industrial power systems has several benefits:
Many Utilities incorporate penalty clauses associated with low power factor levels.
Low power factor (i.e. low network efficiency) increases kVA Demand. Capacitors
reduce reactive requirements thus decreasing net magnitude of the kVA or kVAR
demand. The equation below can be used to calculate effective kVA magnitude
associated with capacitor application.
Higher than required kVA Demand directly translates into higher than required
current (I) load. Network distribution devices such as transformers, switchgear,
bus and cables carry higher than necessary currents with the net effect of
operation at higher temperatures. In many cases these components are thermally
overloaded and cannot support any load additions. Capacitor applications reduce
net load current magnitude. Less current means less load on transformers,
switchgear and feeder circuits. Capacitor application can release system capacity
and postpone or avoid very costly distribution network upgrades otherwise
required to serve additional load. The percentage line current reduction can be
approximated from
Low voltage levels prevent motors, lights, and control equipment from proper
operation. Capacitors support and rise voltage levels along feeders improving
performance of motors and control circuits. The voltage rise realized with the
installation of capacitors is approximated from:
Where:
Since capacitor applications reduce line current therefore I2R losses decrease as
well. The reduction in power system losses is estimated from
2
3
1
Figure 11-4
C
M M
Figure 11-5
Location A:
Location B:
Location A:
Location
Location B: C:
Location
Location C: D:
Location D:
Might have
harmonic
problems
Might have
harmonic
problems
Figure 11-6
Less likely
to have
harmonic
Less likely
problems
to have
harmonic
problems
Figure 11-7
Only put
capacitor
banks
Only putat
bus that
capacitor
has no
banks at
harmonic
bus that
sources
has no
harmonic
sources
Figure 11-8
What if the
harmonic
source was
on the
What high
if the
voltage side
harmonic
source was
on the high
voltage side
Figure 11-9
Capacitors:
1. Shall be capable of continuous operation up to 110% of rated terminal
r.m.s. voltage, including harmonics.
3. Shall give no less than 100% and not more than 115% of rated active
power at rated sinusoidal voltage and frequency.
a) System Voltage
b) Harmonic Voltages
c) Manufacturing Tolerances
Long-duration voltages
Capacitor units shall be suitable for operation at voltage levels according to Table
11-2
Switching Overvoltages
It is assumed that the capacitors may be switched 1 000 times per year under these
conditions.
(The associated peak transient overcurrent may reach 100 times the value IN;
In the case of capacitors which are switched more frequently, the values of the
overvoltage amplitude and duration and the transient overcurrent shall be limited to
lower levels. These limitations and/or reductions shall be agreed upon in the
contract.
Capacitor units shall be suitable for continuous operation at an r.m.s. current of 1,30
times the current that occurs at rated sinusoidal voltage and rated frequency,
excluding transients.
Depending on the actual capacitance value, which may be a maximum of 1,15 CN,
the maximum current can reach 1,5 IN
These overcurrent factors are intended to take care of the combined effects due to
harmonics and overvoltages up to and including 1,10 UN according to long duration
overvoltages.
CAPACITANCE TOLERANCES
The capacitance shall not differ from the rated capacitance by more than:
–5 % to +15 % for capacitor units or banks containing one unit per phase;
The data and the guidelines employed shall be agreed upon by the purchaser and
manufacturer.
Non-current-limiting fuses
These are usually of the expulsion type, with renewable fuse links.
The total energy stored in the capacitor in parallel with the failed capacitor should be
less than the fuse can discharge without exploding, and less than the energy
required to burst the failed capacitor.
This type of fuse may be used where the working frequency overcurrents which can
be supplied to the faulty unit are sufficiently low.
Current-limiting fuses
This type of fuse limits working frequency overcurrents to less than the prospective
value and reduces the current to zero before the normal working frequency current
zero.
A properly designed current-limiting fuse will discharge only a portion of the stored
energy available to the failed capacitor.
The amount let through by the fuse should be less than that required to burst a failed
capacitor.
These fuses should be used when either the working frequency overcurrents or
maximum stored energy in parallel with a possible failed unit is high enough to
cause bursting of an expulsion fuse or a failed capacitor. Properly designed current-
limiting fuses impose no upper limit on the parallel stored energy available to a failed
capacitor.
VOLTAGE RATINGS
Y-Connected Capacitor Banks
Table 11-3
* This table shows, for a particular system voltage, the number of series-connected
capacitors per phase of a wye-connected bank which operates near rated
capacitor unit voltage
KVAR RATING
- 150 KVAR
DELTA CONNECTION
NEUTRALS