Solar Power Plant Design (Final Docs) Revised

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy can be regarded as one of the fundamental premises
for building a sustainable global society. It is derived from natural processes that
are replenished constantly. It has the potential to be perpetually harnessed and
perpetually stored and can be relied in long-term. Clean energy development is
vital for combating climate change and limiting its most devastating effects. As
climate change continues to affect our planet’s eco-systems and fossil fuels
become less profitable and rarer, renewable energy like solar power is the key to
our sustainability.
Solar power is clean green electricity that is created from sunlight, or heat
from the sun. Most renewable energy sources derive the energy from solar
radiation. Direct solar energy refers to solar thermal energy conversion and solar
photovoltaic. As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid-
connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale
photovoltaic power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built. Solar has
been one of the main substitutes of electricity resources worldwide including
Philippines in effort to reduce the dependency on the conventional fossil fuel. Solar
energy is clean, inexhaustible and environment-friendly potential resource among
renewable energy options. Therefore, in order to satisfy the load demand, grid
connected energy systems are now become promising options that solar energy
systems are used to meet the future energy demand.
Solar power is rapidly developing energy source around the world. The
potential for using the sun to directly supply power needs is huge. It can generate
electricity without any waste or pollution or dependence on the Earth’s natural
resources once they are constructed. As fossil fuel resources have depleted and
environmental concern has increased, renewable energy has become a very
important engineering sector. It is undoubtable that in the future a large proportion
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of energy used by the human race will be derived from a diverse range of
renewable energy.
1.1 History of Solar Energy
The history of the photovoltaic energy or solar cells started way back in 1876.
William Grylls Adams along with a student of his, Richard day, discovered that
when selenium was exposed to light, it produced electricity. An electricity expert,
Werner von Siemens, stated that the discovery was “scientifically of the most far-
reaching importance”. The selenium cells were not efficient, but it was proved that
light, without heat or moving parts, could be converted into electricity.
In 1953, Calvin Fuller, Gerald Pearson, and Daryl Chapin, discovered the
silicon solar cell. This cell actually produced enough electricity and was efficient
enough to run small electrical devices. The New York Times stated that this
discovery was “the beginning of a new era, leading eventually to the realization of
harnessing the almost limitless energy of the sun for the uses of civilization.” The
year 1956, and the first solar cells are available commercially. The cost however
is far from the reach of every people. A three hundred dollars for a 1-watt solar
cell, the expense was far beyond anyone’s means. The first solar cells are used in
toys and radios. These novelty items were the first item to have solar cells available
to consumers.
In the late 1950’s and early 1960’s satellites in the USA’s and Soviet’s space
program were powered by solar cells and in the late 1960’s solar power was
basically the standard for powering space bound satellites. In the early 1970’s a
way to lower the cost of solar cells was discovered. This research was
spearheaded by Exxon. Most off-shore oil rigs used the solar cells to power the
waning lights on the top of the rigs. The period from the 1970’s to 1990’s saw quite
a change in the usage of solar cells. They began showing up on railroad crossings,
in remote places to power homes. Recently, new technology has given screen
printed solar cells, and solar fabric that can be used to side a house, even solar
shingles that install in the roofs. International markets have opened up and solar
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panel manufacturers are now playing a key role in the solar power industry. As
technology that has been around for well over a century, solar power is neither
novel or new. Nevertheless, solar energy becomes a lot more practical as well as
more affordable for both residential and commercial use. People are now able to
power their homes, businesses and equipment with solar energy realizing the
benefits and enjoying the savings.
1.2 Solar Power Technology
Solar panel technology was in constant state of innovation which have
milestones in solar efficiency, solar energy and solar designs. Many companies
are working to commercialize a new solar technology that could further boost the
adoption of renewable energy generation.
There are three primary technologies by which solar energy is commonly
harnessed: photovoltaics (PV), which directly convert light to electricity;
concentrating solar power (CSP), which uses heat from the sun (thermal energy)
to drive utility-scale, electric turbines; and heating and cooling systems, which
collect thermal energy to provide hot water and air-conditioning. Solar energy can
be deployed through distributed generation, whereby the equipment is located on
rooftops or ground-mounted arrays close to where the energy is used. Some
technologies can be further expanded into utility-scale applications to produce
energy as a central power plant.
1.2.1 Photovoltaic Technology
Photovoltaic (PV) technologies directly convert energy from sunlight into
electricity. When sunlight strikes the PV module, made of a semiconductor
material, electrons are stripped from their atomic binds. This flow of electrons
produces an electric current. PV modules contain no moving parts and
generally thirty years or more with minimal maintenance.
PV electricity output peaks mid-day when the sun is at its highest point
in the sky, and can offset the most expensive electricity when daily demand is
greatest. Homeowners can install a few dozen PV panels to reduce or
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eliminate monthly electricity bills, and utilities can build large “farms” of PV
panels to provide pollution-free electricity to customers. Semiconductors are
used in most electronic products, including computer chips, audio amplifiers,
temperature sensors and solar cells. Traditionally, PV modules are made using
various forms of silicon, but may companies are also manufacturing modules
that employ other semiconductor materials often referred to as thin-film PV.
Each of the various PV technologies have unique cost and performance
characteristics that drive competition within the industry. Cost and performance
can be further affected by the PV application and specific configuration of a PV
system.
1.2.2 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants use mirrors to concentrate
the sun’s thermal energy to drive a conventional steam turbine to make
electricity. The thermal energy concentrated in CSP plant can be stored and
used to produce electricity when it is needed, day or night. The two
commercialized CSP technologies are Power Towers and Parabolic
Troughs. Other CSP technologies include Compact Linear Fresnel
Reflector (CLFR) and Dish Engine. CSP specific conditions to produce
power, such as areas where direct sunlight is most intense and contiguous
parcels of dry, flat land.
CSP technologies collect solar energy and convert it to thermal
energy that can be stored before powering a generator, they can be used
either as a flexible provider of electricity, such as a natural gas “peaker
plant”, or as a baseload source of electricity similar to a traditional nuclear
or coal power plant. CSP plant can also use fossil fuel to supplement the
solar output during periods of low solar radiation. In that case, a natural gas-
fired heat or gas steam boiler/reheater is used.
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1.2.2.1 Parabolic Trough Systems
Energy is concentrated by parabolically curved trough-shaped
reflectors onto a receiver pipe running along the inside of the curved
surface. The temperature of the heat transfer fluid flowing through
the pipe, usually thermal oil, is increased from 293°C to 393°C, and
the heat energy is then used to generate electricity in a conventional
steam generator. A collector field comprises many troughs in parallel
rows aligned on a north-south axis. This configuration enables the
single-axis troughs to track the sun from east to west during the day
to ensure that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes.
1.2.2.2 Linear Fresnel Systems
Another option is the approximation of the parabolic troughs
by segmented mirrors according to the principle of Fresnel. Most
CSP designs can incorporate thermal storage setting aside the heat
transfer fluid in its hot phase allowing for electricity generation
several hours into the evening or during cloudy days.
1.2.2.3 Power Tower Systems
Power Tower or central receiver system utilize sun-tracking
mirrors called heliostats to focus sunlight onto a receiver at the top
of a tower. A heat transfer fluid heated in the receiver up to around
600°C is used to generate steam, which in turn, is used in a
conventional turbine generator to produce electricity. Early power
towers, such as the Solar One Plant, utilized steam as the heat
transfer fluid; current designs are molten salts because of superior
heat transfer and energy storage capabilities.
1.2.2.4 Parabolic Dish Systems
Parabolic dish systems consist of a parabolic-shaped point
focus concentrator in the form of a dish that reflects solar radiation
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onto a receiver mounted at the focal point. These concentrators are
mounted on a structure with a two-axis tracking system to follow the
sun. The collected heat is typically utilized directly by a heat engine
mounted on the receiver moving with the dish structure. Stirling and
Brayton Cycle engine are currently favored for power conversion.
1.2.3 Solar Heating and Cooling

Solar heating and cooling technologies collect thermal energy from
the sun and use the heat to provide hot water and space heating and cooling
for residential, commercial and industrial applications. There are several
types of collectors: flat plate, evacuated tube, Integral Collector Storage
(ICS), thermosiphon and concentrating.
Most solar air heating systems are wall-mounted, which allow them
to capture a maximum amount of solar radiation in the winter. Specially
perforated solar collector panels are installed several inches from south
facing wall, creating an air cavity. The solar heated air is then ducted into
the building via a connection to HVAC intake.
1.3 Solar Resource
The design study provides framework and focus on the solar PV technologies
where solar resource is expected over the lifetime. A solar PV plant is most
accurately estimated by analyzing historical solar resource data for the site.
Obtaining a first approximation of the power output of a PV plant depends on the
plane of array irradiance. The accuracy of any solar energy yield prediction is
therefore heavily dependent on the accuracy of the historical resource dataset.
Obtaining reliable historical resource solar data is a crucial step in the
development process and essential for project financing. There are two main
sources pf solar resource data: satellite derived data and land-based
measurement. Since both sources have particular merits, the choice will depend
on the specific site. Land-based site measurement can be used to calibrate
resource data from satellites in order to improve accuracy and certainty. As a solar
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resource is inherently intermittent, an understanding of inter-annual variability is
important.
The solar resource of a location is usually defined by the direct normal
irradiation, the diffuse horizontal irradiation and the global horizontal irradiation.
These parameters are described below:
a. Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI): The beam energy component received
on a unit area of surface directly facing the sun at all times. The DNI is of
particular interest for solar installations that track the sun and for
concentrating solar technologies.
b. Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation (DHI): The energy received on a unit area
of horizontal surface from radiation that is scattered off the atmosphere or
surrounding area is known as DHI.
c. Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI): The total solar energy received on a
unit area of a horizontal surface is the GHI. It includes energy from the sun
that is received in a direct beam (the horizontal component of the DNI) and
the DHI.
In northern hemisphere, a surface tilted at an angle towards the south
receives a higher total annual global irradiation compared to a horizontal
surface. This is because a surface tilted towards the south more directly faces
the sun for a longer period of time. In the southern hemisphere, a surface tilted
towards the north receives a higher total annual global irradiation. Figure1-1
illustrates why the tilt angle is important for maximizing the energy incident on
the collector plane.
Figure 1.1 Effect of Tilt on Solar Energy Capture
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The amount of irradiation received can be quantified for any tilt angle by the
global tilted irradiation. The optimal tilt angle varies primarily with latitude and
may also depend on local weather patterns and plant layout configurations.
Simulations software may be used to calculate the irradiation on the tilted
plane. Part of this calculation will take into account the irradiance reflected from
the ground towards the modules. This is dependent on the ground reflectance
or albedo. These terms are defined below:
a. Global Tilted Irradiation (GTI): The total solar energy received on a unit
area of a tilted surface. It includes direct beam and diffuse components. A
high value of long-term annual GTI average is the most important resource
parameter for project developers.
b. Albedo: The ground reflectance or albedo is highly site-dependent. A
higher albedo translates into greater reflection. Fresh grass has an albedo
factor of 0.26, reducing down to a minimum of approximately 0.15 when dry.
Asphalt has a value between 0.09 and 00.15, or 0.18 if wet. Fresh snow has
an albedo of approximately 0.8, meaning that 80 percent of the irradiation
is reflected.
1.4 Energy Yield Prediction
An important step in assessing project feasibility and attracting financing is to
calculate the electrical energy expected from the PV power plant. The energy yield
prediction provides the basis for calculating project revenue. The accuracy needed
for the energy yield prediction depends on the stage of project development. To
accurately estimate the energy produced from a PV power plant, information is
needed on the solar resource and temperature conditions of the site in addition to
the layout and technical specifications of the plant components. Typically, the
procedure for predicting yield of PV plant are:
a. Sourcing modelled or measured environmental data, such as irradiance and
temperature from ground based meteorological stations or satellites
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sources. This results in time series of “typical” irradiation on a horizontal
plane at the site location along with typical environmental conditions.
b. Calculating the irradiation incident on tilted collector plane for a given time
step.
c. Modelling performance of the plant with respect to varying irradiance and
temperature to calculate the energy yield prediction in each time step.
d. Applying losses using detailed knowledge of the inverters, PV modules
and transformers characteristics, the site layout and module configuration,
DC and AC wiring, downtime, auxiliary equipment and soiling
characteristics.
e. Applying statistical analysis of resource data and assessing the uncertainty
in input values to derive appropriate levels of uncertainty in final energy yield
prediction.
In order to predict the solar resource over lifetime of a project, it is necessary
to analyze historical data for the site. These data are typically given for a horizontal
plane. The assumption is that the future solar resource will follow the same
patterns as the historical values. Historical data may be obtained from land-based
measurements or from data obtained from the satellites.
1.5 Site Location Assessment
The process of site assessment or selection must consider the constraints of
each site and the impact it will have on the cost of the electricity generated.
Developing a utility-scale PV power plant in a specific location may include
constraints due to a low solar resource, low grid capacity or insufficient area to
install modules. However, a low solar resource could be offset by high local
financial incentives that make a project viable. A similar balancing acts applies to
the other constraints. A geographical information system mapping tool can be used
to assist the site selection process by a assessing multiple constraints and
determining the total area of suitable land available for solar PV project
development.
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1.5.1 Site Selection Criteria
Selecting a suitable site is a crucial component of developing a viable
solar PV project. There are no clear-cut rules for site selection. Viable projects
have been developed in locations that may initially seem unlikely, such as
steep mountain slopes, within wind farms and on waste disposal sites. In
general, the process of site selection must consider the constraints and the
impact of site on the cost of electricity generated. The main constraints that
need to be assessed include: Solar resource, available area, local climate,
topography, land use, local regulations/land use policy or zoning,
environmental designations, geotechnical conditions, geopolitical risks,
accessibility, grid connection, module soiling, water availability and financial
incentives.
1.5.2 Environmental and Social Considerations
Most regulatory regimes require some sort of Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) or Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA), or
an environmental scoping document which screens for any significant issues
so that a decision can be made by the relevant authorities as to whether a full-
blown assessment is required.
a. Biodiversity: Avoiding sensitive or critical habitats and species is
crucial. Construction and operation of solar PV power plant sites and
ancillary infrastructure (access roads, transmission lines) leads to
clearing of existing habitats. Facilities, including ancillary infrastructure,
should be sited away from ecologically sensitive areas, like protected
areas and those with high biodiversity value such as wetlands,
undisturbed natural forests and important wildlife corridors. Ideally, solar
PV power plants should be built on sites that are either open or barren
(e.g., desert or semi-desert locations) or that have previously been
disturbed, e.g., farmland, industrial land, abandoned land or existing
transportation and transmission corridors. Impacts on designated
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conservation or biodiversity protection sites should be avoided wherever
possible, in particular those with national or international significance.
b. Land acquisition: Avoiding or minimizing involuntary resettlement is a
key concern. Installation of solar PV plants results in long-term land
acquisition and conversion. If involuntary resettlement (i.e., physical or
economic displacement of households) is necessary, this may
complicate and slow project development and give rise to possible
project delays later in the development cycle, particularly where land
tenure and ownership laws are tenuous and/or customary land tenure
exists. Sites that would require physical displacement (relocation of
residences) should be avoided wherever possible; site selection should
furthermore aim to avoid or minimize economic displacement (e.g. loss
of croplands, businesses or other livelihood sources).
c. Other social impacts: Avoiding cultural heritage, visual impacts and
indigenous peoples (IPs) is another critical concern. Besides involuntary
resettlement, solar PV projects and their ancillary infrastructure may
adversely impact cultural heritage or IPs, may result in visual impacts to
nearby communities and may require establishment of worker
accommodation camps involving an influx of outsiders into a local
community, with attendant social risks. Sites should be selected in such
as manner as to avoid close proximity to settled areas, to avoid cultural
heritage (e.g., graves, sacred sites) and to avoid or minimize adverse
impacts on IPs’ lands or properties.
1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy
1.6.1 Advantages
The solar energy is free and renewable resource to generate electricity
but requires collectors and some other equipment for conversion of solar
energy into electrical energy.
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a. Solar cells used for power generation cause no noise. whereas
generators or turbines of other methods causes noise pollution.
b. It does not cause much pollution compared to other power generating
methods such as nuclear power plant.
c. The solar cells do not consist of any moving parts and hence requires a
little maintenance for their operation.
d. It can be used in remote areas for generating and utilizing power in that
locality, where the transmission of electricity is too expensive.
e. The solar power offers energy security by avoiding the general power
system in which there is a possibility of power theft.
f. In general, calculators and some low-power-consuming electronic
devices can be energized using solar energy effectively.
g. The solar energy can produce 50% of the power required to house by
installing the solar panels.
h. In long term usage of solar energy, the solar power setup investment
can be regained at maximum levels as solar energy is free of cost.
i. It is an everlasting infinite renewable energy source compared to other
limited energy sources such as nuclear energy, coal, etc., which are
estimated to last for 30 or 40 years.
1.6.2 Disadvantages
The installation cost of the solar panels to use solar energy is very
expensive, and the initial investments can be covered only after long-term
(many years) utilization.
a. The solar power energy generation entirely depends on the sunlight
incident on the solar panel sand which in turn depend on the climatic
conditions.
b. The solar energy can be harnessed in a limited period as the sunlight is
available only during the day time and sunny days; thus, power can be
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generated only in limited time period and the power has to be saved in
batteries for later usage.
c. The batteries used to store solar power are very costly, huge sized and
need to be replaced from time to time.
1.7 Photovoltaic Power Potential
Harnessing solar power is one way to decrease dependence on the
increasing and volatile prices of fossil fuels. In the Philippines, the potential is even
greater than the aspirational target of 1,528MW attributed to solar in the National
Renewable Energy Plan until 2030. Solar PV growth in the Philippines is expected
to reach 3GW of utility solar in 2022. By the end of 2030, industry predicts a
cumulative installation of 8.7GW with solar rooftop constituting 35 percent of total
installation (Philippine Solar Power Alliance).
Figure 1.2 Installed PV Solar in the Philippines, 2016
Figure 1.3 Cumulative Target Solar Installation
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1.8 Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion
Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting it into
electricity. This is done by using solar panels, which are large flat panels made up
of many individual solar cells.
Figure 1.4 Solar Power Conversion Process
This system starts out with the sun. The sun sends out energy in the form
of photons, which react with certain materials and display the photovoltaic effect in
which their atoms start moving around when exposed to sunlight. The electricity
generated by the solar panel is directed into charge controller and send outs pulse
of charge which helps in uniform distribution of the charges on the plates of the
battery. When the energy is being stored in a battery, it is immediately sent into an
inverter which changes the electricity from direct current into alternating current.
This energy is then sent into the utility grid where it is swallowed up and used for
all other homes and buildings on the same local utility grid.
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CHAPTER II
ENGINEERING REPORT PROPER
This section discusses the objective of the design, the significance of the
study, scope, limitations and delimitations of the design, solar power plant site and
the design proper.
2.1 Objective of the Design
The capstone design project will offer an adequate design, installation,
operation and maintenance of a solar power plant which will control and manage
the present and future demand of the yard. To match certain load requirements of
the consumer, at a minimum cost of the system the project will focus on the
following:
a. Design of the system based on the power requirements and solar data
availability.
b. Proper selection and installation of components, specifically for grid-
connected PV systems configurations.
c. Establish key design features including the type of PV module used, tilting
angle, mounting and tracking systems, inverters and module arrangement.
d. Design a PV Power Plant that is optimally balanced in terms of cost and
performance for a specific site.
e. Effective operation and maintenance of the power plant.
f. Economic aspect of the project.
2.2 Significance of the Study
The growing energy demand has triggered the issue energy security. This
has made essential to utilize the untapped potential of renewable sources. Grid
connected PV systems have become the best alternatives in renewable energy at
large scale. This capstone project study will focus on exploitation of solar energy
to mitigate future energy challenges for sustainable development. The study is also
vital to combat devastating effects of global warming brought by the non-renewable
resource. Lastly, by all accounts, this study is notable to various groups most
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specially to the community because the results of the study will provide significant
information about PV solar energy. These will help them understand the
advantages of having PV solar energy and help them lessen the electricity
consumption by increasing the solar energy sources.
2.3 Scope, Limitation and Delimitation of the Design
Energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human
civilization. Typically measured per year, it involves all energy harnessed from
every energy source applied towards humanity’s endeavors across every single
industrial and technological sector in the country.
The scope of the project refers to the parameters under which the design of
the solar power plant will be operating. The designers focus on producing power
using energy from the sun. This would have a wide range of applications in fields
ranging from household to industrial applications. The purpose of the study is to
have an alternative source of power and to ascertain if renewable energy sources
are sustainable for energy access and security in order to meet demand of future
generations. Moreover, the study is limited only on the mechanical aspects of the
design. The computation of installation of electrical wirings and circuits of solar
panels are not included in the study. In addition, the load calculations of the
buildings and offices are not discussed. Moreover, the delimitations of the study
are the characteristics that arise from the limitations of the design defining the
boundaries made during the development of the project. The design is delimited
to the number of panels installed in order to obtain the required capacity of the
plant. This will measure the load requirements and performance of the solar PV
systems.
2.4 Solar Power Plant Site
A desirable site has favorable local climate, good solar resource
(irradiation), land available for purchasing or long-term leasing, an accessible grid
connection or a binding regulatory commitment to connect the site to the
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transmission network, and no serious environmental or social concerns associated
with the development of a PV project.
The location where the solar power plant will be installed is highly related
with the solar energy potential of the location. The criteria for site selection include
the availability of the solar radiation, the availability of vacant land, accessibility
from national highways, distance from the existing transmission lines, variation in
local climate, use of nearby land, topography of the site, and module soiling.
Figure 2.1 Location Map of the Proposed 6.8-MW PV Solar Power Plant
Figure 2.2 Satellite Map of the Proposed 6.8-MW PV Solar Power Plant
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The PV Solar Power Plant is located at Sabang, Ibaan Batangas with
geographical coordinates of 13.794725 degrees north and 121.109739 degrees
east.
Figure 2.3 Geographic Coordinates of the Proposed Location of
6.8-MW PV Solar Power Plant
Figure 2.4 Proposed Land Area of 6.8-MW PV Solar Power Plant
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2.5 Solar Energy Potential in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas
Soar irradiation is the amount of electromagnetic radiation received from
the sun per unit area, usually in square meters. The amount of solar irradiance
varies depending on how far the object is from the sun, the angle of the sun and
the solar cycle (biology dictionary). The solar radiation in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas
is determined using the solar radiation calculator with the following inputs: The
latitude of the location, altitude and the day of year. According to Wikimapia, the
altitude of Ibaan is 300 ft or 91 m above sea level while the location of the plant is
13. 794725 degrees north. This solar radiation calculator estimates the intensity of
the solar radiation on the location. Based on the results, the maximum solar
radiation on the summer months is 1081 W/m2 .The following figures shows the
solar radiation intensity of the location selected at Sabang Ibaan, Batangas.
Figure 2.5 Maximum Solar Radiation in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas
The performance ratio of the panels is also significant in determining the
amount of irradiance or energy to be harnessed in each panel. According to the
solar mango, the performance ratio, coefficient for losses is 75%. Given the
maximum solar radiation of the location, the area of the panel to be installed and
the default performance ratio of the solar panels thus, the solar energy potential in
Sabang, Ibaan Batangas can be obtained as;
W
Solar energy potentialSabang,Ibaan Batangas = (1081 m2 ) (2m2 )(0.75) = 1621.5 W
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2.6 Design Proper
In order to calculate the necessary parameters for the design of a 6.8-
megawatt PV Solar Power Plant, the designers used various components
necessary for the system calculation of the plant and the economic aspect
pertaining to the project management of the entire plant operation.
2.6.1 System Components
Creating a design system begins with a list of all the major
components with product specifications that is significant in the
development and consistency of the design. The PV solar power plant has
the following major components including the solar panel/modules, battery,
inverter, charge controller, solar array AC disconnect and other equipment
regulating the efficient flow transfer of collected energy into the grid.
a. Solar Panels/Modules
Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of
energy to generate electricity. A solar module is a
single photovoltaic panel that is an assembly of connected solar
cells. According to the solar energy center, photovoltaic modules are
extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure rates and
projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years.
The design of the solar panel or module of the 6.8-megawatt
solar power plant is from the catalogue guide of Sun Power SPR-
P17-330 with the following specifications;
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Table 2.1 DC Electrical Characteristics of Solar Panels/Modules
DC Electrical Characteristics
STC Power Rating 330W

PTC Power Rating 296.3W
STC Power per unit of area 14.9W/ft^2 (160.0W/m^2 )
Peak Efficiency 16%
Power Tolerances 0%/+5%
Imp 7.88A
Vmp 41.9V
Isc 8.47A
Voc 50.9V
NOCT 45°C
Temp. Coefficient of Isc 0.04%/K
Temp. Coefficient of Power -0.37%/K
Temp. Coefficient of Voltage -0.173V/K
Series Fuse Rating 15A
Maximum System Voltage 1000V
Output Terminal Type Multicontact Connector Type 4
Output Cable Wire Gauge 12 AWG
Output Cable Wire Type PV Wire
Output Cable Wire Length 23.6in (600mm)
Frame Color Clear
Length 81.4in (2,067mm)
Width 39.3in (998mm)
Depth 1.8in (46mm)
Weight 50.9lb (23.1kg)
Installation Method Rack-Mounted
b. Charge Controller
Any system with energy storage needs a way to regulate the
flow of energy into the batteries. Philip Undercuffler, director of
strategic platforms at OutBack Power, said that regulation prevents
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the batteries from overcharging and potentially receiving damage.
Solar charge controllers regulate the energy flowing from the PV
array and transfer it directly to the batteries as a DC-coupled system,
which is the most efficient and effective manner. Giving batteries as
long of a life as possible is an important function of a charge
controller.
The charge controller used in the design of the system is
obtained from the IHUAX Wind and Solar Expert Store with the
specifications of;
Table 2.2 Charge Controller Specifications
Model Number: HX30240

Application: Solar System Controller
<380V(220V);
Recommended Solar Panel:
<400V(240V)
Rated Charge and Discharge Current: 30A
Appearance Size: 150*135*63mm
Figure 2.6 Charge Controller
c. Battery and Inverter
Solar batteries are the arteries of any efficient solar
panel system. Without the batteries, the system is powerless.
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Batteries store the energy produced by the sun and solar panels,
allowing the energy to be used as needed through an inverter.
A solar inverter or PV inverter, is a type of
electrical converter which converts the variable direct current (DC)
output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility
frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial
electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network.
The design of the battery and inverter are determined in the
Tesla Power Wall 2 with the following specifications;
Table 2.3 Mechanical Specifications of Battery and Inverter
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Table 2.4 Performance Specifications of Battery and Inverter
Table 2.5 Environmental Specifications of Battery and Inverter
d. Solar Array AC Disconnect
The AC Disconnect is used to separate the inverter from the
electrical grid. The AC disconnect may be a breaker on a service
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panel or it may be a stand-alone switch. The AC disconnect is sized
based on the output current of the inverter. The inverter has an
output current of 7200 watts same with the solar array AC and DC
disconnect. The design of the solar array AC disconnect is based
from the Schneider Electric with the following specifications;
Table 2.6 Technical Characteristics of Solar Array AC Disconnect
Technical Characteristics
Terminal Type Lugs
Type of Duty General Duty
Maximum Voltage Rating 240VAC
Wire Size #14 to #8 AWG(Al/Cu)
Depth 3.75 Inches
Height 9.63 Inches
Width 7.25 Inches
Action Single Throw
Ampere Rating 30A
Approvals UL Listed File: E2875
Enclosure Rating NEMA 3R
Rainproof and Sleet/Ice proof
Enclosure Type
(Indoor/Outdoor)
Enclosure Material Galvannealed Steel
Factory Installed Neutral Yes
Fuse Type Cartridge (Class H, K or R)
Disconnect Type Fusible
Short Circuit Current Rating 100kA (max. depending on fuse type)
Mounting Type Surface
Number of Poles 2-Pole
Figure 2.7 Solar Array AC Disconnect
25
e. Solar Array DC Disconnect
It is an electrical switch that disconnects and cuts-off the DC
power output from your solar panels and array if there is a problem
with the solar system. This disconnection switch needs to be strong
enough to handle the full power output from the panels on a bright
sunny day. The design of the solar array DC disconnect is
determined in the product guide of Schneider Electric with the
following specifications;
Table 2.7 Solar Array DC Disconnect Specifications
Features Details
30A Outdoor Safety Switch Part Number: D211NRBCP

2 Plug Fuse Item Weight: 5.5 pounds
Product Dimensions: 11.1 x 8 x 5.7
3 Wire Solid Neutral
inches
Voltage: 120/240V Item model number: D211NRBCP
Figure 2.8 Solar Array DC Disconnect
f. Solar Wire Cable
A solar cable is the interconnection cable used
in photovoltaic power generation. Solar cables interconnect solar
panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system.
Solar cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant.
The design of the solar wire cable 10AWG are obtained from the
26
Leader’s Catalogue with the following specifications and
descriptions;
Table 2.8 Solar Wire Cable Specifications
g. Solar Panel Connectors
Solar connectors facilitate electrical connectivity in solar
energy systems. The design of the solar panel connectors is based
on the Leader’s Catalogue with the following specifications;
Table 2.9 Specifications of Solar Panel Connector
27
Figure 2.9 Dimensions of the Solar Panel Connectors
28
h. Solar Panel Rack
Ground mounted solar panels are usually for large scale utility
stations. The solar arrays are attached to the racking system with its
foundation directly into the ground. The solar panel rack that will be
used in the design is T2VC Aluminum Ground Mount from Chiko
Solar Mounting Solutions. The following specifications and
advantages are shown below.
Figure 2.10 T2VC Aluminum Ground Mount Advantages
Figure 2.11 Technical data of Solar Panel Rack
Figure 2.12 Main Components of Solar Mounting Rack
29
i. Power Meter
The application of power meter is for metering distribution
feeders, transformers, generators, capacitor banks and motors. It is
also used in medium and low voltage systems, commercial,
industrial, utility, power quality analysis and data logging. The power
meter that will be used in the PV solar power plant is obtained from
Accuenergy Catalogue. The following specifications are shown in
Table 2-10
Figure 2.13 Power Meter
Table 2.10 Power Meter Specifications
30
j. Power Transformer
The power transformer receives power from the grid and feed
power station distribution system. The purpose of transformer is to
step up (increase) or step down (reduce) electrical voltage in a power
grid. The transformer that will be used in the PV solar power plant
project is obtained from Alibaba Global Trade with the following
specifications;
Table 2.11 Power Transformer Specifications
Supply Ability 100 Unit/Units per Month

Brand Name SafeHerm
Model Number SafeHerm-7000/13.8
Usage Power Distribution
Phase Three
Coil Structure Toroidal
Coil Number Two windings
Product name Power distribution transformer
Type Oil immersed type
Rated capacity 7000kVA
Primary voltage 13.8KV
Secondary voltage 400V/230V
Frequency 50/60Hz
Insulation voltage 95kV/38kV
Standard IEC60076
Figure 2.14 Power Transformer
31
2.6.2 Facilities
a. Administration Building
This building comprises administrative activities within the PV
Solar Power Plant that are related to record keeping, financial
planning, logistics, and controlling processes, policies and programs.
The administration building includes the human resource department
responsible for managing resources related to people working for
company or organization, planning department for the development
and administration of programs, finance department for raising
finance, its allocation, monitoring, distribution and procurement of
cash flows. It also comprises supplies room, files storage room,
locker room, clinic, canteen and conference room.
b. Engineering and Maintenance Building
The Engineering and Maintenance building identifies actions
within the PV Solar Power Plant in terms of equipment procurement,
spare parts acquisition, utility system improvements, engineering
drawings, operations, maintenance plans and equipment
specifications. The building also comprises storage area, workshop
area, plant manager office and both engineering and maintenance
office.
c. Instrumentation and Control Building
The measurement information generated by an instrument
are sent into the control center or room for collective term of
measuring and monitoring of operation. Process indicators and
controls were used upon linking the process to determine the flow
and harness of energy in the PV solar power plant. This room
comprises various system components and configurations to control
the quantities being measured like the batteries and inverters used
in the PV solar power plant.
32
d. Solar Field
The solar farm or field is one of the important facilities and
area in putting up a PV solar power plant. This is an area of land in
which a large number of solar panels are set up in order to generate
electricity.
e. Substation
Substations are important consideration of the electrical
structure of the PV solar power plant required to keep reliable
electricity available for customers. The purpose of the substation is
to step down high voltage electricity from the transmission system to
lower voltage electricity so that it can be easily supplied to homes
and businesses through the distribution lines.
2.7 Plant Operational and Maintenance Procedures
The Operations team is responsible for continuous monitoring and
supervision of the PV power plant conditions and its performance while
maintenance is a special service provided to follow best practices principles. it is
defined as a condition-based maintenance carried out following a forecast derived
from the analysis and evaluation of the significant parameters of the degradation
of the item.
Table 2.12 Plant Operations
Plant Operations
Performance monitoring
Performance analysis and improvement
Plant supervision Issue detection
Service dispatch
Security monitoring interface
Plant controls
Power generation forecasting
Grid operator interface, grid code compliance
Plant Operational
Maintenance scheduling
Management of change
Spare parts arrangement
33
Table 2.3 Plant Maintenance
Plant Maintenance
Preventive maintenance
PV Plant Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance
Module Cleaning
PV Site Maintenance Vegetation management
Sand Removal
General site management
Additional Services On-site measurements (meter readings,
thermal inspection)
Predictive Maintenance has several advantages, including:
a. Optimize the safety management of equipment and systems during their
entire lifetime;
b. Anticipate maintenance activities (both corrective and preventive);
c. Delay, eliminate and optimize some maintenance activities;
d. Reduce time to repair and optimize maintenance and Spare Parts
Management costs;
e. Reduce emergency and non-planned work and improve predictability.
f. Reduce spare parts replacement costs and increase availability, energy
production and performance of equipment and systems;
2.8 Design Standards
Solar energy systems must be built in compliance with construction,
electricity and fire codes in order to be safe and reliable. Most of the standards for
the solar systems are set forth in the National Electrical Code (NEC), which
provides specifications on equipment, installation methods, and design protocols.
The project design conforms with the following codes and standards.
1. Article 690.1 Solar Photovoltaic (PV Systems)- The provisions of this
article apply to solar PV electrical energy systems, including the array
circuits, inverters, and controllers for such systems. Solar PV systems
34
covered by this article may be interactive with other electrical power
production sources (Philippine Electric Code).
2. Article 690.4 General Requirements (A) Photovoltaic Systems-
Photovoltaic systems shall be permitted to supply a building or other
structure in addition to any other electrical supply systems (Philippine
Electric Code).
3. Article 690.4 General Requirements (B) Equipment- Inverters, motor
generators, PV modules, PV panels, AC PV modules, DC combiners, DC-
to-DC converters, and charge controllers intended for use in PV power
systems shall be listed for the PV application (Philippine Electric Code).
4. Article 690.4 General Requirements (C) Qualified Personnel- The
installation of equipment and all associated wiring and interconnections
shall be performed only by qualified persons (Philippine Electric Code).
5. Article 90.1 (C) Relation to International Standards- The requirements
in this code address the fundamental principles of protection for safety
contained in International Electrotechnical Commission Standard, Electrical
Installations of Buildings, IEC 60364-1, Section 131 (Philippine Electric
Code).
6. IEC 60364-1, Section 31- Contains fundamental principles of operation for
safety that encompass protection against electric shock, protection against
thermal effects, protection against overcurrent, protection against fault
currents, and protection against overvoltage. All of the above potential
hazards are addressed by the requirements in this code (Philippine Electric
Code).
35
CHAPTER III
DESIGN TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Designing a megawatt-scale PV solar power plant involved process that
requires considerable technical knowledge. There are many parameters that need
to be made in order to achieve the optimum balance between performance and
cost. This section discusses the technical aspects that need to be considered when
designing a PV solar power plant.
3.1 Load Analysis
Load analysis is one of the most important engineering steps for increasing
energy efficiency. Gathering information and data about all the loads that the
power system will encounter is the first step towards design. This means
understanding critical loads, duty cycle, seasonal variations, and start-up
requirements. These sources usually come from the mechanical and control
design.
The load analysis should begin with quantifying the maximum operating
loads and loading factors. Inflated values given from the manufacturer can lead to
oversizing of the supply. The load analysis should also take into account for the
number of loads on the system. According to the Ibaan Electric and Engineering
Corporation (IEEC),the energy sales per customer type including the residential,
commercial, industrial and other sector from year 2014-2018 is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Energy Sales per Customer Type (MWh)
Energy Sales per Customer

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Type (MWh)
Residential 12,322 12,794 13,177 13,580 13,989
Commercial 4,260 4,410 4,537 4,674 4,816
Industrial 2,276 2,329 2,425 2,525 2,579
Others 313 331 346 361 378
TOTAL 19,171 19,864 20,484 21,129 21,763
36
3.2 Plant Capacity
The design capacity is a theoretical value that usually serve as the design
basis of the solar power plant. It is the maximum amount that can be produced per
unit of time with existing plant and equipment provided that the availability of
variable factors of production is not restricted. In calculating the plant capacity of
the solar power plant;
Pmax (MWh)
Plant capacity =
days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
Getting the energy sales per customer type considering sixteen (16) hours
of operation.
For the year 2014;
19, 171 MWh

Plant capacity for year 2014 =
days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
Plant capacity for year 2014 = 3. 2827 MW
For the year 2015;
19, 864 MWh

days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
For the year 2016;
20, 484 MWh

days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
For the year 2017;
21, 129 MWh

days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
37
For the year 2018;
21, 763 MWh

days hrs
year (365 year )(16 )
days
3.3 Percentage Increase of Power Demand
Calculating the percentage increase of power demand of future years, it can
be obtained as;
ES of present year − ES of previous year

Percentage increase = 𝑥 100
ES of previous year
where: ES= energy sales
Therefore, the percentage increase for the year 2014-2015 is;
3.4014 MW − 3.2827 MW
Percentage increase for year 2014 − 2015 = 𝑥 100
3.2827 MW
Percentage increase for year 2014 − 2015 = 3.6148 %
For the year 2015-2016;
3.5075 MW − 3.4014 MW
3.4014 MW
3.6180 MW − 3.5075 MW
3.5075 MW
3.7265 MW − 3.6180 MW
3.6180 MW
38
3.4 Average Percentage Increase
Getting the average percentage increase for the year 2014-2018;
Sum of percentage increase

Average % increase for year 2014 − 2018 =
4
3.6148 + 3.1212 + 3.1488 + 3.0006

Average % increase for year 2014 − 2018 =
4
Average % increase for year 2014 − 2018 = 3.22135
3.5 Load Projection
Load projection is essential in such power and energy providing company
to predict the power/energy needed, meeting the demand and supply equilibrium.
The accuracy of load projection has a great significance for the operational and
managerial loading of a solar power plant. From the calculated average
percentage increase, the power demand for the future years can be determined.
This can be obtained through;
Power demand of future year = ES of previous year (1 + ave. % increase)
The year 2019 and 2020 are allotted for construction period and the load
analysis for the consecutive years up to year 2030 will be the basis of the study.
Calculating the power demand for year 2019;
Power demand for year 2019 = 3.7265 MW (1 + 0.0322135)
Power demand for year 2019 = 3.8466 MW
For year 2020;
39
For year 2021;
For year 2022;
For year 2023;
For year 2024;
For year 2025;
For year 2026;
For year 2027;
40
For year 2028;
For year 2029;
Lastly for the year 2030;
Table 3.2 shows the summary of the load projection for year 2019-2030.
The power demand for future years will predict the energy supply needed for
distribution through the solar power plant.
Table 3.2 Summary of Load Projections
Year Power Demand (MW)

2019 3.8466
2020 3.9705
2021 4.0984
2022 4.2304
2023 4.3667
2024 4.5074
2025 4.6526
2026 4.8024
2027 4.9572
2028 5.1168
2029 5.2817
2030 5.4518
41
Figure 3.1 Power Demand Projection
3.6 System Components
The PV Solar Power Plant has various components that will regulate the
efficient harness and transfer of energy into the grid. For the consistency of the
design, the following calculations are considered.
3.6.1 Solar Panel Sizing
The specifications of the solar panel to be used is obtained from the
Sun Power Catalogue with a voltage of 41.9 V and a current of 7.88 A. In
order to meet the power demand, the analysis and number of solar panels
are determined. This are calculated as;
Plant Capacity
Number of Solar Panels =
Power Rating solar panel
Given the voltage and current, the power rating of the selected
solar panel to be installed can also be calculated.
Power rating solar panel = IV
Power rating solar panel = (7.88A)(41.9 V)
Power rating solar panel = 330.172 W
Power rating solar panel = 330 W
42
Therefore, the number of solar panels can be obtained as;
5.5 x 106 W
Number of Solar Panels =
330 W
Number of Solar Panels = 16, 667 panels
3.6.2 Battery and Inverter Sizing
Solar battery sizing is one of the most important considerations when
choosing specifications of the solar system. When sizing a battery, the main
objective is to get one that can handle load coming from the PV panel array
and provide enough stored power without having regularly discharge. The
specifications of the battery to be used in the design is obtained from Tesla
Power Wall 2 with an AC voltage of 240 V and protection current of 30A.
This battery has an inverter coupled that converts the DC electricity
produced to AC power. The number of the solar panel per battery is
calculated as;
Battery Rating
Number of Solar Panel Per Battery =
Solar Panel Rating
Given the voltage and current of the selected battery, the battery
rating can be calculated.
Battery rating = IV
Battery rating = 30A(240V)
Battery rating = 7200 W
Therefore, the number of solar panels per battery can be obtained
as;
7200 W
Number of Solar Panel Per Battery =
330 W
Number of Solar Panel Per Battery = 21.82 ≈ 21
For the maximization of charging within one battery, it is composed
of 21 solar panels. Moreover, the number of batteries can be calculated as;
Total number of Solar Panel

Number of battery =
Solar panel per Battery
43
16, 667 Panels
Number of battery =
21 Solar Panel/Battery
Number of battery = 793.67 Batteries
3.6.3 Fixed Panels Optimum Tilt
The tilt angle of the photovoltaic (PV) array is the key to an optimum
energy yield. Solar panels or PV arrays are most efficient by adjusting the
face of the panel by magnetic declination value in the location (Whole Sale
Solar). In the Northern Hemisphere, if your magnetic declination is east
(positive), rotate your panels east. If your magnetic declination is west
(negative), rotate your panels west. In the Southern Hemisphere, if your
magnetic declination is east (positive), rotate your panels west. If your
magnetic declination is west (negative), rotate your panels east. The
magnetic declination of Ibaan Batangas is shown in Figure 3.2 based from
the data obtained in Magnetic Declination online map finder.
Figure 3.2 Magnetic Declination of Ibaan Batangas
Since Philippines is situated in the northern hemisphere and Ibaan
Batangas has a magnetic declination of -2º 9’ negative west, thus, the tilt is
44
facing horizontal from west. From the solar panel tilt written by Charlie R.
Landau, the tilt angle can be calculated as;
Tilt (θ) = latitude x 0.87
where: latitude of the location at Sabang, Ibaan Batangas = 13.794725°
Tilt (θ) = 13.794725 x 0.87
Tilt (θ) = 12.00° from horizontal facing west
3.6.4 Solar Panel Rack
Solar racking system is used to safely fix solar panels to the
ground. The length of the panel is 1 m or 1000 mm. Thus, the height of the
of the panel can be determined through;
x
sin(12°) =
1000 mm
x = 207.91 mm
3.6.5 PV Array Row Spacing
When designing a PV system that is tilted or ground mounted,
determining the appropriate spacing between each row is important. The
inter-row spacing for tilted or ground mounted PV systems are obtained
from the Nirvana Solar, Techno-Commercial Energy and calculated as;
sinω
Lmin = x ( + cosω)
tana
where: x = modules length
a = solar radiation angle
ω = modules angle
45
sin 12
Lmin = 1 ( + cos12)
tan 78
Lmin = 1.02 m
3.6.6 Charge Controller
The charge controller used in the design of the system is obtained
from the IHUAX Wind and Solar Expert Store with a solar panel voltage of
<380V(220V); <400V(240V) and a rated charge and discharge current of
30A.
3.7 System Losses
System loss is the total energy lost or wasted on a system due to line loss
and other forms of energy loss, unaccounted energy used among other factors.
The following system loss obtained from the Aurora Solar Help Center will be
applied in different losses which includes the Irradiance Losses, DC Losses and
AC Losses.
3.7.1 Irradiance Losses
These losses reduce the amount of sunlight hitting each panel and
therefore get applied to the incident irradiance of each module.
a. Light-Induced Degradation (default 1.5%)- Solar modules
experience a loss in output power when they are initially exposed to
sunlight.
b. Shading (default 3%)- Shade loss can greatly impact the energy
production of a solar insulation.
c. Soiling (default 2%)- Soiling accounts for dirt and dust accumulation
on the solar panels. Depending on the location of the project this can
be more or less severe, so this factor will need to be adjusted in some
cases.
Calculating the irradiance loss in the system;
Irradiance loss
- Light-induced Degradation (1.5%)
46
- Shading (3%)
- Soiling (2%)
Irradiance losses = [1 − (1 − 0.015)(1 − 0.03)(1 − 0.02)]𝑥 100
Irradiance losses = 0.0637x 100
Irradiance losses = 6.37 %
3.7.2 DC Losses
DC losses represent energy lost on the DC side of the system (losses
before the inverter) and are applied to the DC output of each module or
string. These losses relate to modules, strings, and wiring.
a. Mismatch (default 2%)- While all modules of aa given type have the
same datasheet, in practice their IV characteristics can vary slightly
due to variability in manufacturing processes. This mismatch in IV
characteristics results in slightly reduced energy production in string
inverter designs. Industry consensus is that around 2% of system
energy production is lost due module mismatch.
b. Connections (default 0.5%)- Represents resistive losses in
connectors in the system.
c. Wiring (default 2%)- This accounts for resistive losses in the wiring
of the system (both on the DC and AC side). This value may need to
be adjusted depending on conductor choice and wire runs.
Calculating the DC loss in the system;
DC losses
- Mismatch (2%)
- Connections (0.5%)
- Wiring (2%)
DC losses = [1 − (1 − 0.02)(1 − 0.005)(1 − 0.02)] 𝑥 100
DC losses = 0.0444 𝑥 100
DC losses = 4.44%
47
3.7.3 AC losses
AC losses are applied to the simulated AC output of the system.
These losses capture effects on system performance that have to do with
the system as a whole.
a. System Availability (default 3%)- System availability account
for downtime of the system due to maintenance, equipment
defects and grid outages.
Calculating the AC loss in the system;
AC losses
- System availability (3%)
AC losses = 1 − (1 − 0.03)𝑥 100
AC losses = 0.03 x 100
AC losses = 3%
3.7.4 Transmission and Distribution Loss

Transmission and distribution loses occur in the process of supplying
electricity to consumers due to technical losses or the energy dissipated in
the conductors, transformers and other equipment used for transmission,
transformation, sub-transmission and distribution of power. According to the
trading economics, the transmission and distribution loss of power plants is
11.47%.
3.8 Total Percent Loss
Considering the system losses calculated in the design of PV solar power
plant, the total percent can be determined. It comprises three forms of losses which
includes the irradiance losses, DC losses, AC losses and transmission and
distribution losses.
Total Percent Losses = Irradiance Losses + DC Losses + AC Losses
Total Percent Losses = 6.37% + 4.44% + 3% + 11.47 %
Total Percent Losses = 25.28%
48
3.9 Total Losses in Watts
The design of 5.5-megawatt PV solar power plant considered forms of
losses in the system. Since the plant capacity and the total percent loss in the
system is calculated, total losses in KW can also be calculated. This can be
obtained as;
Total losses in watts = Plant Capacity x Percentage losses
Total losses in watts = 5.5 x 106 W x 0.2528
Total losses in watts = 1390.4 x 103 W
3.10 Total Number of Panels considering the System Losses
Since the PV solar power plant system losses are taken into account, the
total number of panel must be determined to meet the required capacity of the
plant. From 16,667 panels obtained in solar panel sizing without system losses,
there would be additional panels for a total loss of 1390.4 x 103 W This can be
calculated as;
Total lossses in KW
Additional panels =
Solar power rating
1390.4 x 103 W
Additional panels =
330 W
Additional panels = 4213.33 panels ≈ 4,214 panels
Therefore, the total number of panels can be obtained through;
Total number of panels = 16,667 panels + 4,214 panels
Total number of panels = 20,881 panels
3.11 Total Number of Battery and Inverter considering System Losses
The obtained total number of panels are needed in determining the number
of batteries. Since there are additional panels considered from system losses,
there are also additional batteries for the storage of the harnessed energy. The
additional number of batteries will be;
Additional panels
Additional number of batteries =
number of panels per battery
49
4,214 panels
Additional number of batteries =
21 panels/battery
Additional number of batteries = 200.67 batteries ≈ 201 batteries
Therefore, the total number of batteries will be;
Total number of batteries = 794 batteries + 201 batteries
Total number of batteries = 995 batteries
3.12 Land Area
Since the size and number of panels are discussed in the preceded
sections, the land area of the solar field can be calculated. This will establish the
total land area occupied by the panels and the space considerations for preventive
maintenance and plant operating conditions.
Area
Land area = number of solar panel x
panel
where: Size of solar panel = 1m x 2 m = 2m2
Therefore, the land area can be calculated as;
2m2
Land area = 20,881 panels x
panel
Land area = 41,762 m2
1 hectare
Land area = 41,762 m2 x
10,000 m2
Land Area = 4.1762 hectares
Considering the access of the people and the distance of solar panels
between rows as computed in the PV array row spacing, the land area will be
doubled.
Land Area = 4.1762 hectares x 2
Land Area = 83,524 hectares
Moreover, the facilities to be constructed is also considered. Therefore,
the total land area allotted for the PV Solar Power Plant is;
Land Area = 9 hectares
50
3.13 Plant Efficiency
Efficiency is an important measure of plant system performance. The plant
efficiency of the 5.5-megawatt PV solar power plant will be determined through the
following:
Plant capacity − Total losses

Plant efficiency = 𝑥 100
Plant capacity
5.5 x 106 − 1390.4 x 103

Plant efficiency = 𝑥 100
5.5 x 106
Plant efficiency = 74.72 %
3.14 System Efficiency
The instantaneous daily system efficiency is given as a PV module
efficiency multiplied by inverter efficiency (science direct, Shiva Kumar). This can
be obtained as;
esystem = efficiency of solar panel x efficiency of the inverter

esystem = 0.16 x 0.90 = 0.144
esystem = 14.4 %
3.15 Preventive Maintenance
By performing a regular preventive maintenance, the equipment remains to
operate under safe conditions. Preventive maintenance is carefully designed
maintenance program where maintenance tasks are performed routinely in order
to avoid larger, costly fixes equipment failure. The 6.8-MW PV Solar Power Plant
preventive maintenance is twice a year whereas each month has 25 days or 200
hours working hours.
Since the PV power plant will operate 20,881 panels, the number of panels
that will undergo preventive maintenance each day should be considered. This
may be obtained through the following,
25 days
x 12 months = 300 days
month
300 days
= 50 sets
2(3 days)
51
20,881 panels
Number of panels every 3 days =
50
Number of panels every 3 days = 417.62 panels ≈ 418 panels
Number of panels a day = 140 panels
Thus, the number of panels required to undergo preventive maintenance
each day is 140 panels.
3.16 Summary of Design Technical Aspects

With all the calculated significant aspects of the design, Table 3.3 shows
the summary of the results.
Table 3.3 Summary of Design Technical Aspects
Summary of Design Technical Aspects

Number of Solar Panels 20,881
Number of Batteries and Inverter 995
Tilt Angle 12 degree
Height of Solar Panel Rack 207.91 mm
PV Array Row Spacing 1.02 m
Number of Charge Controller 904
Total Percent Loss 25.28%
Total Loss in Watts 1390.4 x103 W
Land Area 9 hectares
Plant Efficiency 74.72%
System Efficiency 14.4 %
Number of panels per day in preventive
140 panels
maintenance
52
CHAPTER IV
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
This chapter presents the financial aspect of the 6.8-MW Solar Power Plant
comprising the capital expenditures, operating expenditures, and the total project
cost. The net present value, payback period and rate of investment will be
presented herein. All capital and expenses for operation and construction of the
design are estimated based on research and related studies
4.1 Capital Expenditure
The capital cost includes the capital expenses for components of the solar
power plant. This includes the land cost, civil and power plant equipment cost. The
equipment costs are based on various catalogue while the land cost is based on
the cost per square meter of the land in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas.
4.1.1 Land Cost
The total land area of the proposed solar power plant is 90 000
m2 .The land cost per square meter is Php 380.00 (landproperties.com).
The solar field cost is estimated as;
Solar Field Cost = Area (Cost/m2 )
Table 4.1 Land Cost
Price per
Land Area Total Amount
Facilities square
𝐦𝟐 (Php)
meter (Php)
Solar Field 83, 524 m2 380.00 31,739,120.00
Building and
2,500 m2 380.00 950,000.00
Offices
Future
3,976 m2 380.00 1,510,880.00
Expansion
Total 34,200,000.00
Table 4.1 shows the total price for the accumulated land based on
the solar field of the study. The total land cost is 34,200,000.00.
53
4.1.2 Equipment Cost
Table 4.2 shows the estimated equipment cost for the 6.8-megawatt
PV solar power plant. The table also includes the number of the equipment
required for the design.
Table 4.2 Equipment Cost
Amount per Total Amount

Component Quantity
unit (Php) (Php)
Solar panel/module 20,881 5,842.50 121,997,242.50
Charge Controller 995 15, 790.00 15,711,050.00
Battery and Inverter 995 390,000.00 388,050,000.00
Solar Array AC Disconnect 995 2,878.00 2,863,610.00
Solar Array DC Disconnect 995 3,466.00 3,448,670.00
MC4 Solar Cable Connector 20,881 80.00 1,670,480.00
Power Transformer 1 2,100,000.00 2,100.000.00
Power Meter 1 18,367.50 18,367.50
Total 533,759,420.00
The table also includes the number of the equipment required for the
design. Note that most of the equipment online is dollar based and just
converted into Philippine money. The accumulated equipment cost for the
6.8-megawatt PV Solar Power Plant is Php 533,759,420.00.
4.1.3 Plant Construction

The facilities and buildings within the PV solar power plant includes
the Administration Building, Engineering and Maintenance Building and the
Instrumentation and Control Building. The following shows the estimation of
the civil works and the accumulated cost prior to it.
a. Administration Building
Appendix A shows the detailed estimation of construction of
the administration building while the summary of the building
estimation is shown in Table 4.3.
54
Table 4.3 Summary of Administration Building Estimation
Description Cost (Php)

Preliminaries 190,000.00
Structural Works 2,497,215.80
Steel Works 1, 493,531.00
Form Works 261,775.44
Scaffold 310,165.38
Tile works 210,033.25
Ceiling 127,712.80
Painting Works 670,816.00
Doors & Windows 619,755.60
Total Cost Php 6,381,005.27
Thus, the total cost estimated for administration building
construction is Php. 6,381,005.27.
b. Engineering and Maintenance Building
Appendix A shows the detailed estimation of construction of
the engineering and maintenance building, while the summary of the
building estimation is shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Summary of Engineering and Maintenance Building

Estimation

Steel Works 2,285,677.00
Scaffold 304,413.74
Ceiling 142,312.80
55
Therefore, the total cost estimated for engineering and maintenance
building construction is Php 7,223,628.98.
c. Instrumentation and Control Building
Appendix A shows the detailed estimation of construction of the
instrumentation and control building, while the summary of the building
estimation is shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Summary of Instrumentation and Control Building

Estimation

Steel Works 1,509,885.00
Scaffold 255,702.50
Ceiling 126,000.00
Therefore, the total cost estimated for instrumentation and control
building construction is Php 5,706,496.95. The summary of the plant
construction estimation is shown in Table 4.6 with a total cost of
19,311,131.20.
Table 4.6 Summary of Plant Construction Estimation
Plant Construction Cost (Php)
Administration Building 6,381,005.27

Engineering and Maintenance
7,223,628.98
Building
Instrumentation and Control
5,706,496.95
Building
Total Cost 19,311,131.20
56
4.1.4 Fixed Capital Investment
According to Engineering Design Guidline by KML Technology
Group, Peters 1990, about 85 to 90 percent of total capital is comprised
generally of fixed capital. Fixed capital may be defined as the total cost of
buildings, auxiliary services and engineering involved in the creation of a
new plant. One method to obtain fixed capital investment can be described
as follow.
Fixed capital investment
= Land Cost + Equipment Cost + Plant Construction
Fixed capital investment
= Php 34,200,000 + Php 533,759,420.00 + 19,311,131.20
Fixed capital investment = Php 587,270,551.20
Thus, the fixed capital investment of the PV solar power plant is Php
587,270,551.20.
4.1.6 Purchased Equipment Installation Cost
The cost factors consider the proportional costs of each component.
The typical variation in components costs are percentages of fixed capital
investment. As obtained in the engineering design guideline by KML
Technology Group, Peters 1990, the purchased equipment installation is
14% of fixed capital investment.
Purchased equipment installation cost = 14% of fixed capital investment
Purchased equipment installation cost = 0.14 (Php 587,270,551.20)
Purchased equipment installation cost = Php 82,217,877.17
Therefore, the purchased equipment installation cost is Php
82,217,877.17.
57
4.1.7 Electrical Cost
Electrical cost involved in the installation, planning and maintenance
of electrical equipment and systems. The electrical cost is 10% of the fixed
capital investment as determined in the engineering design guideline of
KML Technology Group.
Electrical cost = 10% of fixed capital investment
Electrical cost = 0.10 (Php 587,270,551.20)
Electrical cost = Php 58,727,055.12
Thus, the electrical cost for the design of 5.5-megawatt PV solar power
plant is Php 58,727,055.12.
4.2 Operational Expenditures

This cost refers to the expenses sustained during plant operations including
the operational cost and maintenance cost of the plant. Based on the solar mango,
O & M encompasses routine maintenance of the plant and minor part replacement
to ensure maximum generation from the plant, usually escalating annually at 5%.
Thus, operational and maintenance cost can be obtained as;
Operational and Maintenace Cost (O&M) = 5% of Project Cost
O&M = 0.05(Php 764,626,257.66)
O&M = Php 38,231,312.88
Therefore, the operational and maintenance cost of the 6.8-megawatt PV Solar
Power Plant is Php 38,231,312.88.
4.3 Economic Analysis
Economic analysis is a means of bringing out a better allocation of
resources that can lead to enhance incomes for investment or consumption
purposes. This is a process whereby the strengths and weaknesses of an
economy are analyzed. It includes the annual revenue, annual cost, profit,
payback period, return of investment and net present value.
58
4.3.1 Annual Revenue
According to Guyana (2013), solar power plant requires little
maintenance as compared to other power plant and can operate 365 days.
The annual revenue is the amount of money that a company actually
receives during a specific period, including discounts and deductions. It is
a gross income figure from which costs are subtracted to determine the net
income. The annual revenue obtained from quickonomics is shown below
with a working equation of;
Annual Revenue = Plant Rated Capacity x Power Generation Price
The power generation rate based on the NGCP is Php 7.517 per
kilowatt-hour (kWh). Thus,
Php 7.517
Annual Revenue = 6,800 kW x x 8760 hours
kWh
Annual Revenue = Php 450,989,328.00
Thus, the annual revenue considering the plant rated capacity and
the power generation price is Php 450,989.328.00.
4.3.2 Total Cost
The equivalent annual cost is the total economic cost of production
which varies according to the factors of the input used. In the PV solar
power plant, the annual cost includes the fixed capital investment, the
purchased installation cost and the electrical cost.
Total cost = Fixed capital investment + Purchased installation cost
+ Electrical cost
Total cost = Php 587,759,420.00 + Php 82,217,877.17 + Php 58,727,055.12
Total cost = Php 728,215,483.49
Moreover, for 5% contingency cost.
Total cost = Php 728,215,483.49 + (0.05)(Php 728,215,483.49)
Total cost = Php 764,626,257.66
59
Therefore, the total cost needed in putting up a 6.8-megawatt PV
solar power plant is Php 764,626,257.66
4.3.3 Profit
Profit is the amount of revenue gained from a power plant that
exceeds the expenses, costs and taxes. As of 2015, Solar Mango estimates
based on trends worldwide that solar farm project have internal rate of
return in the range of 10-15%. Getting the average IRR’s, the designers
used 12.5% as the rate of return in calculating the profit.
Profit = Return rate x Annual Revenue

Profit = 0.125(Php 450,989,328.00)
Profit = Php 56,373,666.00
Therefore, the money that is earned in the 6.8-megawatt PV solar
power plant is Php 56,373,666.00.
4.3.4 Payback Period
Payback period refers to the amount of time it takes to recover the
cost of an investment (Investopedia). Solving for the payback period,
Investment Cost
Payback Period =
Economic Profit
764,626,257.88
Payback Period =
56,373,666.00
Payback Period = 13.5635 years ≈ 14 years
4.3.5 Return on Investment
According to Shawn Grimsley, return on investment is the ratio of a
profit or loss made in a fiscal year expressed in terms of an investment. It
is expressed in terms of a percentage of increase or decrease in the value
of the investment during the year.
Profit
Return on investment = x 100
Annual Cost
56,373,666.00
Return on investment = x100
450,989,328.00
60
Return on investment = 12.5%
Thus, the rate of return on investment is about 12.5%
4.4 Plant Life
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted research
on the rate of “photovoltaic degradation” on a sample of 2,000 solar power stations.
According to the results of the study, on average a year the solar panel losses
about half of a percent (0.5%) of its efficiency. This means that at the end of the
25-year warranty period, your solar panel will work with a still high level of
efficiency-88% of original.
4.5 Summary of Engineering Economics
The economic aspects of the design are summarized in Table 4.7, Table
4.8, and Table 4.9. It includes the capital expenditure, the operational expenditures
and the economic analysis of the project.
Table 4.7 Summary of Capital Expenditures
Summary
Capital Expenditures Amount (Php)
Land Cost 34,200,000.00
Equipment Cost 533,759,420.00
Plant Construction 19,311,131.20
Installation Cost 82,217,877.17
Electrical Cost 58,727,055.12
Contingency (5%) 36,410,774.17
Total Project Cost 764,626,257.66
Table 4.8 Summary of Operational Expenditures
Summary
Operational Expenditures Amount (Php)
Fixed O & M 38,231,312.88
Variable O & M 0.00
Total Operational Cost 32,231,312.88
61
Table 4.9 Summary of Economic Analysis
Economic Analysis
Annual Revenue Php 450,989,328.00
Profit Php 56,373,666.00
Payback Period 14 years
Return on Investment 12.5%
62
CHAPTER V
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
Health and safety requirements are considered in the design of 6.8-
megawatt PV solar power plant in preparation of environmental impact
assessment. Reduction measures are developed for the environmental issues
associated during construction and operational phase of the project. The ASTM
International Environmental Standards including environmental assessment
standards, risk management standards, environmental toxicology standards are
also considered.
Moreover, the utilization of resources needed to develop a power plant and
its factors are discussed. Different aspects to which the environment is concerned
is also tackled with the public awareness that can impact the socio-economic
environment vital in the surroundings. The main concern of the power plant
designers is to create a balance in the change of technology while not giving up
the will to increase the efficiency and other factors needed in the design.
5..1 Social, Political and Ethical Considerations
The main purpose of the social economic assessment is to develop a
system wherein it does not add up to the pollution that the environment is already
enduring. The development of solar power plant can be a source of power
generation with a less impact on our environment by following the given standards
of the government. Setting up a power plant requires a lot of factors to be
considered simultaneously. The proposed location must contain an optimum mix
of the requirements to be feasible for long-term economic justification of the plant.
5..2 Health and Safety Requirements
The two primary factors that must be taken into account are health and
safety, in considering the welfare of the employers and other related parties. The
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 are statutory
obligations on employers that is common to all sectors. This act set out the duties
of an employer to manage the health, safety and welfare of employees and any
63
other individual affected by their actions. Such activities include, assessing and
managing risks arising from work activities, formulating measures for emergencies,
suitable information and preparation for employees, and for health surveillance.
Employees must work safely in the working environment in compliance with their
training and guidelines provided to them.
The site should be kept in a clean and orderly condition so as to reduce the
chance of injury through slips and trips. Most could be avoided by effective
management of working areas and access routes. Different signs and warnings
should be placed at each hazard in order to protect the workers.
5.3 Risk Factor Assessment
Risk management is one of the main considerations of project
management. Risk identification is the basis of the management and the
fundamental purpose of construction of the pow er plant. Regarding to power plant
construction, safety management evaluation is useful for the construction unit to
find the potential hazard source. Table 5.1 shows the risk factor assessment of the
design of the PV solar power plant.
Table 5.1 Risk Factor Assessment
Corrective
Type of Risk Management Measures Risk
Measures
Wear personal
Risk of property damage
protective
Construction or liability from errors
High Risk equipment during
Risk during the building of
operational and
new projects
maintenance
Risk affecting viability of

the project such as risk
Company related to key personnel, Compliance with the
Very low risk
Risk financial and technical building regulations
ability to execute on
plans
Risk of Environmental
Compliance with
Environmental damage caused by solar
Medium risk DENR and Local
Risk field including any liability
Government Unit
following such damage
64
Design the most
Risk of insufficient
economical set-up
Financial Risk access to investment and High risk
of a PV solar power
operating capital
plant
People that possibly and

Addition of security
Plant Risk entering and leaving the Medium risk
personnel
plant
Risk of unscheduled
Monitor all
plant shutdown due to
Operational components and put
lack of resources and High risk
Risk a backup source of
equipment damages of
energy
component failures
Risk of change in policy Compliance with the

Political Risk that may affect the Low risk Local Government
profitability of the project Unit
Risk of changes in
Monitoring of the
Climate and electricity generation due
High risk weather data in
Weather Risk of lack of sunshine for
PAGASA
long period of time
Install solar panels

Risk that all or parts of high off ground so
Fire Hazard the system will be Low risk they receive
subjected to fire unobstructed
ventilation
Look for background

of place for
Risk that the plant will be
Topographical installation to ensure
subjected to flood and Medium risk
Risk that the site is free
earthquake
from environmental
disasters
5.4 Environmental Standards
a. Republic Act No. 8749- The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic
Act No. 8749) outlines the government’s measures to reduce air pollution
and incorporate environmental protection into its development plans. It
relies heavily on the polluter pays principle and other market-based
instruments to promote self-regulation among the population. It sets
emission standards for all motor vehicles and issues pollutant limitations for
industry. Emission limit values are laid down by The Department of
65
Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines as ‘Implementing Rules
and Regulations for Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999’. These rules and
regulations shall apply to all industrial emissions and other establishments
which are potential sources of air pollution.
b. Republic Act 9275- otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act
of 2004 is a comprehensive policy and program for water quality
management in the country. It aims to protect, preserve and revive the
quality of our fresh brackish and marine water. The act lays down the
policies to control the pollution form land based resources. It sets effluent
standards for establishments and manufacturing plants to follow and
imposes the appropriate punishments for violators of the law. It also outlines
the different programs to be implemented by the government in order to
manage and maintain water quality.
c. Republic Act 6969- The hazardous waste management otherwise
known as the toxic substances, hazardous and nuclear wastes control act
of 1990, was designed to respond to increasing problems associated with
toxic chemicals and hazardous and nuclear wastes. It provides control and
management of import, manufacture, processes, distribution, use,
transport, treatment and disposal of toxic and hazardous substances. The
act seeks to protect public health and the environment form the
unreasonable risks posed by these substances.
d. Republic Act 9003- Ecological and Solid Waste Management otherwise
known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 provides for
waste reduction at source, segregation for reusable, recyclables and
compostable, segregated transportation, storage, transfer, processing,
treatment and disposal of solid wastes and all other waste management
activities manners that do not harm the environment.
66
CHAPTER VI
PLANT CONSTRUCTION EXECUTION PLAN
This chapter presents the plant execution plan of the building a Solar Power
Plant in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas. Construction Management and Strategy,
Ownership and Capitalization, Buildings Floor Plan, 3D Plan, Work Scheduling,
Overall Management and Commissioning and Permitting and Licensing of the
project will be discussed. A Gantt Chart is also provided to summarize major
activities which corresponds to its time allotment.
6.1 Construction Management Strategy
Constructing a solar PV project is similar in principle to financing other types
of power projects, however, certain risks that are unique to solar PV must be
accounted for in the construction plan. Risks associated specifically with solar PV
projects are related to the energy resource (irradiation), project siting and
permitting, solar technology, potential degradation of PV modules, and reliability
of long-term plant performance, as well as potential uncertainty of the tariff and
revenue collection.
The PV project construction can be obtained when the developer prepares
comprehensive documentation of the project, specifically, the local government
with partnership of a private sector so that financiers may carry out their due
diligence to assess the risks of the prospective investment. Detailed design and
comprehensive documentation for revenue projections are particularly critical,
because the lender depends entirely on the cash flow of the project for repayment.
Throughout the construction process, the developer constantly assesses and tries
to manage risks, so there is favorable risk-reward balance.
6.2 Ownership and Capitalization
The Photovoltaic Solar Power Plant at Sabang, Ibaan Batangas operates
the 6.8-megawatt under a joint virtue agreement with the local government of the
municipality of Ibaan and a private company that is a developer, owner, and
operator of clean energy projects in key markets that are perennially short of
67
electricity, particularly in non-urbanized areas. Figure 6.1 shows the organizational
chart of the local government of municipality of Ibaan Batangas.
Figure 6.1 Organizational Chart of Municipality of Ibaan Batangas
68
6.3 Plant Layout
Figure 6.2 Plant Layout

6.4 Buildings Floor Plan
Figure 6.3 Engineering and Maintenance Building Floor Plan
69
Figure 6.4 Administration Building Floor Plan
Figure 6.5 Instrumentation and Control Building Floor Plan
70
6.5 Proposed 3D Plan of 5.5-Megawatt PV Solar Power Plant
A 3D design can clearly show the physical dimensions of the objects and
its distance in relation with other objects in the total layout. The PV solar power
plant has a total land area of 9 hectares comprising both the building and offices
area as well as the solar field. The figure below shows the 3D design layout of the
PV solar power plant;
Figure 6.6 Proposed 3D Plan of 6.8-Megawatt PV Solar Power Plant
71
6.6 Work Scheduling and Overall Management
This section involves the completion of a schedule to be followed regarding
the operation of the generating units of the PV Solar Power Plant. The proposed
plant would be classified as corporation and functional type business organization.
This suits the type of operation that the company represents because the
functionalized structure is formed by grouping or by division according to the field
of their organization. The organizational chart of the 6.8 PV Solar Power Plant is
shown in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6-7 Organizational Chart of 6.8-Megawatt PV Solar Power Plant
72
The average workforce distribution for PV solar power plant as stated by
Ferguson (2011) in the report entitled “Work force needs in the Renewable Energy
Industry”. For large-scale solar construction workforce needs;
Table 6.1 Large-Scale Solar Construction Workforce Needs
Average number of full-time

Technology MW Size
employees per month
Photovoltaics 25 500
Photovoltaics 250 353
By ratio and proportion, the workforce distribution for 6.8-megawatt PV
solar power plant is;
25 MW 6.8 MW
=
500 employees no. of employees
No of employees = 136
Table 6.2 Workforce Distribution in the Plant
Workforce Distribution in the Plant

Job Description Annual Workforce
General: Office Personnel, Administration,

25
Managers
Engineering: Controls, Electrical, Mechanical,

Plant and Resource Engineers, Project
30
Analysts, Chemical Technician, Engineering
Technicians, Operating Supervisor
Maintenance: Mechanical technician,
50
Electricians, Equipment Operators
Operations: Shift supervisor, Control Operators,

21
Plant Operators
Unskilled Worker 10
Total 136
While determining the work schedule, the total estimated time of plant
construction of 2 years. The breakdown of operations and the time allotted is
shown in Table 6.3.
73
Table 6.3 Work Scheduling
Work Scheduling
Operation(s) Time (months)
Line clearing and excavation 3 months
Building construction 7-8 months
Equipment installation 10 months
Completion of Substation 4-5 months
6.7 Overall Management and Commissioning
Project management is an essential process and activity of planning,
organizing, motivating and controlling resources in order to achieve the successful
completion and long-term harmony of solar power plant with the surrounding
communities. This management can be a challenge for a solar power plant,
compared to other capital-intensive industrial and commercial projects. Members
with different specialization and knowledge connected to the construction of the
solar power plant should be hired to ensure that everything will be done
accordingly and to avoid waste of money or time.
Commissioning is performed with the participation of competent authorities
and controlling bodies. It includes such institutions like health, labor inspection and
fire brigade to ensure and secure the safety of every involved personnel. Before
the plant is to be operated, the license must be first granted. While after the plant
is fully operational, it must be consistently monitored to environmental protection.
6.8 Permits and Licensing
The list of permits and agreements needed in the design of the 6.8-
megawatt PV solar power plant are the following: 1) Land lease agreement; 2) Site
access permit; 3) Grid connection agreement; 4) Environmental permits; and 5)
Operator and generation license.
74
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the results of the design, conclusions and
recommendations.
7.1 Summary of Findings
The design requirements and objectives of the 6.8-megawatt PV solar
power plant are fulfilled. The proposed design in Sabang, Ibaan Batangas will
significantly help the municipality in terms of economic development. The
renewable energy generated from the solar power has substantial contribution
towards local and international commitments, reducing the increase in the level of
greenhouse effects.
With the increasing population and technology, the demand for electricity is
also increasing. The country is now dependent to technology than ever before,
resulting to insufficient control on energy demand. To fulfill these requirements, the
power sector will either build new power plants or expands the capacity of the
existing power plants. Therefore, the design of the 6.8-megawatt PV solar power
plant as discussed in the preceded chapters will support the increasing demand of
power at Sabang, Ibaan Batangas.
The cost of the project is Php 728,215,483.49 with an expected payback
period of 14 years. This cost includes both the capital expenditures and the
operational expenditures. Moreover, after determining the technical aspects of the
design and the economic analysis, environmental management plan and plant
construction execution plan were discussed. These section discussed the
environmental assessment and risk management standards as well as the
construction strategy, ownership, capitalization and other factors necessary for
appropriate establishing of the proposed design of PV power plant.
75
7.2 Conclusions
Considering the objectives set in the study, the following conclusions were
derived:
1. The data concerning the PV solar power plant design and specifications of
equipment are based on the proposed plant site and capacity.
2. The design arrived on various improvements in energy security,
environmental sustainability and renewable energy objectives.
3. The plant design achieved measurements, considerations and key design
features including the type of PV module used, tilting angle, battery,
inverters and other major components of the system.
4. One of the vital considerations in the selection of the best design is the
analysis of the economic aspects of it. The design is said to be economic
viable when it proves to be economic feasible innovative and sustainable in
terms of investing financial resources.
5. Solar electricity generation is one of the abundant energy sources with a
potential to grow very large scale.
7.3 Recommendations
Based on the results of the study, the following are recommended:
1. Tie the solar power plant to other breed of power plant to further improve its
efficiency.
2. Further analysis on the study concerning the economy of solar power plant
in order to arrive into more accurate economic projections shall be done.
3. Deeper analysis of the different set-ups of the PV solar power plant in order
to take advantage of a more efficient energy source.
4. Focus on various parameters and factors of the design of PV solar power
plant to ensure the structural integrity of the plant and the safety parameters
in the plant construction.
5. Make research and identify where will be the most effective and feasible
what/where to catalyze renewable energy in the country.
76
6. Renewable energy sector and investments must adapt to changing market
conditions to maintain a stable renewable energy investment ensuring a
cost-effective and reliable energy system.
7. Power sectors or some of the private companies must look forward on
financing different aspects of research and development to achieve
technology push and market pull for renewable energies.
8. Design efficient policies to support solar technology development.
9. Integrate solar generation at large-scale existing electrical systems.
10. Assessment of market opportunity to prevail power price and structure of
power market for specific financial incentives for developing PV solar power
plant.
11. Provide detailed information on work streams for successful execution of
project activities.
77
GLOSSARY
Alternating current (AC)- A type of electrical current, the direction of which is
reversed at regular intervals or cycles.
Ampere (amp)- A unit of electrical current or rate of flow of electrons. One volt
across one ohm of resistance causes a current flow of one ampere.
Availability- The quality or condition of a photovoltaic system being available
to provide power to a load.
Base load- The average amount of electric power that a utility must supply in
any period.
Battery- Two or more electrochemical cells enclosed in a container and
electrically interconnected in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to
provide the required operating voltage and current levels.
Battery capacity- The maximum total electrical charge, expressed in ampere-
hours, which battery can deliver to a load under a specific sets of conditions.
Battery life- The period during which a cell or battery is capable of operating
above a specified capacity or efficiency performance level.
Capacity factor- The ratio of the average load on an electricity generating unit
or system to the capacity rating of the unit or system over a specified period of
time.
Charge- The process of adding electrical energy to a battery.
Conductor- The material through which electricity is transmitted, such as an
electrical wire, or transmission or distribution line.
Converter- A unit that coverts a direct current DC voltage to another DC
voltage.
Cut-off voltage-The voltage levels at which the charge controller disconnects
the photovoltaic array from the battery or the load from the battery.
Diffuse radiation- Radiation received from the sun after reflection and
scattering by the atmosphere and ground.
Diode- An electronic device that allows current to flow in one direction only.
78
Direct current (DC)- A type of electricity transmission and distribution by which
electricity flows in one direction through the conductor, usually relatively low
voltage and high current.
Disconnect- switch gear use to connect or disconnect components in a
photovoltaic system.
Distributed generation- A popular term for localized or on-site power
generation.
Distributed systems- Systems that are installed at or near the location where
the electricity is used, as opposed to central systems that supply electricity to
grids.
Electric current- The flow of electrical energy in a conductor, measured in
amperes.
Electrode- A conductor that is brought in conducting contact with a ground.
Fixed tilt array- A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with respect to
horizontal.
Frequency- The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform,
expressed in hertz (Hz).
Grid-connected system- A solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) system in which
the PV array acts like a central generating plant, supplying power to the grid.
Inverter- A device that converts direct current electricity to alternating current
either for stand-alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.
Irradiance- The direct, diffuse and reflected solar radiation that strikes a
surface.
Load- The demand on energy producing system; the energy consumption or
requirement of a piece or group of equipment.
Nominal voltage- A reference voltage used to describe batteries, modules, or
systems.
79
Ohm- A measure of the electrical resistance of a material equal to the
resistance of a circuit in which the potential difference of 1 volt produces a
current of 1 ampere.
Peak demand/load- The maximum energy demand or load in a specified time
period.
Photovoltaic (PV)- Pertaining to the direct conversion of light into electricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) array- An interconnected system of PV modules that
function as a single electricity-producing unit. The modules are assembled as
a discrete structure, with common support or mounting.
Photovoltaic (PV) effect- The phenomenon that occurs when photons, the
“particles” in a beam of light, knock electrons loose from the atoms they strike.
Photovoltaic (PV) module- The smallest environmentally, protected,
essentially planar assembly of solar cells and ancillary parts, such as
interconnections, terminals, intended to generate direct current power under
concentrated sunlight.
Photovoltaic (PV) system- Collects the residual heat energy and delivers
both heat and electricity in usable form.
80
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Morse, F. T. Power Plant Engineering.
Philippine Electrical Code Part 1 Volume ! (2009). San Juan: MG Reprographics
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Watson, J., & Papaeconomou, V. (2016). Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Best
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Ground Alu T System
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CHAPTER I

Renewable energy can be regarded as one of the fundamental premises

are replenished constantly. It has the potential to be perpetually harnessed and

perpetually stored and can be relied in long-term. Clean energy development is

been one of the main substitutes of electricity resources worldwide including

energy is clean, inexhaustible and environment-friendly potential resource among

systems are used to meet the future energy demand.

electricity without any waste or pollution or dependence on the Earth’s natural

environmental concern has increased, renewable energy has become a very

important engineering sector. It is undoubtable that in the future a large proportion

1.1 History of Solar Energy

when selenium was exposed to light, it produced electricity. An electricity expert,

light, without heat or moving parts, could be converted into electricity.

benefits and enjoying the savings.

1.2 Solar Power Technology

Solar panel technology was in constant state of innovation which have

adoption of renewable energy generation.

There are three primary technologies by which solar energy is commonly

harnessed: photovoltaics (PV), which directly convert light to electricity;

be deployed through distributed generation, whereby the equipment is located on

rooftops or ground-mounted arrays close to where the energy is used. Some

technologies can be further expanded into utility-scale applications to produce

energy as a central power plant.

1.2.1 Photovoltaic Technology

Photovoltaic (PV) technologies directly convert energy from sunlight into

electricity. When sunlight strikes the PV module, made of a semiconductor

produces an electric current. PV modules contain no moving parts and

generally thirty years or more with minimal maintenance.

greatest. Homeowners can install a few dozen PV panels to reduce or

panels to provide pollution-free electricity to customers. Semiconductors are

used in most electronic products, including computer chips, audio amplifiers,

that employ other semiconductor materials often referred to as thin-film PV.

Each of the various PV technologies have unique cost and performance

can be further affected by the PV application and specific configuration of a PV

1.2.2 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants use mirrors to concentrate

the sun’s thermal energy to drive a conventional steam turbine to make

used to produce electricity when it is needed, day or night. The two

commercialized CSP technologies are Power Towers and Parabolic

Troughs. Other CSP technologies include Compact Linear Fresnel

Reflector (CLFR) and Dish Engine. CSP specific conditions to produce

parcels of dry, flat land.

CSP technologies collect solar energy and convert it to thermal

either as a flexible provider of electricity, such as a natural gas “peaker

plant”, or as a baseload source of electricity similar to a traditional nuclear

fired heat or gas steam boiler/reheater is used.

Energy is concentrated by parabolically curved trough-shaped

surface. The temperature of the heat transfer fluid flowing through

the heat energy is then used to generate electricity in a conventional

steam generator. A collector field comprises many troughs in parallel

rows aligned on a north-south axis. This configuration enables the

to ensure that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes.

1.2.2.2 Linear Fresnel Systems

Another option is the approximation of the parabolic troughs

by segmented mirrors according to the principle of Fresnel. Most

transfer fluid in its hot phase allowing for electricity generation

several hours into the evening or during cloudy days.

1.2.2.3 Power Tower Systems

Power Tower or central receiver system utilize sun-tracking

mirrors called heliostats to focus sunlight onto a receiver at the top

of a tower. A heat transfer fluid heated in the receiver up to around

600°C is used to generate steam, which in turn, is used in a