K.

Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

PRESSURE MAESUREMENT

• Liquid hydrostatic manometers

• Elastic-element mechanical pressure gauges
• Electric manometers
¾ Strain gage
¾ Capacitive pressure sensor
¾ Piezoelectric pressure sensor

Hydrostatic manometers

• Measurement of the hydrostatic pressure p = h.ρ.g

• The measure of the pressure is the height of liquid
column h
• Indication of the manometer depends on the density of
the liquid and on the temperature
• Hydrostatic manometers serve as standard for
calibrating other pressure instruments

Types of hydrostatic manometers

p = hρg h2
h1

• U-tube manometer
S2
p = h2 ρ g ( + 1)
S1
h2
• Well manometer S1,2 are cross sections

h1
• Inclined-tube manometer
S2
p = ρ gl ( + sin α )
S1 l
α
3

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Elastic-element mechanical pressure gauges

These sensors uses some form of elastic element whose
geometry is altered by changes in pressure

Elastic elements:
• Bourdon tube
• Diaphragm
• Bellow
• Capsule

Bourdon tube
• It is a tube closed at one end
• An internal cross section is elliptical
• With internal pressure variation the tube
bends or unbends Δl
• An internal pressure increase causes
the cross section to become more
circular and the shape to straighten,
resulting in motion of the closed end of
the tube
Δp
• A wide range of alloys can be used for
making Bourdon elements
• For measuring over-pressure as well as
under-pressure
• Measuring ranges:
– from (0 to 0,5) MPa to 2 000 MPa
p
5

Animation of the Bourdon tube

Internal cross section changes with deformation

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Diaphragm
• A flexible disk, usually with
concentric corrugation
• Diaphragm converts pressure
to deflection

Concentric corrugation p

• The membrane can be protected with

plastic material or rubber or enamel
against corrosive medium attack.
• For measuring over-pressure as well
as under-pressure and difference
• Measuring ranges:
– to 4 MPa
7

Bellows
• Bellow Δl
– This is a thin-wall metal tube
with deeply convoluted
sidewalls which permit axial
expansion and contraction
– The spring serves for
conditioning of the measuring
range

• Bellows are well suited for input

elements for pneumatic recorders Bellow Spring
and indicators and for pneumatic
controllers Δp
• Measuring ranges: to 0,4 MPa

Electrical manometers
• The output signal is electric signal
• Modern and prospective sensors which are integrated
with modern microprocessor electronic circuits

• Strain gauge pressure transducers

• Capacitive pressure sensors
• Piezoelectric pressure sensors

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Strain gauge
Principle of strain gauge

• a cylindrical conductor, one

end is fixed coupling
• relation for resistance: l Δl
l F
R=ρ

d
S
• F is pull tension
• Δ l is extension of the conductor

10

Strain gauge Wire strain Foil strain

gauge gauge
• Strain gauges transducers are used
in pressure and weighting load cells
• Strain gauges usually are mounted
directly by sensing diaphragms or
bonded to cantilever springs which
act as a restoring force
• Strain gauge changes
Metallic strain gauge: resistance in accordance with
deformations of the surface to
ΔR
= k ⋅ε
k – gauge factor which it is bonded
ε - relative strain
R R – gauge resistance Silicon

Semiconductor strain gauge: Leadwires

ΔR • Higher sensitivity; gauge factor is approx.

= k1 ⋅ ε + k2 ⋅ ε 2 50 times higher
R • Higher temperature effect
10
(Temperature is the undesirable variable)

Pressure transducers with strain gauges

Bonded strain-gage systems Force
• Strain gauges are bonded to the metal Tension
cantilever
• The first strain gauge is subjected to tension
and the second one is subjected to
compression
• 4 strain gauges are connected in the Compression
Wheatstone bridge
• Increase of the measurement sensitivity
Cantilever with
• Minimize influence on strain gauges
temperature changes p
Pressure transducer
with strain gauges:
Below
Wheatstone bridge
circuit with four Amplifier
strain gauges 11

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Diffused semiconductor strain gauges

• The strain gauges are diffused Tension
Compression Compression
directly into the surface of the
diaphragm, utilizing photolitho-
graphic masking techniques and
solid-state diffusion of an impurity
element (e.g. boron)
• Two strain gauges are placed on
the periphery of the diaphragm and
two other are placed in the centre Diaphragm diameter: approx. 6 mm
of the diaphragm.
Silicon diaphragm
• The strain gauges on the periphery
are strain by compression and the Areas for gold
strain gauges in the centre are lead wire
strain by pull-tension. attachment
• These four strain gauges are
connected to the Wheatstone
bridge.
Strain sensing
areas 12

Pressure transducer – Diaphragm-beam design

Measured
Protective pressure
Strain gauge
diaphragm Diaphragm

Silicone
oil

Reference
pressure

13

Design of electrical manometers

Handheld instrument with the Process pressure
strain gauge transducer: transducers:
Pressure Display
inputs

Controlling buttons
14

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Capacitive pressure sensor

Principle:
• A measuring diaphragm and a fixed
plate electrode consist a capacitor p
• The measuring diaphragm moves
relative to fixed plates C
• Changes in capacitance are detected
by an oscillator or bridge circuit
• For a plate capacitor we can write:
C Nonlinear
S
C = ε oε r characteristic curve
d
d
ε0 - permittivity of free space
εr - relative dielectric constant
S - electrode area
d - electrode distance
15

Capacitive differential-pressure transducer

• Measuring diaphragm moves by C1 C2
pressure difference
• Two fixed electrodes are mounted
on the glass insulation
• Measured pressure acts through a
protective diaphragm and silicone oil
on the measuring diaphragm
Protective
diaphragm
p1 p2

Silicone oil Measuring Glass

diaphragm insulation 16

Piezoelectric pressure sensors

Principle:
• When certain asymmetrical crystal (e.g. quartz) are elastically
deformed along specific axes, an electric charge is called
• Electric charge is called on the crystal surfaces across to the
electrical axis
• On this surfaces are applied metal electrodes
• Charge value Q is proportional to acting force F

Piezoelectric effect:
+ –
Q = k Fx Crystal axes
• x – electrical axis
x
• y – mechanical axis
Fx Fx • z – optical axis
y 17

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K. Kadlec: Measurement and Control ICT Prague

Piezoelectric pressure transducer

• The charge signal from the piezoelectric pressure
transducer is usually converted into voltage-type
signal by means of capacitor, according to:

Q k ⋅ Fx
U= =
C C
U – output voltage signal piezoelectric
Q – charge signal crystal
C – capacitance of the sensor

• Piezoelectric pressure sensors central

offer several advantages for electrode
measuring dynamic pressures
• This sensors are small in size,
lightweight, and very rugged
p
18

References

• McMillan G.K., Considine D.M.: Process/Industrial Instruments and

Controls Handbook. McGraw-Hill New York 1999
• Dyer A.S.: Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement.
John Wiley, Inc. New York, 2001

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