Accepted Manuscript

Functionality of OSA starch stabilized emulsions as fat replacers in cookies

Tamara Dapčević Hadnađev, Miroslav Hadnađev, Milica Pojić, Slađana Rakita,

Veljko Krstonošić

PII: S0260-8774(15)00043-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.02.002
Reference: JFOE 8059

To appear in: Journal of Food Engineering

Received Date: 17 November 2014

Revised Date: 22 January 2015
Accepted Date: 4 February 2015

Please cite this article as: Dapčević Hadnađev, T., Hadnađev, M., Pojić, M., Rakita, S., Krstonošić, V., Functionality
of OSA starch stabilized emulsions as fat replacers in cookies, Journal of Food Engineering (2015), doi: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.02.002

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Functionality of OSA starch stabilized emulsions as fat replacers in cookies

Tamara Dapčević Hadnađeva, Miroslav Hadnađeva*, Milica Pojića, Slađana Rakitaa,

Veljko Krstonošićb
a
University of Novi Sad, Institute of Food Technology, Bul. cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad,

Serbia
b
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy, Hajduk Veljkova 3,

21000 Novi Sad, Serbia

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop novel semi-plastic shortenings based on starch sodium

octenyl succinate stabilized oil-in-water emulsions, as well as to investigate their

functionality as fat replacers in cookies.

The effects of incorporation of structured oil (in the form of 50 and 70% oil-in-water

emulsions) instead of unstructured oil (50 and 70%) or traditional shortening (100%

vegetable fat) in cookie formulation were determined by measuring the rheological properties

of cookie dough, textural properties of cookie (break strength), spread, colour, moisture and

sensory attributes.

It was determined that vegetable fat replacement with emulsions and unstructured oil affected

the decrease in dough elastic modulus and increase in cookie firmness. Cookies containing oil

in the form of emulsion expressed higher dough strength and lower cookie spread in

comparison to those containing unstructured oil. Although all the cookies were sensory

acceptable, the one containing traditional shortening expressed superior sensory

characteristics.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 21 485 3811; +381 62520778(M. Hadnađev).
E-mail addresses: tamara.dapcevic@fins.uns.ac.rs (T. Dapčević Hadnađev), miroslav.hadnadjev@fins.uns.ac.rs (M. Hadnađev),
milica.pojic@fins.uns.ac.rs (M. Pojić), sladjana.rakita@fins.uns.ac.rs (S. Rakita), veljkokrst@yahoo.co.uk (V. Krstonošić)
Keywords: cookie, emulsion, oil structuring, OSA starch, rheology, texture
1 Introduction

The increasing demands for functional food products that address specific health benefits

have been stimulated by modern consumers being more and more aware of the relationship

between the diet and their health status (Palzer, 2009). These dietary concerns are mostly

associated with the reduced intake of fat and sugar due to the risk of obesity, diabetes, cancer,

high blood cholesterol and coronary heart diseases (Sudha et al., 2007; Palzer, 2009; Zoulias

et al., 2000). Therefore, the formulation of low-fat products has become a high priority for

the different branches of food industry (Lucca and Tepper, 1994). The development of

products with reduced fat content is a special challenge considering the functionality of fat in

foodstuffs affecting desirable appearance, flavour, aroma, texture and mouthfeel (Lucca and

Tepper, 1994; Pareyt et al., 2009; Zoulias et al., 2002).

The "cookie" as it is known in the USA, or the "biscuit" as it is known in the UK is a small

product usually of flat shape baked to a moisture content of less than 5% comprising three

major ingredients: flour, fat and sugar (Manley, 2001; Pareyt and Delcour, 2008). Fats

traditionally used in the production of cookies are in solid or semi solid form – predominantly

hydrogenated (margarine) or saturated (shortening) accounting for up to 20% of cookie

dough, which implies a high content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (Baltsavias et al., 1999).

Since the consumption of sweet foods starts pretty early and is more prevalent among young

population and children it is justified to find alternative cookie formulations as one way of an

intervention strategy for prevention of obesity and other health disorders especially in

children (Foltz et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2010). Therefore, food technologists and scientist

have made great efforts to produce cookies with reduced fat and/or sugar levels (Drewnowski

et al., 1998; Chugh et al., 2013; Rodríguez-García et al., 2013, 2014).

There are different approaches for fat reduction or replacement in cookies, such as utilization

of fat mimetics (protein- and carbohydrate-based) to partially or fully replace fat phase

(Laguna et al., 2014; Zoulias et al., 2002), substitution of hydrogenated or saturated fats with

vegetable oils in order to improve the quality of the fat employed (Tarancón et al., 2014) or

recently involved approach which comprise incorporation of oil-in-water stabilized emulsions

as novel shortenings (Goldstein and Seetharaman, 2011; Tarancón et al., 2013).

The aim of this paper was to investigate the effect of substituting 100% of vegetable fat with

reduced fat formulations composed of unstructured vegetable oil or with vegetable oil

structured in the form of emulsions. Emulsions proposed as fat replacers in this study were

starch sodium octenyl succinate (OSA starch) stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Therefore,

both effects of fat reduction and fat structuration on dough rheological properties, as well as

cookie texture, colour, spread and consumer acceptance were tested.

2 Material and methods

2.1 Materials

Wheat flour (moisture 11.1%, protein 9.7%, ash 0.45% db, Farinograph parameters: water

absorption 56.5%, development time 2.0 min, stability 11.5 min, softening degree 51 BU)

was procured from milling company Slap - Tamnavac (Ub, Serbia). Sodium bicarbonate

(≥99.5%, p.a) was purchased from Carl Roth (Karlsruhe, Germany), vegetable fat-shortening

(refined palm and sunflower oil, 34-36 °C melting point range) was obtained from Puratos

(Groot-Bijgaarden, Belgium). Pre-gelatinized starch sodium octenyl succinate, C*EmTex

12688, was procured by Cargill (France). The modification process involved esterification of

waxy maize starch by octenyl succinic anhydride and physical modification by drum drying.
Starch sodium octenyl succinate contained <3 % octenyl succinyl groups, which made it food

grade starch (Kettlitz et al., 2005). Anhydrous dextrose was also provided by Cargill,

(France), while cold-pressed sunflower oil, salt, granulated sugar and skimmed milk powder

were purchased from a local market.

2.2 Methods

2.2.1 Oil in water emulsion preparation

The emulsification was performed in a water bath at 25°C, using disperser Ultraturrax T-25

(IKA® Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Staufen, Germany). Oil in water emulsions were prepared

by slowly adding cold pressed sunflower oil (50% and 70%) into water containing previously

dissolved 2% of OSA starch calculated on emulsion mass (Table 1) under continuous mixing

at mixing speed of 6000 rpm during 300 s.

2.2.2 Cookie preparation

Five cookie dough formulations having different fat phases (Table 1) were prepared. The

dough was made in a planetary mixer (Conti s.r.l., Italy), according to formulations listed in

Table 2, to obtain the same moisture content of all doughs (18%). After the homogenization,

dough was sheeted to a thickness of 4 mm using a pilot scale dough sheeter (Mignon, Italy)

and shaped using a circular cutter (d = 49 mm). Cookies were baked at 170 °C for 12 min in a

convection oven (MIWE gusto® CS, Germany). After baking, the cookies were cooled for 2

h at room temperature and stored in polypropylene bags for further analysis.

2.2.3 Rheological analysis of fat phase and cookie dough

Rheological behaviour of tested samples was determined using a HAAKE Mars rheometer

(Thermo Scientific, Karlsruhe, Germany). The rheometer was equipped with a 35-mm

parallel plate measuring geometry. The plates were serrated in order to prevent the sample

slippage. The materials being tested were placed on the lower plate, and the upper plate was

lowered until the measuring gap was reached (2.5 mm for cookie dough and 1 mm for

emulsions). The excess of the material was trimmed and the edges were sealed with a paraffin

oil (for dough samples) to prevent the dough from drying during measurements. The sample

was left to rest for 10 min before measurements, to allow the relaxation of residual stresses.

Frequency sweeps tests were carried out from 0.1 to 10 Hz, under a 10-Pa strain level for

cookie dough samples and 1 Pa for emulsions, which were within a linear viscoelastic region

of all samples. The data of frequency sweeps were plotted as G'(f) and G"(f) in double

logarithmic diagram and experimental data of G' or G" versus f were fitted using the

following equations:

G' = K' f n' (1)

G" = K" f n" (2)

where G' and G" are storage (elastic) and loss (viscous) modulus; K' and K" are coefficients

which represent the storage and loss modulus at 1 Hz, respectively (Peressini et al., 2000); n'

and n" are the coefficients which represent the slope of the curve in a log–log plot of G' and

G" versus frequency (Sivaramakrishnan et al., 2004).

Moreover, the values of tan δ, representing the ratio of energy lost or dissipated (G") to

energy stored in the material and recovered from it per cycle of sinusoidal deformation (G'),

were also reported.

Steady shear measurements of fat phases were performed in the range of shear rate 0–100 1/s.

Shear rate was linearly increased for 2 min, then held on maximum shear rate for 1 min, and

afterwards linearly decreased for 2 min. Values of apparent viscosities, recorded at ascending

curve at 50 1/s, were reported.

All rheological experiments were performed at 25 °C in triplicates.

Evaluation of cookie physical characteristics

A MB45 Moisture Analyzer (Ohaus, USA) was used to determine moisture content of

cookies. Samples were grinded in a laboratory mill Foss Knifetec 1095 (FOSS, Hillerød,

Denmark), transferred (5 g) to a weight pan and heated to 105 °C to constant weight.

The mean cookie diameter and thickness were determined using a digital caliper. The longest

and the shortest cookie diameters were measured and consequently the values of mean cookie

diameters (D) were calculated. The thickness (T) was measured as cookie height, i.e. length

between the top and the bottom of the cookie. Spread ratio parameter (D/T) was calculated as

the ratio between the mean cookie diameter and the mean thickness values (Jacob and

Leelavathi, 2007; Sharma et al, 2013).

Cookies' upper surfaces colour was measured in triplicates 24 h after baking using a Minolta

Chroma Meter CR-400 (Sensing Inc., Japan) colorimeter (8 mmØ contact area). The

instrument was calibrated using a standard light white reference tile and the measurements

were performed under standard illuminant D65. The obtained results were expressed

according to the CIELab colour system (L* - lightness, a* - redness to greenness-positive to

negative values, respectively and b* yellowness to blueness - positive to negative values,

respectively).

Cookie hardness i.e. break strength was measured by a TA.XTPlus Texture analyzer (Stable

Micro Systems, UK) using a 3-Point Bending Rig (HDP/3PB) and 50 kg load cell in a

compression mode at 2.5 mm/s pre-test speed, 2 mm/s test speed and 10 mm/s post-test speed

and a gap distance of the base plate of 55 mm. Textural analyses were conducted 24 h, 72 h

(3 days) and 120 h (5 days) after baking at 23 °C, in seven replicates per batch.

Sensory evaluation of cookies

Sensory analysis was performed by a group of 8 semi-trained panellists, both male and

female (3 males and 5 females, aged between 30 and 50 years), who were previously

introduced with techniques of sensory analysis (Resurrecion, 2008). The panellists evaluated

each cookie attribute (shape and surface appearance, cross-section structure, chewiness,

flavour and overall acceptability) applying a 5 points hedonic scale (1 — dislike very much, 5

— like very much). Shape and surface appearance was characterized by the shape uniformity

as well as the surface colour, the roughness and the existence of cracks. The cross-section

structure was characterized by visually assessed dryness, compactness and crumbliness of the

cross section. The chewiness was described by cohesiveness and oral hardness at first chew,

dryness (degree to which the sample lacks moisture) and adhesiveness (degree of adhesion of

the chewed material to the palate). Taste and odour was jointly evaluated as flavour since

these sensory parameters are often intertwined in human experience, so the majority of

people are not able to distinguish between the taste and olfactory perception (Mann, 2003).

The cookies were considered acceptable if their mean scores for overall acceptability were

above 3.
Statistical Analysis

Data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance with Tukey's test, which was performed

using Statistica 8.0 (Statsoft, Tulsa, USA). The significance of differences among the mean

values was indicated at the 95 % confidence level.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Rheological properties of cookie dough

In order to investigate the effect of fat reduction on the rheological properties of cookie

dough and final cookie quality, the utilization of different fat phases was tested. The fat

phases used within this study (vegetable fat, 70% oil-in-water emulsion, 50% oil-in-water

emulsion and vegetable oil), were characterized with different rheological properties.

Apparent viscosity values, determined at 50 1/s for vegetable fat, 70% oil in water emulsion,

50% oil in water emulsion and vegetable oil, were 9.027±0.243 Pas, 7.574±0.172 Pas,

2.207±0.034 Pas and 0.046±0.001 Pas, respectively. Vegetable fat and emulsion, since being

viscoelastic, were also tested using dynamic oscillation measurement and obtained

mechanical spectra are presented in Figure 1.

The incorporation of these rheologically different fat phases (Table 1) in cookie formulations

has yielded doughs of different consistency. Generally, all the examined cookie doughs

exhibited viscoelastic behaviour in the examined frequency range, showing frequency

dependence of both - the storage and loss moduli, which increased with the increasing

frequencies. Moreover, all the samples had higher values of the storage modulus than those of

the loss modulus, suggesting that their elastic properties were more pronounced than viscous
ones. These results were in agreement with the other authors who also reported solid-like

behaviour of cookie dough (Dapčević Hadnađev et al., 2013; Lee and Inglett, 2006).

The rheological characteristics of the samples were characterized by fitting a power-law

model to the experimental storage (G') and loss modulus (G") vs. frequency data (Table 3).

Table 3 also reports the values of tan δ (G"/G') obtained at 1 Hz. The control sample had the

highest K' and K" values (storage and loss modulus at 1 Hz) and the lowest value of tan δ, as

expected. Moreover, the lowest values of n' and n" indicated lower frequency-dependent

structural stability of control cookie dough in comparison to fat reduced doughs. The

obtained results were in accordance with Baltsavias et al. (1997) who found that fat reduction

or substitution of solid fats by liquid oil resulted in significant decrease in the stiffness of a

cookie dough. According to Manohar and Rao (1999) the ability of fats to produce stiffer

doughs can be ascribed to a higher solid fat index (SFI) of fats in comparison to that of oils.

When added to dough fats uniformly coat flour particles exhibiting the lubricating effect.

Conversely, oils are dispersed as droplets in dough matrix, yielding cohesive dough. In

addition, vegetable fat, used in this study, contained emulsifier E471, thus enhancing its

capacity for incorporation and retention of air (Jacob and Leelavathi, 2007). However, oil

reduction to 50% led to dough hardening, since the absence of fatty phase enabled gluten to

absorb water and develop during mixing. According to Sudha et al (2007), if fat is present in

sufficient amount, its coats the flour particles, and thus inhibits gluten development. The

similar findings were reported by Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) and Manohar and Rao (1999).

However, when oil was used as structured (70% and 50% emulsions), the dough strength

increased, as revealed by K' and K" values. Since emulsion water phase contained

pregelatinized OSA starch, which can absorb water and form gel-like structure (Dapčević

Hadnađev et al., 2014), it contributed to the formation of elastic network, which increased the
dough consistency. This phenomenon was reported for different carbohydrate based fat

replacers (Lee and Inglett, 2006).

3.2 Cookie quality characteristics

The effects of replacing vegetable fat with structured and unstructured oil, on cookie moisture

content and spread factor are shown in Table 4.

The moisture content ranged from 3.05 to 4.47% being in accordance with values reported by

Laguna et al. (2014). In comparison to control cookie, the cookies containing oil had higher

moisture content, which increased with oil reduction and emulsification.

Spread (diameter) of cookie, as one of the important quality parameters, increased with the

substitution of fat with reduced amount of vegetable oil (70% unstructured O/W system).

Further oil reduction to 50% (50% unstructured O/W system) led to the decrease in cookie

spread. Consequently, these cookies were characterized with higher cookie thickness. This

effect correlated well with the rheological properties of doughs. Due to the increased elastic

properties of cookie dough containing 50% unstructured O/W system, the less lateral

expansion during baking was exhibited in comparison to dough with 70% unstructured O/W

system, leading to cookies of lower spread. Incorporation of oil in structured form further

decreased cookie spread in comparison to cookie prepared with unstructured oil. Namely,

ability of OSA starch emulsifier to absorb available water in cookie dough and form elastic

network provoked elastic shrinkage after baking. Moreover, in OSA starch containing

emulsion, there was less water available for gluten component which increased its stiffness

and suppressed cookie spreading.

Colour characteristics (L*, a*, b* values) of cookies prepared with different fat phases are

shown in Table 5. The browning of the biscuit surface (decreased lightness) was induced by
non-enzymatic browning (Maillard reactions) which involves the interaction of reducing

sugars with proteins, but also due to starch dextrinisation and sugar caramelisation

(Chevallier et al., 2000). Surface colour measurements revealed that L* values decreased for

all fat reduced samples in comparison to control one, implying their darker colour. The

reason for such behaviour might be lower fat content acting as a plasticizer covering all

powder ingredients (flour, sugar etc.) which resulted in higher amount of sugar involved in

Maillard reaction of browning. Moreover, although all cookie recipes contained the same

amount of sugar and the dough moisture was kept constant, the weight of obtained dough

samples was different (404.02g for control sample, 382.17 - 365g for fat reduced samples).

Consequently, sugar content in fat reduced cookie dough was higher (21-21.9%) in

comparison to that of control dough sample (19.8%). Also, according to Chevallier et al.

(2000), protein content had negative correlation with whiteness and due to the smaller mass

of obtained dough for fat reduced samples, the protein content was higher. The increase in a*

and decrease in L* parameters are also indicator of browning progress (Lara et al., 2011). The

obtained values of L*, a* and b* were not significantly different for 50% and 70% fat

reduction. However, the emphasized differences were observed for cookie samples prepared

with 70% unstructured O/W system and 70% emulsion. Namely, the emulsion containing

cookies had lower L* values (they were darker) than that prepared with oil. The reason for

such behaviour could be related to presence of pregelatinized OSA starch with enhanced

water binding capacity, which therefore formed a paste and caused lower water availability

and consequently lower mobility of Maillard reactions participating species. The differences

in L* values between cookies prepared with 50% emulsion and 50% unstructured O/W

system were not so evident due to the higher water content in 50% emulsions and

consequently, not so expressed water binding properties of used OSA starch.

The textural properties, besides flavour and appearance are one of the most important quality

parameters of cookies. The measurements of the breaking strength revealed that all cookie

samples with lower fat content expressed higher breaking strength values, i.e. they were

harder in comparison to control cookie sample (Figure 2). The obtained findings were in

accordance with Jacob and Leelavathi (2007), Goldstein and Seetharaman (2011), Laguna et

al. (2014) and Pareyt et al. (2009). Although control cookie dough exhibited the highest

viscoelastic properties (Table 3) and dough prepared with 50% unstructured O/W system and

50% emulsion expressed higher viscoelastic properties than samples containing 70%

unstructured O/W system and emulsion, control cookies exhibited the lowest and cookies

with 50% fat reduction the highest breaking strength values. The similar results were also

observed by Goldstein and Seetharaman (2011) and Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) who

revealed that dough firmness measurements were not in the correlation with breaking strength

measurements. Generally, in dough cookie preparation, plastic fats, such as shortenings, are

able to entrap and retain air, which is not the case if liquid oils are employed. Namely, during

mixing process, liquid oils are dispersed throughout the dough in the globules forms which

are less effective in their shortening and aerating roles (Hartnett and Thalheimer, 1979).

Moreover, according to Kamel (1994), large quantities of air could be incorporated in liquid

oils during mixing process, but could not be retained during baking resulting in harder cookie

texture. Regardless of the texture measuring time, cookie samples prepared with emulsions

expressed the higher breaking strength values in comparison to oil containing cookies at the

same fat reduction level. These results were in agreement with the values of thickness (Table

4). Cookies with higher thickness were also characterized by higher breaking strength values.

During the cookie storage over 5 days only slight increase in break strength was observed

which was more expressed during the first 3 days of storage.

The mean values of performed sensory analysis comprising surface and cross-section

appearance, texture, flavour and overall acceptance are presented in Figure 3.

It was observed that control sample had the highest scores for surface appearance which was

smooth and uniform. Cookies containing unstructured O/W system were characterized with

significantly lower surface appearance scores, being uneven and shrunken which was in

agreement with Sudha et al. (2007). Moreover, the emulsion containing cookies had higher

scores for surface appearance in comparison to those containing unstructured O/W system

(Fig. 4). The reason for such behaviour could be related to different rheological

characteristics which could hence influence surface characteristics as well as cookie texture.

Concerning the textural properties, the control sample was characterized with the highest

scores, while the emulsion containing cookie samples had the lower scores being in

agreement with the breaking strength. The fat reduction resulted in harder cookies which

consequently developed dry mouthfeel, lacking the lubricity and moistness imparted by fat

which ultimately was reflected in lower texture scores (Sudha et al. 2007). There were no

significant differences in flavour properties as well as cross section properties of all cookie

samples.

Concerning the overall acceptance, it can be observed that all cookies were sensory

acceptable. The control cookie acquired the highest scores, while the increase in the fat

reduction induced the decrease in overall acceptance of cookies. However, the response

distribution (standard deviations) suggested that cookies with the highest fat reduction

expressed wider range of scores in comparison to the control one. This could be related to

different sensory preferences of the evaluators for this kind of products. Similar results were

provided by Swanson (1998) who found that reduced fat cookies elicited a wider range of

opinions in comparison to full fat ones.

4 Conclusions

The substitution of fat in cookies with lower amount of unstructured vegetable oil, as

nutritionally improved alternative, resulted in the reduction of dough strength, the increase in

cookie hardness, the decrease in spread and lower scores for sensory attributes. The

incorporation of structured oil in the form of OSA starch stabilized emulsions, in contrast to

the unstructured oil, yielded firmer doughs, harder cookies, lower spread, higher moisture and

better surface characteristics. Although, the cookies containing unstructured and structured

vegetable oil were sensory acceptable, additional formulation optimisation should be

performed in order to improve the chewiness and surface appearance as the most affected

sensory properties.

Acknowledgements

This research was administered by funds of the Ministry of Education, Science and

Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia as a part of project III46001 as well as

of Provincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development through the project

number114-451-1446/2014-03.

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Table 1. Fat phase composition

Fat phase Vegetable fat* Vegetable oil** Water OSA starch

(%) (%) (%) (%)

Control 100 - - -

70% unstructured O/W system - 70 30 -

70% emulsion - 70 28 2

50% unstructured O/W system - 50 50 -

50% emulsion - 50 48 2
*
shortening composed of refined palm and sunflower oil
**
cold-pressed sunflower oil
Table 2. Composition of cookie dough samples containing different fat phases

Ingredients (g) Control 70% 70% 50% 50%

unstructured emulsion unstructured emulsion

O/W system O/W system

Flour 100 100 100 100 100

Sugar 40 40 40 40 40

Salt 1 1 1 1 1

Skimmed milk 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75

powder

Sodium bicarbonate 1 1 1 1 1

Dextrose 1 1 1 1 1

Deionized water 25.26 13.56 14.33 5.75 6.53

Fat phase 32 32 32 32 32
Table 3. Dynamic oscillatory parameters of cookie doughs containing different fat phases (a, b)

Sample K' (×104) n' K" (×104) n" tan δ

Control 13.010.389d 0.2260.007a 4.9420.321c 0.1760.019a 0.3480.015a

70% unstructured 2.460.118a 0.3300.002b 1.4990.060a 0.3820.010b 0.5860.000c

O/W system

70% emulsion 3.620.046b 0.3330.001b 2.1940.031a 0.3730.002b 0.5780.001bc

50% unstructured 6.420.297c 0.3250.003b 3.7680.245b 0.3400.009b 0.5530.004b

O/W system

50% emulsion 6.710.321c 0.3330.006b 4.0610.150b 0.3420.011b 0.5640.001bc

(a)
K (Pa sn); n (dimensionless); tan δ was obtained at 1 Hz
(b)
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations; values in columns followed by the same lowercase letter

are not significantly different at the 95% confidence level

Table 4. Moisture content and dimensional parameters of cookies prepared with various fat

phases(a)

Sample Moisture Cookie Cookie D/T

content (%) diameter, D thickness, T ratio

(mm) (mm)

Control 3.050.04a 52.640.386c 6.820.104a 7.72

70% unstructured O/W system 3.240.06b 53.270.708d 6.870.035ab 7.75

70% emulsion 3.480.03c 49.450.694a 7.050.057c 7.01

50% unstructured O/W system 3.540.02c 50.320.551b 6.980.078bc 7.21

50% emulsion 4.470.01d 49.350.697a 7.750.072d 6.36

(a)
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations; values in columns followed by the same lowercase letter

are not significantly different at the 95% confidence level

Table 5. Colour parameters of cookies containing different fat phases(a)

Sample L* a* b*

Control 76.530.54c 3.740.56a 27.110.84a

70% unstructured O/W system 73.630.80b 4.640.72ab 27.291.06a

70% emulsion 71.940.80a 5.680.82b 29.260.64b

50% unstructured O/W system 73.840.97b 4.500.83ab 27.071.01a

50% emulsion 72.840.61ab 5.630.73b 29.340.53b

(a)
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations; values in columns followed by the same lowercase letter

are not significantly different at the 95% confidence level

Highlights

 novel cookies shortenings based on OSA starch stabilized emulsions were developed
 they were used as fat replacers in cookies and compared to vegetable fat an oil
 fat replacement with structured and unstructured oil led to dough strength decrease
 oil containing cookies were harder than fat containing cookies
 oil structuring decreased cookie spread and improved surface appearance