MOHAMED SATHAK A.J.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, CHENNAI

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE 8602 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR

UNIT – I PROTECTION SCHEMES

Protective Relay Principles

A Protective Relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The Protective Relay detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault
conditions. The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are voltage,
current, frequency and phase angle.
Through the changes in one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their
presence, type and location to the protective relay. Having detected the fault, the relay
operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker
and disconnection of the faulty circuit.

A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig. This diagram shows one phase of 3-phase
system for simplicity. The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.
 First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (CT.) which is
connected in series with the line to be protected.
 Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and Cu. the relay operating
coil.
  Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either A.C. or D.C. It consists of
a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary
contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing
in the line increases to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through
the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts.
This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open
and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this way, the relay ensures
the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and normal working of the healthy
portion of the system.

Need For Protective Relays

An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and
distribution lines, etc. Are required to be operated under both normal and abnormal
conditions. The heavy current associated with short circuits or faults is likely to cause
damage to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided
for the protection of each part of the power system.

Whenever fault occurs somewhere in the system, an automatic protective device is

needed to isolate the faulty part as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of the
system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a
short circuit persists on a system and damage a part of it. The system voltage reduces to a
low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different
power station may lose synchronization. Thus an unclear heavy short circuit may cause
the total failure of the system.

It is very much necessary to protect the power systems, equipments, motors,

generators etc. from the dangerous fault conditions in an electric supply. Hence it is
necessary to have the arrangements with which all these equipments can be switched on
or off under no load or load conditions or even fault conditions. The collection of various
equipments used for the switching and protecting purpose in a power system is called
switchgear. The various components of switchgear are switches, fuses, relays, circuit
breakers etc. The switchgear protects the system from fault and abnormal conditions and
assures continuity of an electric supply.

The switch is device which is used to open or close an electric circuit in a

conventional way. The switched can be used on full load or no load condition but it
cannot be used to interrupt the fault currents.

The fuse is a protecting device of simplest form used for protecting cables and
electrical equipments against overload or short circuits. It consists of small piece of metal
when excessive current flows through it, the metal melts and current is interrupted and
circuit gets disconnected from the supply. Thus it protects the circuit from dangerous
excessive current. So fuse is used to interrupt the fault current.

A relay is an automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit is indirectly

controlled and is governed by a change in the same or another electrical circuit.
 A circuit breakers and protective relays to isolate the fault section of the system
from healthy sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system
when it is called upon to do so by the protective relay.
The protective relay is a device which sense abnormal conditions on a power
system by constantly monitoring electrical quantities of the system, which differ under
normal or abnormal conditions. The function of protective relay is to detect a fault and
isolate and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element.

The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change during abnormal
conditions are current, voltage, phase angle, and frequency. Protective relays utilize one
or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system. Protection
is needed not only against short circuits but also against any other abnormal conditions
which may arise on a power system. A few examples of abnormal conditions are over
speed of generators and motors, over voltage, under frequency, loss of excitation, over
heating of stator and rotor of an alternator, etc. protective relays also provide to detect
such abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.

Nature and Causes of Faults (K2) (ND 19, AM 19, AM 18, AM 16)
 Any fault in electrical apparatus is nothing but the defect in its electrical circuit
which makes current path directed from its intended path. Normally due to breaking of
conductors or failure of insulation, these faults occur. The other reasons for occurrence of
fault include mechanical failure, accidents, and excessive internal and external stresses.
The impedance of the path in the fault is low and the fault currents are comparatively
large. The reduction of the insulation is not considered as a fault until its show some
effects such as excessive current flow or reduction of impedance between conductors or
between conductors and earth.

       When a fault occurs on a system, the voltages of the three phases become
unbalanced. As the fault currents are large, the apparatus may get damaged. The flow of
power is diverted towards the fault which affects the supply to the neighbouring zone.

       A power system consists of generators, transformers, switchgear, transmission

and distribution circuits. There is always a possibility in such a large network that some
fault will occur in some part of the system. The maximum possibility of fault occurrence
is on transmission lines due to their greater lengths and exposure to atmospheric
conditions.

       The fault cannot be totally eliminated from the system but their occurrence
can be minimised by improving system design, quality of the equipment and
maintenance.

       The faults can be classified according to causes their incidence. The
breakdown may occur at normal voltage due to deterioration of insulation. The
breakdown may also occur due to damage on account of unpredictable causes which
include perching of birds, accidental short circuiting by snakes, kite strings, three
branches etc. The breakdown may occur at abnormal voltages due to switching surges or
surges caused by lighting.

       The AC faults can also be classified as single line to ground fault, double line
to ground fault, three phase fault that may occur in the system due to unbalance in current
and voltage, over voltages, reversal of power, power swings, under frequency,
temperature rise and instability.

       It may be necessary to know the frequency of the fault occurrence on various
parts of the system which help in designing suitable protection circuit. Following table
gives us an idea as to how the faults are distributed in the various parts of the system.

It can be seen from the above table that maximum numbers of faults are occurring
on overhead lines. In case of three phase system, the breakdown of insulation between
one of the phases and earth is known as line to ground fault. In line to line fault, there is
insulation breakdown between either of two phases. While the insulation breakdown
between two phases and earth forms double line to ground fault. The breakdown of
insulation between three phases is nothing but three phase fault.

Types of faults
Electrical faults in three-phase power system mainly classified into two types,
namely open and short circuit faults. Further, these faults can be symmetrical or
unsymmetrical faults. Let us discuss these faults in detail.
Open Circuit Faults
These faults occur due to the failure of one or more conductors. The figure below
illustrates the open circuit faults for single, two and three phases (or conductors) open
condition.
The most common causes of these faults include joint failures of cables and
overhead lines, and failure of one or more phase of circuit breaker and also due to
melting of a fuse or conductor in one or more phases.
Open circuit faults are also called as series faults. These are unsymmetrical or
unbalanced type of faults except three phase open fault.
Causes

Broken conductor and malfunctioning of circuit breaker in one or more phases.

Effects
 Abnormal operation of the system
 Danger to the personnel as well as animals
 Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network,
which further leads to insulation failures and developing of short circuit faults.
Although open circuit faults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit
faults, these must be removed as early as possible to reduce the greater damage.
Short Circuit Faults
A short circuit can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low impedance
between two points of different potential, whether made intentionally or accidentally.
These are the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the flow of
abnormal high currents through the equipment or transmission lines. If these faults are
allowed to persist even for a short period, it leads to the extensive damage to the
equipment.
Short circuit faults are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to
the insulation failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or
both.
The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase to earth,
three phase clear of earth, phase to phase, single phase to earth, two phase to earth and
phase to phase plus single phase to earth as shown in figure.
The three phase fault clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are balanced or
symmetrical short circuit faults while other remaining faults are unsymmetrical faults.
Causes
These may be due to internal or external effects
Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or equipment, aging of
insulation, deterioration of insulation in generator, transformer and other electrical
equipments, improper installations and inadequate design.
External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure due to
lighting surges and mechanical damage by public.
Effects
Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as transformers
and circuit breakers.
Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which further leads to
reduction of life span of their insulation.
The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their acceptance
values that creates harmful effect to the service rendered by the power system.
The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as long as the
short circuit fault persists.
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults
As discussed above that faults are mainly classified into open and short circuit
faults and again these can be symmetrical or unsymmetrical faults.
Symmetrical Faults
A symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault currents that are displaced with
1200 each other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. This fault occurs
when all the three phases are simultaneously short circuited.
These faults rarely occur in practice as compared with unsymmetrical faults. Two
kinds of symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to
ground (L-L-L-G) as shown in figure below.
A rough occurrence of symmetrical faults is in the range of 2 to 5% of the total
system faults. However, if these faults occur, they cause a very severe damage to the
equipments even though the system remains in balanced condition.
The analysis of these faults is required for selecting the rupturing capacity of the
circuit breakers, choosing set-phase relays and other protective switchgear. These faults
are analyzed on per phase basis using bus impedance matrix or Thevenins’s theorem.
Unsymmetrical Faults
The most common faults that occur in the power system network are
unsymmetrical faults. This kind of fault gives rise to unsymmetrical fault currents
(having different magnitudes with unequal phase displacement). These faults are also
called as unbalanced faults as it causes unbalanced currents in the system.
Single Phase to Ground Fault – It is also called a line-to-ground fault. It mainly
occurs due to insulation breakdown between one of the phase and earth. Single-line-to-
fault is most frequently occurs in the power system. Their chances of appearance in the
power system are 70%.
Phase-to-Phase Fault – Such type of fault rarely occurred on the power system. It
is also called Line-to-line fault. It occurs when two conductors are short circuited. Their
chance of appearance is hardly 15 % in the power system.
Two Phases to Ground Fault – In this type of fault breakdowns of insulation
between two phases and earth occur. It is the most severe type of fault but rarely occurs
in the power system. It is also called Line-to-line-to-ground fault (L-L-G). Their chance
of occurrence is hardly 10 %.
Phase to phase and Third Phase to Ground Fault – It is the combination of
phase to phase and phase to phase to ground fault. Such types of fault occur due to the
breakdown of insulation between two phases and simultaneous breakdown of insulation
between the third phase and earth. The chance of such type of fault is hardly 2 % to 3 %.
All the Three Phases to Ground Fault – It is the most severe type of the fault
and very rarely occurs in the power system. It occurs due to a breakdown of insulation
between all the phases as well as to the earth. It is 2% to 3% in the power system.
All the three Phases Short Circuited – This type of fault mainly occurs due to a
breakdown of insulation between all the three phases. Their appearance is rarely 2 % to
3% in the power system.
Methods for Neutral Grounding
(K2) (ND 19, AM 19, ND 18, AM 18, ND 17, AM 17, ND 16, AM 16, ND 15,
AM 15, ND 14)
The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (i.e. soil) either
directly or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance, reactance etc.) is called neutral
grounding.
Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and equipment. It is because
during earth fault, the current path is completed through the earthed neutral and the
protective devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the faulty conductor from the rest of
the system. This point is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 shows a 3-phase, star-connected system with neutral earthed (i.e. neutral
point is connected to soil). Suppose a single line to ground fault occurs in line R at point
F. This will cause the current to flow through ground path as shown in Fig. 1.
Note that current flows from Rphase to earth, then to neutral point N and back to
R-phase. Since the impedance of the current path is low, a large current flows through
this path. This large current will blow the fuse in R-phase and isolate the faulty line R.
This will protect the system from the harmful effects (e.g. damage to equipment, electric
shock to personnel etc.) of the fault.
One important feature of grounded neutral is that the potential difference between
the live conductor and ground will not exceed the phase voltage of the system i.e. it will
remain nearly constant.
Advantages of Neutral Grounding
The following are the advantages of neutral grounding :
 Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltages i.e.
they remain nearly constant.
 The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
  The protective relays can be used to provide protection against earth faults.
In case earth fault occurs on any line, the protective relay will operate to
isolate the faulty line.
 The over voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.

 It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.

 It provides improved service reliability.

 Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduced.

Note : It is interesting to mention here that ungrounded neutral has the following
advantages :
 In case of earth fault on one line, the two healthy phases will continue to
supply load for a short period.
 Interference with communication lines is reduced because of the absence of
zero sequence currents.
The advantages of ungrounded neutral system are of negligible importance as
compared to the advantages of the grounded neutral system. Therefore, modern 3-phase
systems operate with grounded neutral points.
Methods of Neutral Grounding
The methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of a 3-phase system
are :
1. Solid or effective grounding
2. Resistance grounding
3. Reactance grounding
4. Peterson-coil grounding
The choice of the method of grounding depends upon many factors including the
size of the system, system voltage and the scheme of protection to be used.

Solid Grounding
When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3- phase generator, 3-phase
transformer etc.) is directly connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a wire of negligible
resistance and reactance, it is called solid grounding or effective grounding. Fig. 2
shows the solid grounding of the neutral point.
 Since the neutral point is directly connected to earth through a wire, the neutral
point is held at earth potential under all conditions. Therefore, under fault conditions, the
voltage of any conductor to earth will not exceed the normal phase voltage of the system.

Advantages. The solid grounding of neutral point has the following advantages :
 The neutral is effectively held at earth potential.

 When earth fault occurs on any phase, the resultant capacitive current IC is in
phase opposition to the fault current IF. The two currents completely cancel each
other.
Therefore, no arcing ground or over-voltage conditions can occur. Consider
a line to ground fault in line B as shown in Fig. 2. The capacitive currents flowing
in the healthy phases R and Y are IR and IY respectively. The resultant capacitive
current IC is the phasor sum of IR and IY . In addition to these capacitive currents,
the power source also supplies the fault current IF. This fault current will go from
fault point to earth, then to neutral point N and back to the fault point through the
faulty phase. The path of IC is capacitive and that of IF is inductive. The two
currents are in phase opposition and completely cancel each other. Therefore, no
arcing ground phenomenon or over-voltage conditions can occur.
 When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the phase to earth voltage
of the faulty phase becomes zero. However, the phase to earth voltages of the
remaining two healthy phases remain at normal phase voltage because the
potential of the neutral is fixed at earth potential. This permits to insulate the
equipment for phase voltage. Therefore, there is a saving in the cost of equipment.
 It becomes easier to protect the system from earth faults which frequently occur on
the system. When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, a large fault
 current flows between the fault point and the grounded neutral. This permits the
easy operation of earthfault relay.
Disadvantages. The following are the disadvantages of solid grounding :
 Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to earth faults, the
system has to bear a large number of severe shocks. This causes the system to
become unstable.
 The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the fault has to be
cleared by the circuit breakers, the heavy earth fault currents may cause the
burning of circuit breaker contacts.
 The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in the neighboring
communication lines.
Applications.
Solid grounding is usually employed where the circuit impedance is sufficiently
high so as to keep the earth fault current within safe limits. This system of grounding is
used for voltages upto 33 kV with total power capacity not exceeding 5000 kVA.

Resistance Grounding
In order to limit the magnitude of earth fault current, it is a common practice to
connect the neutral point of a 3-phase system to earth through a resistor. This is called
resistance grounding. When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase generator,
3-phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a resistor, it is called
resistance grounding.
Fig. 3 shows the grounding of neutral point through a resistor R. The value of R
should neither be very low nor very high. If the value of earthing resistance R is very
low, the earth fault current will be large and the system becomes similar to the solid
grounding system. On the other hand, if the earthing resistance R is very high, the system
conditions become similar to ungrounded neutral system.
The value of R is so chosen such that the earth fault current is limited to safe value
but still sufficient to permit the operation of earth fault protection system. In practice, that
value of R is selected that limits the earth fault current to 2 times the normal full load
current of the earthed generator or transformer.
 Fig. 3
Advantages. The following are the advantages of resistance earthing:
 By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be minimised. Suppose earth
fault occurs in phase B as shown in Fig. 3. The capacitive currents IR and IY flow
in the healthy phases R and Y respectively. The fault current IF lags behind the
phase voltage of the faulted phase by a certain angle depending upon the earthing
resistance R and the reactance of the system upto the point of fault. The fault
current IF can be resolved into two components viz.
(a) IF1 in phase with the faulty phase voltage.
(b) IF2 lagging behind the faulty phase voltage by 90°.
The lagging component IF2 is in phase opposition to the total capacitive current
IC. If the value of earthing resistance R is so adjusted that IF2 = IC, the arcing ground is
completely eliminated and the operation of the system becomes that of solidly grounded
system. However, if R is so adjusted that IF2 < IC, the operation of the system becomes
that of ungrounded neutral system.
 The earth fault current is small due to the presence of earthing resistance.
Therefore, interference with communication circuits is reduced.
 It improves the stability of the system.
Disadvantages. The following are the disadvantages of resistance grounding :
 Since the system neutral is displaced during earth faults, the equipment has to be
insulated for higher voltages.
 This system is costlier than the solidly grounded system.
 A large amount of energy is produced in the earthing resistance during earth faults.
Sometimes it becomes difficult to dissipate this energy to atmosphere.
Applications. It is used on a system operating at voltages between 2.2 kV and 33 kV
with power source capacity more than 5000 kVA.

Reactance Grounding
In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and ground as shown in
Fig. 4.
 Fig. 4
The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current. By changing the
earthing reactance, the earth fault current can to change to obtain the conditions similar to
that of solid grounding. This method is not used these days because of the following
disadvantages :
 In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective device is higher
than that of resistance grounding for the same fault conditions.
 High transient voltages appear under fault conditions.

Arc Suppression Coil Grounding (or Resonant Grounding)

We have seen that capacitive currents are responsible for producing arcing
grounds. These capacitive currents flow because capacitance exists between each line and
earth. If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel with the capacitance of
the system, the fault current IF flowing through L will be in phase opposition to the
capacitive current IC of the system. If L is so adjusted that IL = IC, then resultant current
in the fault will be zero. This condition is known as resonant grounding.
When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that the fault current IF exactly
balances the capacitive current IC, it is called resonant grounding.
Circuit details.
An arc suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an iron-cored coil connected
between the neutral and earth as shown in Fig. 5. The reactor is provided with tappings to
change the inductance of the coil. By adjusting the tappings on the coil, the coil can be
tuned with the capacitance of the system i.e. resonant grounding can be achieved.
Operation.
Fig. 5 shows the 3-phase system employing Peterson coil grounding. Suppose line
to ground fault occurs in the line B at point F. The fault current IF and capacitive currents
IR and IY will flow as shown in Fig. 5(i). Note that IF flows through the Peterson coil (or
Arc suppression coil) to neutral and back through the fault. The total capacitive current
IC is the phasor sum of IR and IY as shown in phasor diagram in Fig. 5(ii).
 Fig. 5
The voltage of the faulty phase is applied across the arc suppression coil.
Therefore, fault current IF lags the faulty phase voltage by 90°. The current IF is in phase
opposition to capacitive current IC [See Fig. 5(ii)]. By adjusting the tappings on the
Peterson coil, the resultant current in the fault can be reduced. If inductance of the coil is
so adjusted that IL = IC, then resultant current in the fault will be zero.
Value of L for resonant grounding. For resonant grounding, the system behaves
as an ungrounded neutral system. Therefore, full line voltage appears across capacitors
CR and CY .
gives the value of inductance L of the arc suppression coil for resonant grounding.
Advantages. The Peterson coil grounding has the following advantages:
 The Peterson coil is completely effective in preventing any damage by an arcing
ground.
 The Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral system.
Disadvantages. The Peterson coil grounding has the following disadvantages :
 Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network changes
from time to time. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil requires readjustment.
 The lines should be transposed.

Voltage Transformer Earthing

In this method of neutral earthing, the primary of a single-phase voltage
transformer is connected between the neutral and the earth as shown in Fig. 6. A low
resistor in series with a relay is connected across the secondary of the voltage
transformer. The voltage transformer provides a high reactance in the neutral earthing
circuit and operates virtually as an ungrounded neutral system. An earth fault on any
phase produces a voltage across the relay. This causes the operation of the protective
device.
Advantages. The following are the advantages of voltage transformer earthing :
 The transient overvoltages on the system due to switching and arcing grounds are
reduced. It is because voltage transformer provides high reactance to the earth
path.

Fig. 6
 This type of earthing has all the advantages of ungrounded neutral system.

 Arcing grounds are eliminated.

Disadvantages. The following are the disadvantages of voltage transformer earthing :
 When earth fault occurs on any phase, the line voltage appears across line to earth
capacitances. The system insulation will be overstressed.
 The earthed neutral acts as a reflection point for the travelling waves through the
machine winding. This may result in high voltage build up.
Applications. The use of this system of neutral earthing is normally confined to
generator equipments which are directly connected to step-up power transformers.

Zones of Protection in Power System. (K2) (AM 19, AM 18, ND 18, AM 17,
AM 16, ND 15)

An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection. Each zone of
protection contains one or more components of a power system in addition to two circuit
breakers.

When
a fault occurs
within the

boundary of a particular zone, then the protection system responsible for the protection of
the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the Circuit Breakers) every equipment within that
zone from the rest of the system.
The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest
of the power system. Thus, the location of the circuit breaker helps to define the
boundaries of the zones of protection.
Different neighboring zones of protection are made to overlap each other, which
ensure that no part of the power system remains without protection. However, occurrence
of the fault with in the overlapped region will initiate a tripping sequence of different
circuit breakers so that the minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty element
 

Consider the two protective zone A and B which will overlap each other. The X is
the fault occurs in the zone B, and due to this fault, the circuit breakers of zone B tripped
along with the C (circuit breaker). The relay of the zone B will also trip the circuit
breaker of zone A for other faults in the zone B which occurs to the right of the C (circuit
breaker). Hence the unnecessary tripping of the breaker can be tolerated only in the
particular region.

The scheme which senses the fault of any of the certain unit will have a high
degree of sensitivity and it also has the adaptability of the fast speed of operation.

Schemes of Protection (Primary and Back-up Protection)

 Primary Protection
 The primary protection scheme ensures fast and selective clearing of any fault
within the boundaries of the circuit element, that the zone is required to protect. Primary
Protection as a rule is provided for each section of an electrical installation.
  However, the primary protection may fail. The primary cause of failure of the
Primary Protection system are enumerated below.
  1. Current or voltage supply to the relay.
 2. D.C. tripping voltage supply
 3. Protective relays
 4. Tripping circuit
 5. Circuit Breaker
  

Back-up Protection
  Back-up protection is the name given to a protection which backs the primary
protection whenever the later fails in operation. The back-up protection by definition is
slower than the primary protection system.
The design of the back-up protection needs to be coordinated with the design of
the primary protection and essentially it is the second line of defence after the primary
protection system.

Essential Requirements of Protective Relaying

(K1) (AM 19, ND 18, ND 17, ND 16, ND 14, AM 14)
The principal function of Protective Relay is to cause the prompt removal from
service of any element of the power system when it starts to operate in an abnormal
manner or interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. In order that
protective relay system may perform this function satisfactorily, it should have the
following qualities:

1. Selectivity 
2. Speed
3. Sensitivity
4. Reliability
5. Simplicity
6. Economy
1. Selectivity:
 It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.

A well designed and efficient relay system should be selective i.e. it should be able
to detect the point at which the fault occurs and cause the opening of the circuit
breakers closest to the fault with minimum or no damage to the system.

This can be illustrated by referring to the single line diagram of a portion of a

typical power system shown in Fig, 21.2. It may be seen that circuit breakers are located
in the connections to each power system element in order to make it possible to
disconnect only the faulty section.
 Thus, if a fault occurs at bus-bars on the last zone, then only breakers nearest to
the fault viz. 10, 11, 12 and 13 should open. In fact, opening of any other breaker to clear
the fault will lead to a greater part of the system being disconnected.

In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is a usual practice to divide the

entire system into several protection zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then
only the circuit breakers within that zone will be opened.

This will isolate only the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the
healthy circuits intact.

The system can be divided into the following protection zones:

 Generators
 Low-tension switchgear
 Transformers
 High-tension switchgear
 Transmission lines

It may be seen in Fig. 21.2 that there is certain amount of overlap between the
adjacent protection zones. For a failure within the region where two adjacent zones
overlap, more breakers will be opened than the minimum necessary to disconnect the
faulty section. But if there were no overlap, a failure in the region between zones would
not lie in either region and, therefore, no breaker would be opened. For this reason, a
certain amount of overlap is provided between the adjacent zones.

2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons

 Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault currents
for a long time.
  A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the
faulty section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault
may shut down consumers motors and the generators on the system may become
unstable.

 The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type
of fault into the other more severe type.

3. Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity.

Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-amperes input to the coil of the relay
necessary to cause its operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause
relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay.

Thus, a 1 VA relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that relay

system should be sensitive so that it operates with low values of volt-ampere input.

4. Reliability:  It is the ability of the Protective Relay system to operate under the pre-
determined conditions. Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely
ineffective and could even become a liability.

5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.

Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater
will be its reliability.

6. Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is

the economic aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of
protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective gear
should not cost more than 5% of total cost a However, when the apparatus to be protected
is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main transmission line etc.), economic
considerations are often subordinated to reliability.
 UNIT – II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS

1. Describe the construction and principle of operation of an induction type

directional over current relay. (K2) (AM 19, ND 15)

2. With neat diagram, describe the construction and principle of operation of

negative sequence relay. (K2) (AM 19, AM 18)

3. Explain various time-current characteristics of an over current relay with

relevant applications. Also comment about the technique to realize those time-
current characteristics using electromagnetic relays.(K2) (ND 18, ND 14)

4. Discuss with relevant connection diagram and phasor diagram, the directional
over current relay. (K2) (ND 18)

5. Explain the principles of working of distance relays. Describe with neat sketches
the following types of relays. (K2) (ND 15)

a. Impedance relay

b. Admittance relay

c. Reactance relay

6. Explain impedance relay with R-X diagrams. (K2) (AM 18)

7. Explain clearly about current balance differential relays. (K2) (AM 18)

8. With neat diagram explain the various types of electromagnetic relays., (K2)(ND
17)
9. Describe the construction and principle of operation of non-directional Induction
type over current Relays. (K2) (ND 17)

10. Explain the construction and operating principle of impedance type distance
relay with R-X diagram. (K2) (AM 17)

11. With the necessary sketches discuss in detail about electromagnetic attraction
type relays. (K2) (AM 17)

12. With a neat diagram explain the working principle of a directional over current
relay. Derive the torque equation and also explain about directional relay
connection. (K2) (ND 16)

13. From the universal torque equation determine the condition of operation for
impedance relay, reactance relay and admittance relay. (K2) (ND 16)

UNIT – III APPARATUS PROTECTION

1. Describe the various methods of transformer protection. (K2) (AM 19)

2. Give brief account on the faults and protection of transformers. (K2) (ND 17)

3. Discuss the different methods employed for the protection of transmission lines.
(K2) (AM 19)

4. Explain how a transformer can be protected against magnetizing inrush current.

Illustrate with suitable diagram. (K2) (ND 18)

5. Explain clearly about Buchholz relay for the protection of incipient faults in
transformer. (K2) (AM 18)

6. With neat sketch explain the protection schemes of motors. (K2) (AM 18)

7. With suitable diagrams explain bus bar protection.

8. Give a brief account on the protection of generator using differential and biased
differential protection schemes. (K2)(ND 17)

9. Give a detailed explanation for protection of transformer using differential

protection which includes associated faults. (K2) (AM 17)

10. Give a detailed explanation about CT’s and PT’s and its application to power
system. (K2) (AM 17)

11. Draw and explain protection scheme of an AC induction motor. (K2) (ND 16)

12. Draw and explain about differential protection of transmission lines. (K2) ( AM
15)
13. Explain the protection scheme for protection of transformer against incipient
fault. (K2) (ND 16)

14. Briefly explain types of stator fault protection of Alternators. (K2) (AM 15)

15. A generator is protected by restricted earth fault protection. The generator

ratings are 13.2 KV, 10 MVA. The percentage of winding protected against
phase to ground fault is 85%. The relay setting is such that it trips 20% out of
balance. Calculate the resistance to be added in the neutral to ground
connection. (K2) (ND 16)

16. Describe the differential protective scheme of transformer. (K2)(AM 16)

17. Enumerate the protective scheme employed for the bus bar. (K2)(AM 16)

18. With neat sketches, explain the different types of protective schemes for
transmission line. (K2)(AM 16)

19. Describe the operating principle, constructional features and area of applications
of directional relay. How do you implement directional feature in the over
current relay? (K2)(AM 16)

20. Explain MHO relay characteristics on the R-X diagram. Discuss the range
setting of various distance relays placed on a particular location. (K2)(AM 16)

UNIT – IV STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION

1. Draw the schematic methods of a static over current relay and explain the
operation. (K2) (AM 19, AM 18)

2. Describe the operation of static over current relay with neat diagram. (K2) (ND
17)

3. Explain the operation of distance protection of transmission line using static

comparators with neat diagram. (K2) (AM 19)

4. Discuss in detail, the integrating type and instantaneous type static amplitude
comparators. Illustrate your answer with appropriate circuits and waveforms.
(K2) (ND 18)

5. How static overcurrent relays are different from electromechanical overcurrent

relays? Explain how the operation of instantaneous overcurrent relay is achieved
using electronic circuits. (K2) (ND 18)

6. Compare static relays with electromagnetic relays. (K2)(AM 18)

7. Explain the advantages of Numerical Relays. (K2)(AM 18)

8. Explain with neat block diagram the operation of static relay and list the
advantages and disadvantages. (K2) (ND 17)

9. Explain the block diagram of numerical relay with necessary diagram. (K2) (AM
17)

10. With a neat sketch discuss in detail about the synthesis of reactance relay using
phase comparator. (K2) (AM 17)

11. Explain:

a. Static Relay

b. Negative Sequence Relay (K2) (AM 15)

12. How will you synthesis a mho relay using static phase comparator? (K2) (ND 16)

13. Explain the numerical over current protection and numerical transformer
differential protection. (K2) (ND 16)

UNIT – V CIRCUIT BREAKER

1. Explain the various Arc interruption methods. (K2) (AM 19)

2. Describe the operating principles of DC circuit breaking. (K2) (AM 19)

3. With neat diagram, explain the construction and principle of operation of Air
Blast Circuit breaker. (K2) (AM 19)

4. Describe the constructional and operational aspects of cross blast and axial blast
air circuit breakers (ACB). Also discuss the meritorious features of ACB over
Oil circuit breakers. (K2) (ND 18)

5. Derive the expressions to find the critical value of resistance to be connected

across the circuit breaker contacts. (K2) (ND 18)

6. With neat sketch explain resistance switching. (K2)(AM 18)

7. Explain current chopping with suitable diagrams. (K2)(AM 18)

8. Derive the expression for restriking voltage. (K2) (AM 15)

9. Explain about current zero interruption theories. (K2) (AM 15)

10. Write the comparative merits and demerits of C.B. (K2) (AM 15)

11. Give the reasons for using SF6 in circuit breaker. (K2) (AM 15)

12. With necessary diagrams explain the following: (K2) (AM 15)

a. Vacuum Circuit breaker

 b. Air blast C.B.

13. Explain the following terms in detail:

a. Current chopping

b. Resistance switching

c. Interruption of capacitive current. (K2) (ND 15)

14. Write short notes on :

a. Current chopping

b. Interruption of capacitive Current (K2) (AM 17, AM 15)

15. Write short notes on

a. Current chopping

b. Resistance switching (K2) (ND 17)

16. Explain the construction, working principle, operation and application of

Vacuum Circuit Breaker. (K2)(AM 18)

17. Describe the construction and principle of operation of Air Blast circuit breaker.
(K2) (ND 17)

18. With a neat diagram explain the construction and working principle of Air Blast
Circuit breaker and Vacuum Circuit breaker. (K2) (AM 17)

19. Explain the phenomenon of interruption of capacitive current in a circuit

breaker. (K2) (ND 16)

20. With a neat sketch explain the principle of vacuum circuit breaker. (K2) (ND 16)

21. Discuss in detail the different types of rating of circuit breaker bringing out
clearly their physical significance. (K2) (ND 15)

22. Derive the expression for restriking voltage and maximum RRRV. (K2) (ND 16)

23. In short circuit test on a 3 pole, 132KV, circuit breaker, the following
observations are made. Power factor for fault = 0.4, recovery voltage 0.9 times
full line value, the breaking current symmetrical, frequency of oscillations of
restriking voltage 16 KHZ. Assume neutral is grounded and fault is not
grounded. Determine average RRRV. (K3) (ND 16)

24. Explain the construction, principle of operation of a minimum oil circuit

breaker. What are its main advantages and disadvantages? (K2)(AM 16)

25. Briefly describe the testing of circuit breaker. (K2)(AM 16)

26. Derive the expression for restriking voltage.

27. Explain about current zero interruption theories. (K2)(AM 16)

28. Describe the construction, operating principle and application of Minimum oil
circuit breakers. (K2)(ND 15)

29. Describe the construction, operating principle and application of SF 6 circuit

breakers. (K2)(ND 15)

30. Explain :

a. Interruption of capacitive current

b. Current chopping (K2)(AM 16)

PART C
1. Discuss the different types of Lightning arresters with neat diagram. (K2) (AM
19)

2. With a neat sketch, explain the differential system of protection applied to star
delta connected transformer. (K2) (AM 19)

3. What are the problems arising in differential protection in power transformer

and how are they overcome? (K2) (AM 19)