Class B

Note that as is usual in electronics there are a number of

arrangements which act as Class A amplifiers so the circuit
shown in Figure 2·3 is far from being the only choice. In
addition we can make other forms of amplifier simply by
changing the Quiescent Current or Bias Level and operating
the system slightly differently. The simplest alternative is
the Class B arrangement. To illustrate how this works,
consider the circuit shown in Figure 2·4a. Once again this
shows a pair of devices. However their bases (inputs) are
now linked by a pair of diodes.

The current in the diodes is mainly set by a couple of

constant current stages which run a bias current, ,
through them. If we represent the forward voltage drop
across each diode to be we can say that the input to the
base of the upper transistor sits at a voltage of , and
the input to the base of the lower transistor sits at .
Now since the base-emitter junction of a bipolar transistor
is essentially a diode we can say that the drop between the
base and emitter of the upper transistor will also be .
Similarly, we can say that the emitter of the lower (PNP)
transistor will be above its base voltage.
This leads to the very interesting result where the emitter
voltages in 2·4a will be

This has two implications. Firstly, when the output

voltages will be zero. Since this means that the voltages
above and below the emitter resistors ( ) will both be zero
it follows that there will be no current at all in the output
transistors. The Quiescent Current level is zero and the
power dissipated when there is no output is also zero!
Perfect efficiency!

The second implication is that as we adjust to produce a

signal, the emitter voltages will both tend to follow it
around. When we have a load connected this will then draw
current from one transistor or the other – but not both. In
effect, when we wish to produce an positive voltage the
upper transistor conducts and provided just enough current
to supply the load. None is wasted in the lower transistor.
When we wish to produce a negative voltage the lower
transistor conducts and draws the required current through
the load with none coming from the upper transistor. Again
this means the system is highly efficient in power terms.

This all seems to be too good to be true, there must be a

snag... and yes, there are indeed some serious drawbacks.
When power efficiency is the main requirement then Class
B is very useful. However to work as advertised it requires
the voltage drops across the diodes and the base-emitter
junctions of the transistors to all be exactly the same. In
practice this is impossible for various reasons. The main
reasons are as follows:
• No two physical devices are
ever absolutely identical. There are always small
differences between them.
• The diodes and the transistors used will have
differently doped and manufactured junctions,
designed for different purposes. Hence although their
general behaviours have similarities, the detailed IV
curves of the transistor base-emitter junctions won’t
be the same as the IV curves of the diodes.
• The current through the transistors is far higher than
through the diodes, and comes mostly from the
 collector-base junctions which are intimately linked to
the base-emitter. Hence the behaviour is altered by the
way carries cross the device.
• The transistors will be hotter than the diodes due to
the high powers they dissipate. Since a PN junction’s
IV curve is temperature sensitive this means the
transistor junctions won’t behave exactly like the
diodes, and may change with time as the transistor
temperatures change.
• When we change the applied voltage it takes time for
a PN junction to ‘react’ and for the current to change.
In particular, transistors tend to store a small amount
of charge in their base region which affects their
behaviour. As a result, they tend to ‘lag behind’ any
swift changes. This effect becomes particularly
pronounced when the current is low or when we try to
quickly turn the transistor “off” and stop it conducting.

The overall result of the above effects is that the Class B

arrangement tends to have difficulty whenever the signal
waveform changes polarity and we have to switch off one
transistor and turn on the other. The result is what is
called Crossover Distortion and this can have a very bad
effect on small level or high speed waveforms. This
problem is enhanced due to Non-Linearities in the
transistors – i.e. that the output current and voltage don’t
vary linearly with the input level – which are worst at low
currents. (We will be looking at signal distortions in a later
section.)
This places the amplifier designer/user in a dilemma. The
Class A amplifier uses devices that always pass high
currents, and small signals only modulate these by a modest
amount, avoiding the above problems. Alas, Class A is very
power inefficient. Class B is far more efficient, but can lead
to signal distortions. The solution is to find a ‘half-way
house’ that tries to take the good points of each and
minimise the problems. The most common solution
is Class AB amplification, and an example of this is shown
in Figure 2·4b.