Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms

10/16/2010 Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms
Biological Anthropology Terms

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-A-
abdominal wall defect
a genetically inherited condition in which intestines and other abdominal

organs protrude through the central abdominal wall. This must be corrected
by surgery at birth.
ABO blood system
a human blood typing system in which there are 4 distinct types: A, B, AB,
and O. An individual inherits an ABO type from his or her parents and does
not change it throughout life. The ABO system is not unique to humans but
is shared by many other primates including apes and monkeys. Humans
and other primates share other blood typing systems as well.
accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS)
a research instrument primarily used in physics to accelerate streams of

charged subnuclear particles to high velocities in order to sort and analyze
them. This technique is now also used to count carbon isotope atoms for
radiocarbon dating. The advantage of this technique over the conventional
radiocarbon method is that it requires a far smaller sample size and can
potentially provide dates going back to around 100,000 B.P. At present,
however, AMS dates generally are for events less than 60,000 years old.
acclimatization
changes in the body in response to environmental stresses such as high or

low temperatures, intense ultraviolet radiation from sun light, or high
altitude. The anatomical and physiological changes made in
acclimatization are usually reversible.
anthro.palomar.edu/…/pglossary.htm 1/94
Acheulian tool tradition
the most well known stone tool making tradition of Homo erectus and early
archaic humans. It first appeared about 1.5 million years ago or somewhat
earlier in East Africa and eventually spread throughout Africa, Southern
Europe, and South Asia. The most diagnostic Acheulian artifact is the
hand ax.
adaptation
the process by which populations of organisms respond to long term

environmental stresses by permanent genetic change--i.e., by evolving.
See adjustment.
adaptive radiation
the relatively rapid expansion and diversification of an evolving group of

organisms as they adapt to new ecological niches. Adaptive radiation is
the process by which one species evolves into two or more species. This
occurs as a result of different populations becoming reproductively isolated
from each other, usually by adapting to different environments. The
branching pattern of evolution resulting from adaptive radiation is known as
cladogenesis .
adjustment
the process by which individual organisms respond to environmental

stresses during their lifetime without changing genetically. Adjustments are
generally not inheritable. Acclimatization and developmental adjustment
are examples of adjustment. See adaptation.
agglutination
the clumping together of red cells in blood as a result of antibodies

attaching to antigens on the surface of the cells. This occurs when blood of
incompatible types is mixed together outside of the body, as for example
during blood typing. When different types of blood come into contact within
the body as a result of a mismatched transfusion, the alien red cells usually
burst instead of agglutinate.
agonistic display
a threatening gesture, stare, pose, or display intended to intimidate others.
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Deficiency Syndrome)
a slow acting disease caused by the HIV retrovirus. AIDS is usually fatal if
not treated. Important disease-fighting white blood cells are destroyed,
resulting in a weakened immune system. Death usually comes as a result
of cancer or other diseases that are normally fought off by healthy immune
systems. HIV is spread from person to person via bodily fluids such as
blood and semen. The common methods of transmission are via sexual
intercourse or sharing hypodermic needles.
albinism
the genetically inherited condition in which there is a marked deficiency of

pigmentation in skin, hair, and eyes. An individual with these traits is an
"albino." Since the gene for albinism is recessive, it only shows up in the
phenotype of homozygous recessive people. Albinos have sunlight
sensitive eyes and skin. They are also more likely to develop skin and eye
cancers. This is a pleiotropic trait.
allele
an alternate form or variety of a gene. The alleles for a trait occupy the
same locus or position on homologous chromosomes and thus govern the
same trait. However, because they are different, their action may result in
different expressions of that trait.
Allen's Rule
within the same species of warm-blooded animals, individuals from

populations living in colder environments usually have shorter appendages
than do those from populations in warmer areas. This is because of the
selective advantage it provides. Short arms, legs, and other appendages
have relatively less skin surface area that can radiate heat into the
surrounding environment. Subsequently, the body retains more of it.
Allen's Rule is a corollary of Bergmann's Rule. Allen's Rule was named
after Joel Allen, a 19th century naturalist.
allogrooming
the common primate practice of carefully picking through the hair of

someone, looking for insects, twigs, and other debris. Grooming others is
a common way by which primates communicate affection and reduce group
tension. See autogrooming.
alpha-feto protein (AFP) sampling
a routine diagnostic procedure for pregnant women to determine whether

or not their fetuses have gross chromosomal anomalies. This screening
procedure is also called maternal serum alpha-feto protein (MSAFP)
testing. The testing is comparatively inexpensive but not as reliable as
amniocentesis or chorionic villi sampling. With AFP sampling, blood is
drawn from a pregnant woman in order to determine the amount of alpha-
feto protein that has leaked into her system from her unborn child.
Unusually high or low amounts of AFP relative to the stage of pregnancy
indicate that there may be specific kinds of genetic defects. Specifically, it
may indicate the likelihood of Down syndrome, neural tube defects,
abdominal wall defects, and trisomy 18. Low AFP levels are associated
with Down syndrome, while high levels are indicative of neural tube
defects. The amounts of other diagnostic fetal chemicals (hCG and estriol)
also are measured in expanded AFP screening or triple-screening.
alpha male and alpha female
the adult male and female members of a community who are at the top of
their gender based dominance hierarchies. Non-human primate alpha
males and females usually mate more frequently and have greater access
to food.
alpha particle
a kind of positively charged subnuclear particle (consisting of 2 protons and

2 neutrons) given off by some isotopes when they decay or fission.
Alzheimer syndrome
a progressive, irreversible disease characterized by degeneration of brain

cells that commonly result in severe loss of memory, the ability to think, and
pay attention. There are also usually major changes in personality.
Alzheimer syndrome most often occurs in late middle and old age. Genetic
factors probably play a role since this syndrome is more common in some
families.
amino acid
an organic molecule that is a building blocks of proteins. There are at least

20 different kinds of amino acids in living things. Proteins are composed of
different combinations of amino acids assembled in chain-like molecules.
Amino acids are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen.
amino acid racemization dating
a method for dating organic matter that is based on the fact that amino
acids progressively change to mirror image forms following the death of an
organism--i.e., from L-amino acid to D-amino acid forms. Aspartic acid in
organic samples is commonly used for this dating technique. Amino acid
racemization could be considered to be a chronometric or a calibrated
relative dating method.
Amish
members of a conservative Protestant sect related to the Mennonites. The

Amish migrated to Pennsylvania from Switzerland in the late 18th century.
The Old Order Amish are a relatively closed group that shuns most modern
conveniences in their farming lifestyle. They use horse drawn carriages,
dress very simply, and reject those who marry non-Amish.
amniocentesis
a diagnostic procedure for pregnant women to determine whether or not

their fetuses have gross chromosomal anomalies. It involves sampling the
liquid immediately surrounding a fetus within the amnion. This amniotic
fluid is extracted through the mother's abdominal and uterine walls with a
hypodermic needle. The amniotic fluid mostly contains fetal urine but also
has millions of fetal skin cells that can be cultured to produce a karyotype.
There is 99+% accuracy in diagnosing Down syndrome and most other
gross chromosomal aberrations including neural tube defects such as
spina bifida.
amnion
the innermost membrane of the flexible sac enclosing a fetus. It is filled with
amniotic fluid, which helps cushion the fetus and protect it from injury. See
cervix for an illustration.
amniote
referring to an egg with a hard shell and protective membranes that prevent
the embryo from rapidly drying out. Reptiles, birds, and prototherian
mammals lay amniote eggs.
amniotic fluid
the fluid surrounding a fetus inside an amniotic sac. It mostly consists of

fetal urine, but also contains some fetal skin cells. See cervix for an
illustration.
Amphibia
the class of vertebrates that includes frogs, toads, and salamanders.

Amphibians spend part of their lives under water and part on land. They
must return to damp areas to reproduce since their eggs would otherwise
dry out. They start life with gills, like fish, and later develop lungs to breath
air.
anaerobic
without oxygen
anagenesis
The pattern of non-branching evolution that results from successive

speciation in a single evolutionary line.
analogies
anatomical features that have the same form or function in different species
that have no known common ancestor. Analogies are also referred to as
analogous structures or features.
analogous structures
see analogies.
anatomy
referring to the structural parts of organisms. See physiology.
anemia
a medical condition characterized by fatigue, weakness, poor appetite,

weight loss, and paleness or a yellowish tinge to the skin and eyes resulting
from a deficiency of red blood cells or insufficient amounts of hemoglobin
molecules within the red cells. The result in both cases is a significantly
reduced ability to get oxygen to the cells of the body. There are many
different genetic and environmental causes of anemia.
anencephaly
the failure to develop a brain at the end of the spinal chord. This type of
neural tube defect always causes the death of a fetus or newborn child.
aneuploidy
a chromosomal abnormality in which there is an addition or loss of

chromosomes within a set (e.g., 23 + 22 or 23 + 24). Down syndrome is
most often the result of this kind of error. See monosomy, trisomy, and
polyploidy.
Angelman syndrome
a rare genetically inherited form of mental retardation. The inheritance of

this syndrome is subject to genome imprinting.
angle of declination
the degree difference between the direction of magnetic north and

rotational north at a particular location.
Animalia
the kingdom of living things that includes all animals. They are multicellular
organisms that ingest food rather than absorb or photosynthesize it. They
also have their own means of locomotion in at least one phase of their life
cycles.
anterior
see dorsal.
anthropoid
an animal within the primate suborder Anthropoidea . Monkeys, apes,

and humans are anthropoids.
antibody
a kind of protein produced by the body to identify and neutralize or destroy

alien antigens. Antibodies are involved in the rejection of mismatched
blood transfusions and organ transplants. They are also responsible for
recognizing and eliminating bacteria and viruses. Antibodies provide a
major defense for our bodies against invasion by alien organisms.
anticodons
sequences of three nucleotide bases on a transfer RNA molecule that can

pair with a specific messenger RNA Codon.
antigen
molecules that provide the specific signature or identity to blood or other

tissue cells. When alien antigens are introduced into the body, they
stimulate the production and mobilization of antibodies. Antigens are found
on the surface of blood and other tissue cells as well as bacteria and
viruses.
apparent temperature
what the air temperature actually feels like to people. This varies with the
relative humidity of the air. The higher the relative humidity, the higher the
apparent temperature is even if the air temperature does not change
because evaporation of sweat is progressively less efficient in cooling the
body.
arboreal
tree-living; referring to animals that are adapted to life in the trees.

Arboreal animals spend most of their time scampering around in trees
rather than on the ground, in the air, or water. See semi-terrestrial and
terrestrial.
archaeology
the study of the prehistory or early history of societies and their cultures.
Unlike paleoanthropology, the focus of archaeology is mainly on the
material remains of culture rather than biological evolution.
archaeomagnetic dating
See paleomagnetic dating.
archaic humans
the variety or species of humans that was intermediate between Homo

erectus and modern humans. The earliest archaic humans may have
appeared shortly after 800,000 years ago in Southern Europe and East
Africa. Elsewhere in the Old World, the transition to archaic humans began
around 400,000 years ago or later. The most well known late archaic
humans were the Neandertals. Archaic humans are also known as archaic
Homo sapiens and premodern humans. See Homo heidelbergensis.
argon-40/argon-39 dating (40Ar/39Ar)
a radiometric dating method based on the changing ratio of argon-40 to

argon-39 with the passage of time in volcanic rock or ash. This technique
was derived from potassium-argon dating. The argon-40/argon-39 method
is usually more accurate than potassium-argon dating and doesn't require
as large a sample.
arthritis
a degenerative disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the joints

and accompanying pain.
artifact
a thing that is intentionally made according to a cultural pattern or

inadvertently modified as a result of culturally patterned behavior. Artifacts
are usually relatively portable objects such as projectile points, ceramic
pots, and baskets.
artifact time marker
an artifact type that was made by a particular culture during a limited time
period. When discovered clearly in association with ancient humans in an
archaeological site, they are an indication of at least the relative time of the
occupation. When the independent dating of the artifact types is reliable,
this can be considered a calibrated relative dating method.
assimilation model
a hypothesis to explain the origin of modern Homo sapiens. It proposes

that the first modern humans evolved in Africa, but when they migrated into
other regions they did not simply replace existing human populations.
Rather, they interbred to a limited degree with late archaic humans resulting
in hybrid populations. The assimilation model is also known as the "partial
replacement model." See replacement model and regional continuity
model.
atlatl
see spear thrower.
australopithecine
a species of the genus Australopithecus. They lived during the Pliocene

and early Pleistocene geological Epochs in Africa (i.e., ca. 4.2-1.4 million
years ago). Australopithecines and humans are hominins. One or more
species of australopithecines probably were our ancestors.
Australopithecus
see australopithecines
autogrooming
grooming oneself in contrast to allogrooming.
autoimmune disorder
any of several disorders in which one's antibodies attack his/her own body
tissues. Lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and even common
allergies are caused by such autoimmune reactions.
atomic mass
the mass number of one atom of an isotope (e.g., carbon-14). It is the sum
of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of one atom. See
atomic number.
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom of an element. See

atomic mass.
autosome
any chromosome other than a sex chromosome. Human somatic cells

have 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
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-B-
bacteria
microscopic simple single celled organisms lacking chlorophyll and a

membrane around their nuclei. They reproduce by mitosis. Many species
of bacteria are parasites of humans and other animals and plants. Bacteria
are classified as members of the Kingdom Monera.
balanced polymorphism
the maintenance of two or more alleles for a trait in a population at a more

or less constant frequency ratio due to the selective advantage of
heterozygotes. See polymorphism.
basal metabolic rate
the measure of the total energy utilized by the body to maintain its
necessary processes while at rest. Those processes include keeping the
heart, brain, and other organs functioning normally and the necessary
replacement of old or damaged cells. About 75% of the food energy that
we burn every day is used for these functions. The remaining energy is
used to fuel physical work or is stored in fat reserves for when it is needed.
Basal metabolic rate also refers to the minimum level of heat produced by
the body at rest.
Bergmann's Rule
within the same species of warm-blooded animals, individuals from

populations living in colder environments usually have greater body mass
than do those from populations in warmer areas. This is because of the
selective advantage it provides. A massive body produces more internal
heat and radiates relatively less of it into the surrounding environment
because the skin surface area is relatively smaller. Subsequently, a
massive body produces and retains more heat. Bergmann's Rule was
named after Carl Bergmann, a19th century naturalist. See Allen's Rule.
Beringia
the intercontinental land connection appeared between Siberia and Alaska

that appeared at least twice during the last ice age as a result of sea levels
dropping more than 300 feet. Beringia is also known as the Bering Plain.
Bering Plain
see Beringia.
beta particle
a kind of energy charged subnuclear particle (consisting of an electron or a

positron) given off by some isotopes when they decay or fission.
biface
a stone tool that is shaped on two faces or sides. Hand axes are examples
of bifaces. See uniface.
big game hunting
a specialized subsistence pattern based primarily on hunting large animals,

especially herbivorous herding mammals such as horses, reindeer, bison,
and elephants.
bilaterally symmetrical
the chordate characteristic of the left and right sides of the body being
mirror images of each other. If there are two functionally similar body parts,
they are usually found roughly equidistant from the center line, parallel to
each other on bilaterally symmetrical animals.
bilirubin
the yellow-red pigment of human bile. Small amounts of it are normally

found in blood and urine. At high bilirubin levels, blood and urine change
color and the skin becomes yellow or jaundiced. This is one of the
symptoms of mismatched blood transfusions and mother-fetus
incompatibility in blood type.
binocular vision
seeing with two eyes that have an overlapping field of view. This is
essential to stereoscopic vision.
binomen
the Linnaean classification system use of two Latin name categories,

genus and species, to designate each type of organism. A genus is a
higher level category that includes one or more species under it. For
example, humans are Homo sapiens, or "man who is wise"--Homo is our
genus and sapiens is our species. Binomen literally means "two names" in
Latin. Binomial nomenclature is another term for binomen.
binomial nomenclature
see binomen.
biocultural evolution
the pattern of human evolution in which the effects of natural selection are
altered by cultural inventions. Culture can alter the direction of evolution by
creating non-biological adaptations to environmental stresses (e.g.,
wearing insulating clothes on very cold days). This potentially reduces the
need to evolve genetic responses to the stresses. This has meant that we
have been able to remain essentially tropical animals biologically and live in
colder regions of our planet. Biocultural evolution can also involve a mutual,
interactive evolution of human biology and culture. An example of this has
been the selection favoring sickle-cell trait in Africa. Human agricultural
practices altered the environment, which resulted in factors that were
advantageous to both the malarial microorganisms and the mosquitoes that
transmit them between people. This, in turn, selected for the sickling allele.
biopsy
the process of removing a tissue sample from a living organism for

diagnostic examination (e.g., chorionic villi sampling).
biospecies
a species that has been defined on the basis of the ability to produce fertile
offspring. Members of the same species can produce offspring that can in
turn reproduce while members of different species cannot. See
morphospecies.
biostratigraphy
the relative dating of early human sites by association with index fossils
uncovered in the same strata as human evidence. The assumption is that
both the people and the species that is now an index fossil must have lived
at about the same time.
bipedalism
referring to walking and running on two feet. Humans are the only fully
bipedal primates today.
blade flake
a thin, roughly parallel-sided stone flake that is at least twice as long as it is

wide. They were made out of brittle breaking materials such as flint ,
chert , and obsidian . Blade flakes were preforms for the manufacture
of many different kinds of tools during the Upper Paleolithic--e.g., knives,
hide scrapers, spear tips, drills, awls, and burins. See punch flaking.
blending theory
an incorrect 19th century theory about the inheritance of characteristics. It

proposed that inherited traits blend from generation to generation. Through
his plant cross-breeding experiments, Gregor Mendel proved that this was
wrong.
body language
gestures, postures, and facial expressions used to communicate

nonverbally.
bottleneck effect
a dramatic reduction in genetic diversity of a population or species

resulting from an ecological crisis that wipes out most of its members. The
limited genetic diversity of the few survivors is the pool from which all future
generations are based. This is one of the small population size effects.
B.P. date
a chronometric date that is measured in years before the present. By

convention, scientists have assigned 1950 A.D. in the Gregorian calendar
as the present.
brachiator
an animal that travels through the trees by swinging under branches with a
hand over hand motion. The smaller apes and some New World monkeys
brachiate. Brachiation is also referred to as suspensory climbing.
Broca's area
a small area of the human brain that controls the production of speech. It is
located in the left frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex . See Wernicke's
area.
bubonic plague
a highly contagious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It is

normally spread by fleas that have taken blood from an infected human or
other animal. Symptoms include a high fever and extremely swollen lymph
nodes in the groin, armpits, and/or throat. An agonizing death usually
occurs within a few days.
bull roarer
a musical instrument or noise maker consisting of a flat, elongated oval
slab of rock, bone, or wood with a hole in one end through which a string is
attached. When it is twisted and then whirled rapidly by the string, a
humming or "roaring" noise is produced. Bull roarers may be only a few
inches in length or several feet long.
burin
narrow gouging chisels used to make and shape a host of other

implements out of bone, tusks, antler, or wood. They were usually made
from blade flakes in the late Upper Paleolithic tool traditions.
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-C-
calibrated relative dating
use of a relative dating method that measures somewhat irregular occurring

natural phenomena that have been cross-dated with at least one
chronometric technique so that the dates are somewhat comparable from
sites in one region to another. Calibrated relative methods could be
considered to be somewhere between ordinary relative methods and
radiometric methods in terms of their ability to produce dates that closely
approximate the actual date of a sample. Amino acid racemization and
paleomagnetic dating are generally considered to be either chronometric
or calibrated relative methods.
canine teeth
the comparatively pointed teeth on either side of the incisors, at the front of
the mouth of mammals. There is one canine tooth in each of the four
quadrants of the mouth. Canine teeth are mainly used to pierce and tear
food. See molar and premolar teeth.
canine diastema
a space or gap between the canine and adjacent teeth. It allows room for
the point of the protruding opposite canine tooth and thereby permits the
upper and lower teeth to bite together. Normally, there is a diastema
opposite each of the four canine teeth if the canines are significantly longer
than the other teeth.
capillaries
the hair thin blood vessels connecting small branches of arteries and veins
that form a vascular network throughout the body of animals.
carbohydrate
a class of organic molecules that include sugars and starches.
carbon-14 dating (C-14 )
see radiocarbon dating.
carnivorous
eating only meat. Animals that have this sort of diet are carnivores. See
herbivorous and omnivorous.
carotene
any of several reddish-orange organic pigments. While carotene is present

in human skin, it is also found in higher concentrations in butter, carrots, and
some other vegetables. Carotene is involved in the synthesis of vitamin A
in people and other animals.
carrier
an individual who is heterozygous for a trait that only shows up in the

phenotype of those who are homozygous recessive. Carriers often do not
show any signs of the trait but can pass it on to their offspring. This is the
case with hemophilia.
cataract
an impairment of vision caused by the lenses of the eyes becoming cloudy.

Cataracts are common in elderly people. They may be inherited or caused
by diabetes and environmental factors.
catastrophism
the view that the Earth's geological landscape is the result of violent
cataclysmic events. Advocates of this theory usually believe that there have
been a number of wide-spread violent and sudden natural catastrophes that
have destroyed most living things. This idea was used by George Cuvier to
explain the extinction of species. Catastrophism was opposed by
uniformitarianism during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Caucasoid (or Caucasian )
a presumed human "race" consisting of Europeans and other closely

related people. The classification is based on the discredited typological
model. The term "Caucasoid" was derived from the Caucasus Mountains
on the southeast fringe of Europe between the Black and Caspian Seas.
This region was once thought to be the homeland of Indo-Europeans.
cell
a complex unit of protoplasm, usually with a nucleus, cytoplasm, and an

enclosing membrane. All plants and animals are composed of one or more
microscopic cells. The smallest organic unit capable of carrying out all of
the functions normally attributed to life is a cell. See eukaryotic cell and
prokaryotic cell.
cell membrane
the selectively permeable membrane enclosing a cell.
Cenozoic Era
the most recent geological era, dating from about 65.5 million years ago to
the present. It is the era in which the mammals flourished. It began as the
last dinosaurs became extinct, at the end of the Mesozoic Era. Most of the
placental mammals and all of the primates evolved during the Cenozoic.
centriole
small, dense bodies outside of a cell nucleus that contract and become
visible early in mitosis and meiosis when the nuclear membrane breaks
down. Spindle fibers eventually emanate from each centriole and connect
to the centromeres of chromosomes.
centromere
a constriction in a chromosome where two or more chromatids come

together.
cerebral cortex
the outer portion of a brain's cerebrum. This is the area associated with
coordination of sensory and motor information as well as higher thought
processes.
cerebral edema
an abnormal accumulation of fluid around the brain causing it to swell. This

potentially life threatening condition can be caused by hypoxia at high
altitude. See pulmonary edema.
cerebrum
the two large frontal lobes at the top of the brain that make up about 85% of
its weight in modern humans. Our high level mental functions, such as
speech and processing complex information, occur in the cerebrum. The
cerebral cortex, or outer surface, is deeply convoluted. About 2/3 of the
human brain surface lies within these folds. The amount of cerebral cortex
folding, and subsequently the surface area of the brain, increased as
humans evolved from Homo habilis to Homo erectus and ultimately Homo
sapiens.
cervix
the neck-like opening at the lower end of the uterus that connects to the
vagina.
cheek pouches
cheeks that are so elastic that they can expand to allow temporary storage
of food. This is useful when there is competition. Old World monkey in the
subfamily Cercopithecinae (macaques, baboons, etc.) have cheek
pouches of this sort.
chimera (also spelled chimaera)
an individual who is genetically two people. Fully chimeric individuals are

usually the product of two fertilized ova fusing into a single embryo shortly
after conception.
Chordata
the phylum of animals that is characterized by elongated bilaterally

symmetrical bodies. In some phase of their life cycle, they have a
notochord and gill slits or pouches. Chordates also often have a head, a
tail, and a digestive system with an opening at both ends of the body. The
Chordata include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and 2
invertebrate subphyla (tunicates and lancelets).
chordate
a member of the phylum Chordata.
chorion
The membrane that develops around an embryo and contributes to the

formation of the placenta. Later, as a fetus develops, the chorion fuses with
the amnion. See chorionic villi sampling for an illustration.
chorionic villi sampling (or biopsy )
a diagnostic procedure for pregnant women to determine whether or not

their fetuses have gross chromosomal anomalies. It involves collecting a
small sample of chorion cells for karyotyping. The biopsy usually is done by
inserting a small flexible plastic tube through the vagina and the cervix of the
uterus to draw out a sample of chorion tissue. Alternately, the cells may be
extracted with a hypodermic needle through the uterine wall, as in the case
of amniocentesis. With CVS, there is approximately 98% accuracy in
diagnosing Down syndrome and many other conditions due to gross
chromosomal abnormalities. However, the accuracy in predicting neural
tube defects is lower than with amniocentesis. Some sources refer to CVS
as "chorionic villus sampling". "Villus" is the singular of "villi".
chromatids
one of two or more strands of a chromosome that are joined at a

centromere.
chromosome
a discrete, thread-like, gene-carrying body in the nucleus of a

cell. Chromosomes are composed primarily of DNA and protein. They are
visible only under magnification during certain stages of cell division.
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each somatic cell and 23 in each sex
cell.
chronic disease
an illness that lasts for a long period of time or indefinitely. In contrast, an

acute disease is one with a rapid onset and a short but usually severe
course.
chronometric date
a date that places an event in its chronological position with reference to a

universal time scale such as a calendar. Such dates usually are given in
terms of the number of years before or after a calendar starting point. For
instance, 1950 B.C. was 1950 years before the beginning date of the
Gregorian calendar, which is commonly used today. Chronometric dating
methods include the use of written records, dendrochronology, and
radiometric methods. See relative date.
cladistics
an approach to discovering evolutionary relationships between organisms

based on shared derived traits. Cladistics has largely replaced the older
approach known as evolutionary or phylogenetic sytematics which grouped
organisms together based on homologies in general without distinguishing
between primitive and derived ones.
cladogenesis
the branching pattern of evolution resulting from adaptive radiation.

class
the level of classification below subphylum and above subclass in the

Linnaean classification system. Humans are members of the class
Mammalia.
clavicles
collarbones; the bones that connect the sternum with the scapula. A single
clavicle on each side of the body goes from the center of the upper chest to
the shoulders.
clinal model (of human variation)
a system for classifying people based on the knowledge that genetically

inherited traits often gradually change in frequency from one geographic
region to another--that is, they change in clines.
clines
progressively changing zones of degree difference in frequency of a trait

with movement from one region to another. The gradual decrease in
frequency of the B blood allele going west in Europe is an example of such
a gradation or clinal distribution. See discontinuous distribution.
codominance
the situation in which two different alleles for a trait are expressed
unblended in the phenotype of heterozygous individuals. Neither allele is
dominant or recessive, so that both appear in the phenotype or influence it.
Type AB blood is an example. Such traits are said to be codominant.
codon
a sequence of three nucleotide bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that code

for a specific type of amino acid that will be used in the synthesis of a
protein.
collarbones
see clavicles.
color blindness
the inability to see certain colors as they normally appear to others. The
most common form of this vision deficiency is X-linked genetically inherited
red-green color blindness.
conduction
the movement of heat from one object to another by direct contact.

Example: the transmission of heat from your body to the chair on which you
are sitting. See convection and radiation.
consanguineous mating
the mating of closely related individuals, such as brothers, sisters, or

cousins. Another name for this mating pattern is "inbreeding." This is an
extreme form of positive assortative mating.
convection
the movement of heat from on object to the surrounding fluid (either gas or
liquid). Example: the transmission of heat from your body to water when
you are swimming. See conduction and radiation.
convergence
the development of a similar anatomical feature in distinct species lines

after divergence from a common ancestor that did not have the initial trait
that led to it. The common ancestor is usually more distant in time than is
the case with parallelism. Convergence is thought to be due primarily to the
independent species lines experiencing the same kinds of natural selection
pressures. Convergence is also referred to as convergent evolution.
Convergence results in homoplasies.
convergent evolution
see convergence.
core body temperature
the temperature of the internal organs in the chest cavity, abdominal region,
and head in animals. See hyperthermia and hypothermia.
core tool
a tool made from a relatively large block of rock rather than from the flakes
that are removed from it by percussion flaking in the manufacturing
process. Most hand axes are core tools.
cosmic radiation
streams of highly penetrating charged particles (composed of free

electrons, protons, alpha particles, and a few heavier atom nuclei) that
bombard the earth at high speed from outer space. On entering our upper
atmosphere, they commonly collide with gas atoms and alter the atomic
structures of those atoms.
cranial capacity
the volume displaced by the brain within a cranium , or skull case.

Cranial capacity is a simple measure of brain size but not necessarily of
intelligence.
creationism
the belief that all species were created as they are today and that they have
not undergone any evolution since then. This view is usually based
primarily on the Book of Genesis in the Judeo-Christian Bible. Most
creationists also believe that the Earth is very young (typically about 6,000
years old). In the U.S. creationism is the basis for what has become known
as "creation science."
Cro-Magnon
the modern Homo sapiens who appeared in Europe by 40,000 years ago.
Their skeletons generally were lighter than the Neandertals who occupied
Europe at that time. The Cro-Magnon had broad, small faces with pointed
chins and high foreheads. They are the ancestors of modern Europeans.
crossing-over
the exchange of genetic material (DNA) between homologous

chromosomes at the beginning of meiosis. This results in sperm and ova
with greater genetic diversity due to a recombination of genes.
Specifically, a portion of the end of a chromosome is broken and
reattached on another chromosome.
cross-pollination
the mating of two genetically different plants of the same species. Usually,
the term is used in reference to the crossing of two pure breeding
(homozygous) plants.
crystal lattice
the three-dimensional pattern of a crystalline solid. There are characteristic

lattice patterns identified for different minerals.
cusps
the elevated, somewhat pointed portions of the chewing surfaces on

premolar and molar teeth.
cystic fibrosis
a genetically inherited disease in children that results in chronic fluid

development in the lungs, making breathing difficult. This disease also
prevents normal absorption of fats and other nutrients from food. Cystic
fibrosis occurs as a result of inheriting a recessive allele for if from both
parents. This is ultimately a fatal disease, but with modern medical care,
about 2/3 of the people with it survive into early adulthood. About 30,000
people have cystic fibrosis in the U.S. today.
cytoplasm
all of the material within a cell between the nuclear and cell membranes.
The cytoplasm consists of semifluid water-rich viscous gel and contains
numerous specialized structures, or organelles, involved with cell function.
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-D-
demography
the study of population characteristics, especially its size, density, and

growth patterns.
dendrochronology
the study of annual growth-rings of trees, usually for the purpose of

chronometric dating logs found in association with relatively recent
archaeological sites. Tree-ring sequences also are used as records of
cycles in local climates.
dental formula
the quantity of each type of tooth (e.g., incisor, canine, premolar, and molar)
in each quadrant of the mouth, counting from the front. The human dental
formula is 2.1.2.3. The Old World monkeys and apes also share this dental
formula.
deoxyribonucleic acid
see DNA.
derived trait (in regards to classifying organs)
a biological trait that has changed over time from the ancestral form and/or
function that was present in the species from which it came. See cladistics.
descent with modification
a phrase Charles Darwin used to refer to the process by which natural

selection favors some variations resulting in their becoming more common
in the next generation. Descent with modification is another way of
describing evolution.
developmental acclimatization
see developmental adjunstment.
developmental adjustment
a change in the normal growth patterns and development of an individual

that occurs in childhood as a result of specific cultural practices (e.g., foot
binding) or other environmental processes. The anatomical and
physiological changes that result are mostly irreversible by adulthood.
Example: stunted growth and mild mental retardation due to severe,
prolonged undernourishment. Developmental adjustment is also referred to
as "developmental acclimatization."
diabetes
an inherited metabolic disorder in which there are abnormally high blood

sugar levels. In advanced stages, this often results in blindness from
cataracts, nerve damage, gangrene in the feet and legs leading to
amputation, heart disease, and kidney failure. Type 1 diabetes melitis
(juvenile onset diabetes) is due to decreased production of insulin by the
pancreas. Type 2 diabetes melitis is due to increased resistance of cells in
the body to insulin. The gene or genes for diabetes are incompletely
penetrant.
Diego blood system
a human blood typing system in which there are 2 distinct types: Diego
positive and Diego negative. An individual inherits a Diego type from his or
her parents and does not change it throughout life. Apparently, the only
people in the world who are Diego positive are some Native Americans
and East Asians.
digits
fingers and toes. See pentadactylism.
diploid number
the full component of chromosomes normally found in somatic cells. In

humans, the number is 46. See haploid number.
directional selection
Selection for or against one extreme of a trait. In the case of polygenic

traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as human
stature, it would be selection for people who are either very tall or very
short. The result would be a progressive increase in the form of the trait
that is being selected for and a reduction in the form that is being selected
against. In the case of a trait controlled by only two alleles, it would be
selection against one of the alleles. When that allele is recessive, it is
usually selection against the recessive homozygote and for the dominant
homozygote and the heterozygote. An example is selection against people
who have a fatal genetically inherited disease that only shows up in
homozygous recessive people. The result would be a progressive
reduction of the recessive allele in the gene pool of the population and,
subsequently, a reduction in the number of people who have the disease.
Continuous directional selection can result in evolution. See disruptive
selection and stabilizing selection.
disruptive selection
Selection for both extremes of a trait and against the middle. In the case of
polygenic traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as
human stature, it would be selection for both very tall and very short people
and against those who are average in height. The result would be a
progressive increase in both of the extreme forms of this trait and a
reduction in the middle range. In the case of a trait controlled by only two
alleles, it would be selection for both recesssive and dominant
homozygotes and against heterozygotes. The result would be a
progressive reduction in the number of people who are heterozygous for the
trait in the population. See directional selection and stabilizing selection.
discontinuous distribution
the geographic distribution of a trait such that it appears in high or low

frequencies in various areas with little or no gradation between them. See
clines.
display
a visual message, or body language, used by primates and other animals

primarily to communicate anger, fear, and other basic emotions. Displays
are a strong indication of an animal's emotional state. See agonistic
display.
diurnal
being awake and active during the daylight hours but sleeping during the
nighttime. See nocturnal.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid )
a large organic molecule that stores the genetic code for the synthesis of
proteins. Each chromosome consists mostly of a DNA molecule. DNA is
composed of sugars, phosphates and bases arranged in a double helix
shaped molecular structure. Segments of DNA correspond to specific
genes.
dominance hierarchy
a group of individuals arranged in rank order. In some non-human primate

species, each community has a distinct male and female dominance
hierarchy. Every individual is ranked relative to all other community
members of the same gender. In the case of rhesus macaque females,
rank is determined by the relative rank of their mothers. Depending on the
species, male ranking may be similarly determined by the mother's rank or
it may be earned in competition with other males. Individuals who are
higher in the dominance hierarchy usually have greater access to food, sex,
and other desirable things. See alpha male and female.
dominant allele
an allele that masks the presence of a recessive allele in the phenotype.

Dominant alleles for a trait are usually expressed if an individual is
homozygous dominant or heterozygous.
dorsal
the biological sciences use

the terms dorsal, ventral,
anterior, and posterior to refer
to direction within the body of
a bilaterally symmetrical
organism. These terms are
illustrated in the photo on the
right. Body parts on the sides
of a body are referred to as being lateral. If something is along the
longitudinal midline of a body, it is medial.
double helix
the twisted ladder shape that is characteristic of DNA molecules.
Down syndrome
a genetically inherited form of mental retardation usually resulting from the

inheritance of an extra autosome 21. Down syndrome individuals also
typically are short and stocky in build with short appendages. They usually
have broad round faces, saddle-shaped nose profiles, and thick tongues
that are often stuck out of their mouths. The incidence of Down syndrome
children goes up rapidly with the age of the mother, particularly after 40.
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-E-
ecological niches
specific micro-habitats in nature to which populations or organisms adapt.

They are usually seen in terms of being food getting opportunities in the
environment.
ectothermic
the ability to maintain core body temperature in a normal range mainly by

avoiding exposure to environmental temperature extremes. Reptiles,
amphibians, fish, and insects are ectothermic animals. Ectothermy is also
referred to as being cold blooded. See endothermic.
edema
abnormal fluid retention in the tissues and/or cavities of the body resulting in
swelling.
electron spin resonance dating (ESR)
a radiometric dating method based on the fact that background radiation

causes electrons to separate from their atoms and become trapped in the
crystal lattice of minerals. When odd numbers of electrons are separated,
there is a measurable change in the magnetic field (or spin) of the atoms.
Since the magnetic field progressively changes with time in a predictable
way as a result of this process, it provides an atomic clock, or calendar, that
can be used for dating purposes. This technique is employed primarily to
chronometrically date calcium carbonate in limestone, coral, teeth,
mollusks, and egg shells. It can also date quartz and flint.
Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
a genetically inherited disorder characterized by dwarfism, extra fingers,

and malformations of the arms, wrists, and heart. The majority of the known
cases in the world of this rare syndrome have been found among the Amish
and 7% of them carry the responsible recessive autosomal allele.
embryo
the earliest stage of development of an unborn child. In humans, the

embryonic stage lasts up till about the 8th week of pregnancy. Following,
is the fetal stage.
embryonic
see embryo.
endemic disease
a disease that remains at a more or less constant frequency of affected

individuals in a population all of the time. Examples: hypertension, tooth
decay, and malaria.
endoplasmic reticula (singular, endoplasmic reticulum )
highly folded long membrane structures in the cytoplasm of cells.

Ribosomes involved in protein synthesis are on the surface of these
bodies.
endothermic
the ability to maintain a relatively constant core body temperature

regardless of external conditions by using internal physiological means.
That is to say, they are homeothermic, or stable in core body temperature,
as a result of endothermy. Birds and mammals are endothermic.
Endothermy is also referred to as being warm blooded. See ectothermic.
enzyme
a type of protein that causes or regulates specific chemical reactions within

cells.
Eocene Epoch
the second geological epoch of the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spanned
the time approximately 55.8-33.9 million years ago.
epicanthic fold
a fold of skin over the inner corner of each eyelid. This is characteristic of
normal East Asians (see photo on right). It is also typical of people with
Down syndrome from any population in the world. The presence of
epicanthic folds does not imply Down's.
epidermis
the outer most skin layer in humans and related animals.
erythroblastosis fetalis
a blood disease of fetuses and newborn infants caused by the mother's

anti-Rh+ antibodies agglutinating or bursting the red cells of her infant's Rh+
blood. Symptoms include life threatening anemia, jaundice, fever, swollen
tissues from edema, and an enlarged liver and spleen. Serious cases are
treated by blood replacement. Erythroblastosis fetalis is also referred to
as "hemolytic anemia" and "hydrops fetalis."
erythrocytes
the relatively large red cells in blood that transport oxygen from the lungs to
all of the living tissues of the body. Normally, 40-45% of human blood
volume consists of erythrocytes. See stem cells.
estrogen
a class of feminizing hormones. Both men and women produce them, but
females normally produce much more.
estrus
the period of time when female animals are sexually excited and receptive
to mating. Estrus occurs around the time of ovulation in many species.
ethnocentrism
the feeling that your own group's cultural traditions and values are correct
and superior to all others. This is usually coupled with a generalized dislike
and even contempt for people who have other cultural traditions.
Ethnocentrism is universal in that all people around the world are
ethnocentric to some degree.
eukaryotic cell
a cell that has a true nucleus and that divides by mitosis. Complex single
celled creatures such as protozoa as well as all multicelled plants and
animals are primarily eukaryotes. With the exception of red blood cells,
human cells are eukaryotic. See prokaryotic cell.
eumelanin
See melanin.
Eurasia
the combined land mass of Europe and Asia.
Eutheria
the infraclass of therian mammal species in which females produce a

placenta to connect the fetus to the uterus. This enables nutrients and
oxygen to get to the fetus and provides a means of eliminating waste
products. As a result, eutherian mammals can carry their young within the
uterus until late in fetal development. This has a selective advantage
because it results in decreased infant mortality. Eutherian mammals are
also called placental mammals. Included in this infraclass are dogs, cats,
bears, whales, monkeys, humans, and many other mammals.
evaporative cooling
cooling of the skin resulting from the evaporation of sweat on its surface. In
hot dry environments, this is normally the most significant mechanism by
which the human body loses excess heat.
evolution
genetic change in a population of organisms that occurs over time. The

term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.
More specifically, it is change in the frequencies of alleles in a population's
gene pool from one generation to the next.
exons
DNA base pairs that code for proteins and, therefore, are part of genes.
Only 1.2-1.5% of DNA consists of exons. See introns.
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-F-
f1 generation
the first offspring (or filial) generation. The next and subsequent
generations are referred to as f2, f3, etc.
false positive
a test result that indicates a medical problem when there actually is not one.
femur
the scientific name of the upper leg bones. In the case of 4 legged animals,
the femurs are in the rear legs.
fertilization
conception; the process of sexual reproduction by which the chromosomes

from a sperm cell enter the nucleus of an ovum and combine with its
chromosomes to create a zygote.
fetal position
laying partly curled on one's side with the legs and arms bent and held into
the body.
fetus
an unborn child during the later stages of pregnancy. In humans, an embryo

usually becomes a fetus after the 8th week of gestation. Unlike embryos,
fetuses have clearly recognizable physical characteristics of the species
and gender.
first cousin
someone who is related as a result of being a child of one's uncle or aunt.
fission track dating
a radiometric dating method based on the fact that when trace amounts of
uranium-238 fission there is a release of highly energy-charged alpha
particles which burn narrow fission tracks, or damage trails, through glassy
materials such as obsidian (i.e., volcanic glass), mica, and zircon crystals.
The number of fission tracks is directly proportional to the time since the
material cooled from a molten state. The rate at which fission tracks occur
is related to the half-life of uranium-238, which is approximately 4.5 billion
years.
flake tool
an artifact made from a flake knocked off of a larger rock usually by

percussion flaking. See core tool.
flint
a kind of hard, rock with a glassy opaque appearance. It was a favorite raw
material for many prehistoric humans for the manufacture of tools such as
knives and scraping implements.
flora and fauna
terms of Latin origin that are commonly used in the sciences to refer to the
plants (flora) and animals (fauna) in an environment.
fluorine analysis dating
a relative dating method based on the fact that bones buried in the ground
progressively lose nitrogen and gain fluorine and other trace elements. The
rate at which these changes occur depends on the local environment. If two
bones from the same site have markedly different amounts of nitrogen and
fluorine, it is a strong indication that they did not come from the same time
period. The bone with the least amount of nitrogen and the greatest amount
of fluorine is most likely the oldest.
foraging group
a group of animals that seek food together. In the case of non-human

primates, this group may consist of all community members or only some of
them.
foramen magnum
the hole at the base of a skull through which the spinal cord passes.
Literally, foramen magnum means a "large hole or opening" in Latin. The
position of the foramen magnum is a strong indicator of the angle of the
spinal column to the head and subsequently whether the body is habitually
horizontal (like a horse) or vertical (like a monkey).
fossil
any remains or traces of ancient organisms. Often fossils are mineralized

bone, though they have also been found in the form of casts, molds, animal
tracks, frozen or desiccated bodies, and creatures trapped in amber.
founder principle
a small population size effect in which the genes of a few people (the
population founders) are inherited over time by a large number of
descendents. This is also known as the "founder effect" and the "Sewall
Wright effect." See genetic drift.
fragile-X syndrome
a relatively common genetically inherited abnormality of the X chromosome

which results in mental retardation. Since it is an X-linked trait, males more
often have it expressed in their phenotypes. Most fragile-X males have
large testes, big ears, narrow faces, and sensory integration dysfunctions
that result in learning disabilities. It is likely to occur 1 in 1000 births.
Approximately 1 in 700 females are carriers of the gene for this trait.
free-ranging population
a non-captive group of primates or other animals that is living in its natural

habitat, largely free from constraints imposed by humans.
frequency
the number of times that something happens. For example, the number of
people out of 100 who get divorced would be the frequency of divorce.
frontal (in reference to a skull)
the forehead region of the head.
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-G-
gamete
a reproductive cell--sperm or unfertilized ovum cell produced in the testes

and ovaries of animals. Gametes are produced by meiosis. They normally
have half the number of chromosomes found in somatic cells.
gastrointestinal
relating to the stomach and the intestines--the lower digestive tract.
gene flow
the transference of genes from one population to another, usually as a result

of migration. The loss or addition of individuals can easily change the gene
pool frequencies of both the recipient and donor populations--that is, they
can evolve.
gene pool
the sum of all of the alleles of genes in all of the individuals in a population.
gene
a unit of inheritance usually occurring at a specific location, or loci, on a

chromosome. Physically, a gene is a sequence of DNA bases that specify
the order of amino acids in a protein or, in some cases, a small RNA
molecule referred to as a microRNA. A gene may be made up of hundreds
to thousands of DNA bases. Genes are responsible for hereditary
characteristics.
genera
see genus.
genetic bottlenecking
see bottleneck effect.
genetic drift
evolution, or change in gene pool frequencies, resulting from random

chance. Genetic drift occurs most rapidly in small populations. In large
populations, random deviations in allele frequencies in one direction are
more likely to be cancelled out by random changes in the opposite
direction.
genetic equilibrium
the situation in which a population is not evolving from generation to

generation--that is, the population's gene pool frequencies remain
unchanged.
genetics
the study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of
traits from parent to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the underlying
foundation for evolutionary change. Genetics is the branch of science that
deals with the inheritance of biological characteristics.
genetic load
a measure of all of the harmful recessive alleles in a population or family

line. A high genetic load would be one in which there is a high frequency of
deleterious recessive alleles.
genome
the full genetic complement of an individual (or a species). In humans, it is

estimated that each individual possesses approximately 3 billion
nucleotides in all of the DNA that makes up his or her genome. See Human
Genome Project.
genome imprinting
an inheritance pattern in which a gene will have a different effect depending

on the gender of the parent from whom it is inherited. Genome imprinting is
also known as genetic imprinting.
genotype
the genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism's

entire genetic makeup or the alleles at a particular locus. See phenotype.
genus (plural genera )
a group of closely related species. In the Linnaean classification system,
genus is the category immediately above species.
geochronology
a relative dating method based on the association of early human sites with
changing features of the land, such as the advance and retreat of glaciers
or the rise and fall of sea levels. When these events are well dated,
geochronology could be considered a reliable calibrated relative dating
technique. Associated evidence may be changes in the frequency of plant
species measured by pollen count and other kinds of paleoecology
evidence.
geological unconformities
breaks in the original stratigraphic sequence of a geological deposit.

Understanding all of the unconformities in an area is a prerequisite for
using stratigraphy for relative dating purposes.
geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS)
geomagnetic reversal time scale (GRTS)
gestation
the period between conception and birth during which an unborn young is
within its mother's uterus. Pregnancy is another word for gestation.
gills
breathing organs used to extract oxygen from water.
glacial
A long period of time during which earth's climate cools, causing glaciers to
expand out from the poles and mountains covering vast areas. The glacials
of the Pleistocene Epoch mostly occurred in the northern hemisphere. See
interglacial.
Gloger's Rule
within the same species of warm-blooded animals, there is a tendency for

darker, more heavily pigmented skin to occur in animals near the equator
and lighter pigmented skin farther from it. This is because of the selective
advantage the coloration provides. Heavy pigmentation protects from skin
cancer caused by ultraviolet radiation from the sun. However, too much
pigmentation can significantly reduce the skin's ability to produce vitamin D,
which is necessary for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from
food. Open country close to the equator typically experiences high amounts
of intense ultraviolet radiation while temperate and arctic regions have
relatively little. Subsequently, heavy skin pigmentation is an advantage
near the equator but a disadvantage farther away from it. Gloger's Rule
was named after Wilhelm Gloger, a 19th century naturalist.
gracile
graceful, slender, and delicate. This 17th century English term is used to
describe the body characteristics (especially bones) of the early
australopithecines and the earliest humans.
gradualism
see phyletic gradualism.
great chain of being
the theory that living things were divinely created and exist in an infinite and
continuous series of forms, each one grading into the next, from simple to
complex. This view goes back to the ancient Greeks and was popular from
the Middle Ages through the 18th century in Europe.
Great Rift Valley
long depression in Southwest Asia and East Africa caused by the

movement of tectonic plates, largely beginning during the Oligocene
Epoch. In Africa, it extends from Ethiopia southwest 1200 miles through the
lake regions. Many of the early hominin discovery sites are in this valley
system.
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD deficiency )
a genetically inherited X-linked error in metabolism caused by an

inadequate amount of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in
red blood cells. When exposed to certain environmental influences, such
as fava beans and some drugs (sulphonamide antibiotics, some
antimalarials including primaquine, and several other sulphur-containing
drugs) , the red cells of individuals with this deficiency burst, resulting in
severe anemia. As in the case of sickle-cell trait and thalassemia, this
anemia may provide some immunity to falciparum malaria. G6PD
deficiency is also known as "favism." It is the most common type of human
enzyme deficiency--about 400 million people have this condition around the
world. It is a common problem especially in populations around the
Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.
great apes
the gorillas, common chimpanzees, and bonobos of Africa and the

orangutans of Southeast Asia. These species are referred to as great
apes because they are the largest apes. See lesser apes.
Gregorian calendar
the most commonly used calendar system in the world today. It is based on
the older Julian calendar of the late Roman Empire but more accurately
corresponds to the solar year of 365.2422 days. The Julian calendar year
is 365.25 days. This is inaccurate by approximately 11 minutes a year.
The result is that the Julian calendar is out of sync by one day every 131
years. The Gregorian calendar fixed this problem by changing the rules for
leap years. In the Julian system, a day is added to the end of February
every 4 years. In the Gregorian system a year is a leap year if it is divisible
by 4 unless it is divisible by 100 but not by 400. This eliminates leap years
periodically in order to keep the calendar more synchronized with the solar
year. The Gregorian calendar was named after Pope Gregory XIII who
officially approved it in 1582 A.D. England and its colonies did not adopt it
until 1752.
grooming
carefully picking through hair looking for insects, twigs, and other debris.
See allogrooming and autogrooming.
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-H-
half-life
the amount of time for half of the atoms of a radioactive element in a

sample to decay, or fission. The reduction in the number of atoms follows a
geometric scale--at the end of 2 half-lives, there are 1/4 of the atoms left; at
the end of 3 half-lives, there are 1/8 remaining; etc.
hand ax
a rock core or large flake that has been systematically worked by

percussion flaking to an elongated oval biface shape with one pointed end
and sharp edges on the sides. In profile, hand axes usually have a teardrop
or leaf shape. Hand axes are diagnostic tools of the Acheulian tool
tradition of Homo erectus after about 1.5 million years ago. They continued
to be made and used by early archaic humans. Very likely, they were
multipurpose implements used for light chopping of wood, digging up roots
and bulbs, butchering animals, and cracking bones.
haploid number
the number of chromosomes in gametes. Human sperm and ova normally

contain only 23 chromosomes, which is the result of the halving of
chromosome pairs in meiosis. See diploid number.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation
the equation (p²+2pq+q² = 1) used by population geneticists to determine

probable genotype frequencies of a population for specific traits. By
comparing these frequencies for subsequent generations, it is possible to
track the direction and rate of evolution.
hematite
a rust red iron ore that was ground to a powder state and used as a paint
pigment, beginning with the Neandertals and early modern humans.
hemizygous chromosomes
The X and Y chromosomes of males are mostly not homologous--they only

share a few genes. Those genes that are found on only the X or the Y
chromosome are said to be hemizygous because there is only one copy of
each gene. Regardless of whether that gene is a dominant or a recessive
allele, it will be expressed in the phenotype of males.
hemoglobin
the gas transporting protein molecule that normally makes up 95% of the
volume of red cells in blood. There are usually about 270,000,000
hemoglobin molecules in each red cell.
hemophilia
an X-linked genetically inherited recessive disease in which one or more of

the normal blood clotting factors is not produced. This results in prolonged
bleeding from even minor cuts and injuries. Swollen joints caused by
internal bleeding are a common problem for hemophiliacs. Hemophilia
most often afflicts males.
herbivorous
eating only vegetable foods. Animals that have this sort of diet are
herbivores or vegetarians. See carnivorous and omnivorous.
hermaphrodite
an individual who has one or more testes and ovaries and whose external
genitalia are not clearly male or female. This condition can occur in
chimeras who have inherited both a male and a female set of sex
chromosomes. True hermaphrodites have one testes and one ovary. Male
pseudohermaphrodites, or "merms," have testes but no ovaries and display
some female genitalia tissue. Female pseudohermaphrodites, or "ferms,"
have ovaries but no testes and display some male genitalia tissue.
heterodont
animals that have a variety of specialized teeth (incisors, canines,

premolars, and molars). Mammals are heterodonts.
heterosis
increased health of individuals who are the result of negative assortative

mating, or crossbreeding. This is due to the fact that when mates are from
very different genetic lines they are more likely to have lower frequencies of
homozygous recessive conditions. Subsequently, they are liable to be
more viable. This phenomenon has also been referred to as hybrid vigor.
heterozygous
a genotype consisting of two different alleles of a gene for a particular trait

(Aa). Individuals who are heterozygous for a trait are referred to as
heterozygotes. See homozygous.
hierarchical
an arrangement in terms of rank or importance. The Linnaean

classification system of living things is hierarchical--it is a system of
classification with the highest category consisting of all living things. Lower
down are levels of less inclusive sub-categories. The lowest sub-category
is a species.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
the virus that is responsible for causing AIDS.
HLA system
referring to the over 100 antigens on the surface of human body tissue cells
that can be recognized by some kinds of leukocytes and potentially lead to
the rejection of these tissues if they are alien. The HLA system has the
most genes of any other known human multiple-allele series. There are at
least 30,000,000 possible HLA genotypes. When organ transplants fail, it
is usually due to HLA incompatibility. This can be prevented by making
sure that the donor and the recipient have the same or very similar HLA
types. Immunosuppressant drugs also are now available to restrain the
HLA system and thereby allow successful transplants when there is an HLA
incompatibility between donor and recipient. HLA stands for "human
leukocyte antigen" .
homeotic gene
see regulator gene.
hominid
any species of the primate family Hominidae . The great apes and
humans are the only hominids today, however, there were other species in
the past.
hominin
any species of the primate tribe Hominini. The australopithecines and

humans are hominins
hominini
see hominin.
hominoid
any species of the primate superfamily Hominoidea . All hominids and

apes are hominoids.
Homo
the genus in which all humans are classified.
Homo erectus
the species of humans that followed Homo habilis and preceded Homo
sapiens in our line of evolution. Homo erectus evolved in East Africa by
1.8 million years ago. They were the first humans to expand their range into
Asia and Europe. By at least 400,000 years ago or even earlier in some
areas, they were beginning a transitional evolutionary phase that would
eventually lead to archaic humans. See Homo ergaster and Homo
heidelbergensis.
Homo ergaster
An early form of the species Homo erectus from East Africa. In an

alternate interpretation, some researchers consider Homo ergaster to be
the species that immediately preceded Homo erectus in our line of
evolution. Homo ergaster fossils date about 1.8-1.5 million years ago.
Homo habilis
a transitional species between the australopithecines and Homo erectus.

Homo habilis appeared by 2.4 million years ago and continued until about
1.6 million years ago. They lived in East and possibly South Africa.
Homo heidelbergensis
A very early form of archaic humans in Europe and North Africa that lived
from about 800,000 to 200,000 years ago. In an alternate interpretation,
some researchers consider Homo heidelbergensis to be a separate
species or even a late advanced Homo erectus in transition to archaic
humans. Homo heidelbergensis may have been the ancestor of the
Neandertals.
Homo neanderthalensis
the species designation given to the Neandertals by researchers who

believe that these ancient people were different enough from Homo
sapiens to assign them to a distinct species.
Homo rudolfensis
An early form of the species Homo habilis. In an alternate interpretation,

some researchers consider Homo rudolfensis to be the species that
immediately preceded Homo habilis in our line of evolution. Homo
rudolfensis fossils date 2.4-1.6 million years ago.
Homo sapiens sapiens
See Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens
the genus (Homo) and species (sapiens) categories to which modern

humans belong. Homo sapiens evolved from Homo erectus over several
hundred thousand years beginning at least 400,000 years ago. The first
modern Homo sapiens evolved from archaic humans by about 130,000
years ago in Africa. Modern humans are referred to as Homo sapiens
sapiens. The last sapiens refers to our sub-species or variety designation.
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
the species designation given to the Neandertals by researchers who

believe that these ancient people were genetically close enough to Homo
sapiens to assign them to the same species but a different sub-species or
variety. See Homo neanderthalensis.
homologies
anatomical structures in different species that are similar due to descent

from a common ancestor that had them. Homologies are also referred to
as homologous structures or features. see cladistics.
homologous chromosomes
chromosomes that are paired during meiosis. Such chromosomes are

alike with regard to size and also position of the centromere. They also
have the same genes, but not necessarily the same alleles, at the same
locus or location. All autosomes and the sex chromosomes of females
occur in homologous pairs. The sex chromosomes of males are mostly
hemizygous.
homologous structures
see homologies.
homoplasies
similar anatomical structures in different species that were not present in

their common ancestor. Homoplasies are also referred to as homoplastic
structures or features. Homoplasies can be due to parallelism,
convergence, or even chance.
homoplastic structures
see homoplasies.
homozygous
having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a pair of
homologous chromosomes. Homozygous also refers to a genotype
consisting of two identical alleles of a gene for a particular trait. An
individual may be homozygous dominant (AA) or homozygous recessive
(aa). Individuals who are homozygous for a trait are referred to as
homozygotes. See heterozygous.
hormone
a class of substances (usually proteins) that are produced by specialized

cells and that travel to other parts of the body, where they influence
chemical reactions and regulate various cellular functions. Hormones
include the secretions of the endocrine glands that affect metabolism and
behavior. Testosterone, estrogen, and insulin are examples of such
hormones.
human
a member of the genus Homo.
Human Genome Project
a multinational research effort designed to identify and map the location of

all human genes. The idea of a Human Genome Project began at a 1984
international conference in Utah. Research to decode the human genome
began in earnest in 1986, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The
initial stage of discovering all human DNA codons was completed early in
2001 at a cost of 2.7 billion dollars. The next phase of research will be to
identify the proteins for which these genes code. This decoding of the
human proteome will be an even more daunting task than the original
Human Genome Project. See genome.
Huntington's disease
a severe genetically inherited fatal degenerative nerve disorder. The

symptoms usually do not appear until early middle age. There is a
progressive loss of muscle control that inevitably leads to paralysis and
death. This disease is also called Huntington's chorea .
hybrid
an offspring that is the result of mating between two genetically different

kinds of parents--the opposite of purebred.
hybrid vigor
see heterosis.
hyoid bone
a horseshoe-shaped bone in the neck above the larynx supporting the base
of the tongue. Since jaw, tongue, and larnyx muscles are anchored to it, the
hyoid bone is essential for the production of sounds used in human
speech. Humans are the only primates that have their hyoid bones high in
the neck. Subsequently, they can produce a wider range of vocal sounds
than other primates.
hyperthermia
unusually elevated core body temperature resulting from fever or prolonged

exposure to a hot environment. This can be a life threatening condition.
See hypothermia.
hypothalamus
a small region near the base of the brain that controls the sympathetic
nervous system, which in turn regulates the autonomic functions of the body,
including beating of the heart, breathing, and body temperature control.
hypothermia
unusually low core body temperature resulting from prolonged exposure to

a cold environment. This can be a life threatening condition. See
hyperthermia.
hypoxia
oxygen deprivation. This condition can occur at high altitude. Symptoms

include a reduced ability to do work, fatigue, dizziness, nausea, and an
inability to effectively perform memory intensive tasks. Even moderate
hypoxia results in the death of some individuals due to heart failure. In very
high mountain areas, hypoxia can cause pulmonary edema and/or cerebral
edema, both of which are life-threatening conditions that are aspects of
what is often referred to as acute mountain sickness.
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-I-
imitative magic
See sympathetic magic.
immunization
the development of antibodies to antigens that are alien to your body.

Immunity can be developed to blood and tissue types as well as
microorganism parasites (e.g., bacteria and viruses).
incomplete penetrance
the situation in which an allele is expressed only if certain factors are

present in the environment. The triggering of genetically inherited diabetes
by obesity and possibly severe emotional stress is an example.
inbreeding
see consanguineous mating.
inbreeding depression
The reduction in viability and subsequent loss of reproductive potential of

purebred varieties. This is a consequence of a pattern of consanguineous
mating that goes on for many generations in a family line or a small inbred
population.
incisors
chisel shaped teeth at the front of the mouth in mammals. All primates
normally have 8 incisors (2 in each quadrant of the mouth). The common
mammal pattern is 12 incisors (3 in each quadrant). See dental formula.
index fossil
remains of a plant or animal of a species that is known to have lived only

during a specific time period. The discovery of such a fossil in an
archaeological site is circumstantial evidence of the approximate time
period that it was occupied. Fossil bones of horse and elephant related
species are often used to relatively date fossils of our ancestors. Index
fossils are used for biostratigraphy.
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lamarck's theory that evolution occurs as a result of an organism acquiring

a change in form due to using or not using particular body parts during its
lifetime and then passing the new trait on to its offspring. This is also
referred to as the "use-disuse theory."
Insectivore
animals in the mammalian order Insectivora. They were named for their
adaptation to eating insects. The insectivores were among the earliest of
the placental mammals to evolve.
interglacial
A long, period of warmer conditions between glacials when the earth's

glaciers have shrunk to a smaller area. Interglacials during the Pleistocene
Epoch lasted 10's of thousands of years. We are probably in an interglacial
at present.
intermediate expression
the situation in which a heterozygous genotype results in a phenotype that is

intermediate between those resulting from the homozygous genotypes.
The mid-range baritone male voice is an example.
introns
sections of DNA molecules that do not code for proteins but still perform
important functions. Apparently, some are enhancers or suppressors of
genes. About a fourth of DNA consists of introns. The remaining "junk"
DNA, that makes up three fourths of a DNA molecule, very likely also has
subtle functions. For instance, It helps determine the shape of
chromosomes and also buffers against change by absorbing the mutagenic
effect of radiation and viruses. See exons.
invertebrate
an animal that lacks an internal skeleton. All animals other than fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are invertebrates.
Approximately 95% of all animals are invertebrates.
in vitro fertilization (IVF)
a set of medical procedures to help a couple have children if they have not
been able to in the past due to low sperm count, blocked fallopian tubes,
and some other causes of infertility. The woman is given fertility inducing
drugs to cause her to ovulate numerous ova which are surgically removed
and fertilized outside of her body with sperm from her mate or another
donor. Two or more of the fertilized ova are then placed into her uterus in
the hope that one or more will attach and develop into viable embryos. As
a result, multiple births are relatively common with IVF.
ischial callosities
hairless, callused areas on either side of the rump of monkeys in the Old
World monkey subfamily Cercopithecinae (macaques, baboons, etc.) and
the small apes of Asia.
isotope
any of two or more forms of an element that differ in terms of atomic mass
but have the same atomic number--for example, carbon-12, carbon-13, and
carbon-14 are all isotopes of carbon.
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-J-
jaundice
the condition in which the eyes, skin, and/or urine become unusually
yellowish as a result of the build up of bilirubin in the blood.
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-K-
karyotype
a standardized arrangement of pictures of an individual’s chromosomes cut

out from a microphotograph of a cell and rearranged into homologous pairs
according to size and other physical characteristics. The standardized
arrangement of karyotypes allows medical researchers to discover if an
individual is a male or female and if he/she has any gross chromosomal
abnormalities.
kinship
relationships that are recognized between individuals based on family ties.

Among humans, those ties are created by marriage and shared descent
from ancestors. Among non-human primates, they are due to descent.
Klinefelter syndrome
a genetically inherited sex chromosome abnormality only affecting males.

Genotypically, they are XXY or more rarely XXXY, or XXXXY. They have
asexual to feminine body contours as well as breast enlargement and
relatively little body hair. They are sterile or nearly so and their penis,
testes, and prostate gland are small. Like metafemales, most Klinefelter
syndrome men are an inch or so above average height. They usually have
slight learning difficulties, especially with language. However, most are
sufficiently ordinary in appearance and mental ability to live in society
without notice. The frequency of Klinefelter syndrome has been reported to
be between 1 in 500 and 1 in 1,000 male births. Males with Down
syndrome sometimes also inherit Klinefelter syndrome.
knuckle walking
the form of four legged locomotion used by gorillas and chimps. They walk
on the soles of their feet but not on the palms of their hands. They bend
their fingers and support the head end of their bodies with their knuckles
instead of their open palms.
kwashiorkor
the disease of babies and very young children resulting from long-term
severe protein deficiency in the diet. There is usually an associated
deficiency in the consumption of vitamin A and E as well as zinc and
selenium. Symptoms include edema (or swelling) due to water retention
(especially in the abdomen), stick-like legs and arms with little fat or muscle
mass, apathy, and loss of hair and skin pigmentation in patches. As in the
case of marasmus, children with kwashiorkor are likely to have their growth
retarded. Kwashiorkor usually results from a child being weaned too early
and being forced to subsist mainly on a high carbohydrate and low protein
diet.
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-L-
lactase
an enzyme produced by mammals to break down lactose in milk that they

consume. Lactase is needed for the digestion of uncooked dairy products.
Lactase deficiency results in diarrhea and other symptoms of physical
intolerance of most dairy products.
lactose
a sugar normally present in milk. Lactose intolerance is often due to

lactase deficiency. However, physical intolerance of dairy products can
also result from an allergy to milk proteins.
lateral
see dorsal.
lesser apes
the gibbons and siamangs of Southeast Asia. These species are referred
to as lesser apes because they are the smallest apes. See great apes.
leukemia
a class of cancers of the blood cells and blood-forming organs resulting in

exceptionally high leukocyte (white blood cell) production. Other organs
can become involved as well. Leukemia can be caused by some viruses,
chemicals, and radiation. However, there also may be a genetic
connection. For instance, individuals with Down syndrome have a much
higher chance of developing leukemia.
leukocytes
the so-called white cells in blood. They exist in variable numbers and types
but make up a very small part of human blood volume. Some leukocytes
(i.e., lymphocytes ) provide a physiological defense against infection.
As a result, their numbers increase when the body is under attack by
bacteria and viruses. Some other types of leukocytes (i.e., macrophages
) have the function of getting rid of old unneeded blood cells. See stem
cells.
Levallois flake
flakes of more or less standardized shapes and sizes made with a specific
technique in the Mousterian tool tradition of the Neandertals and some of
their contemporaries. Flint and other brittle fracturing rock cores were
percussion flaked on one side until a convex "tortoise shell" shape was
formed. Then, a heavy percussion blow at one end of the core removed a
large flake that was convex on one side and relatively flat on the other. This
was a Levallois flake.
linked genes
genes that are on the same chromosome and subsequently are inherited
together as a package unless crossing-over separates them.
Linnaean classification system
referring to the classification system in use by the biological sciences today

to classify all living things. It lumps organisms together based on presumed
homologies. The assumption is that the more homologies two organisms
share, the closer they must be in terms of evolutionary distance. The
higher, more inclusive divisions of the Linnaean system are created by
including together closely related clusters of the immediately lower
divisions. The result is a hierarchical system of classification with the
highest category consisting of all living things. The lowest category
consists of a single species. Each of the categories above species can
have numerous subcategories. The Linnaean system was invented by
Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century.
lipids
a class of organic molecules that include fats, oils, and waxes.
locomotor patterns
the methods an animal uses to move. These may include such things as
swimming, jumping, walking, brachiating, etc.
locus (plural, loci )
the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs. The term is

sometimes used interchangeably with gene, but this usage is technically
incorrect.
Lower Paleolithic
the earliest and longest part of the Paleolithic stage of development.

The Lower Paleolithic began with the Oldowan tool tradition of Homo
habilis and continued with the Acheulian tradition of Homo erectus and
early archaic humans. The Lower Paleolithic began about 2.5-2.4 million
years ago and continued until after 100,000 years ago. Lower Paleolithic
tool making was the height of technology for most of the time that we have
been human.
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-M-
macroevolution
major evolutionary changes in a population's gene pool, occurring over

many generations, resulting in the evolution of new species. See
microevolution.
macroscopic
referring to objects that are large enough to be seen easily with the naked
eye.
malaria
a group of similar life threatening diseases found mostly in tropical and

subtropical regions of the world. Malaria is caused by any of four different
microorganisms called plasmodia (Plasmodium falciparum , vivax, ovale,
and malariae). These single-celled organisms are transmitted from person
to person mostly by anopheles mosquitoes as they extract blood.
Symptoms of malaria include chills, high fever, and sometimes fatal
irregularities of the brain, liver, kidney, and/or blood. There are at least
100,000,000 new cases of malaria reported annually around the world.
Approximately 1,500,000 people die from it each year (mostly children--
3,000 children die of malaria every day).
malnourishment
an inadequacy or an excess of some key element(s) in the diet, such as

proteins, fats, or specific minerals and vitamins. See undernourishment
and overnourishment
mammal
an animal in the class Mammalia.
Mammalia
a class of warm blooded, usually hairy animals, that feed their young with
10/16/2010 a class of warm blooded, usually
Glossary hairyAnthropology
of Physical animals, that feed their young with
Terms
milk secreted by the mammary glands of females. Mammalia include
monotremes, marsupials, primates, cats, dogs, bears, hoofed animals,
rodents, bats, seals, dolphins, and whales.
mammary glands
milk secreting glands of mammals. They are usually located on the chest
or abdomen in one or more bilaterally symmetrical pairs. Mammary glands
are also referred to as breasts.
manual dexterity
referring to the ability to manipulate objects with the hands.
marasmus
the medical condition resulting from prolonged famine. Symptoms include

extreme emaciation, diarrhea, anemia, and apathy. Women with
marasmus usually stop ovulating. The loss of insulating body fat makes
people with marasmus highly vulnerable to death resulting from a drop in
core body temperature when the air falls below 60-65° F. Children who
survive marasmus usually develop short adult stature and some degree of
permanent brain damage. See kwashiorkor.
marsupial
see Metatheria.
matrilineal descent
recognizing family ties only between mothers and their children.
medial
see dorsal.
medical syndrome
see syndrome.
meiosis
the cell division process in specialized tissues of female ovaries and male
testes which results in the production of sex cells, or gametes. Meiosis
involves two divisions and produces four sperm cells in males and one
ovum in females from a starting cell. Each sperm and ovum contains only
half the original number of chromosomes--23 in the case of humans.
Subsequently, meiosis is also called "reduction division."
Spermatogenesis is the term used for meiosis in males and oögenesis
refers to the same process in females. See mitosis.
Melanesia
New Guinea and other nearby islands in the Southwest Pacific Ocean.
Indigenous people from this region are referred to as Melanesians.
melanin
a dark colored organic pigment produced in the skin. There are two forms
of melanin----pheomelanin, which is red to yellow in color, and eumelanin,
which is dark brown to black. People with light complexioned skin mostly
produce pheomelanin, while those with dark colored skin mostly produce
eumelanin. High concentrations of melanin near the surface of the skin
result in a darker complexion. Suntanned skin also has higher
concentrations of melanin.
melanocytes
specialized cells that produce melanin in the skin.
melanoma
A type of aggressive skin cancer. Specifically, it is a cancer that begins in

melanocytes and rapidly spreads to other parts of the body.
Mendelian genetics
inheritance patterns which can be explained by simple rules of dominance

and recessiveness of genes.
Mesozoic Era
the geological era immediately preceding the Cenozoic Era and dating
approximately 251-65.5 million years ago. The Mesozoic was the era in
which the dinosaurs flourished and the first mammals and birds evolved.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
the form of RNA that carries a copy of a specific sequence of genetic

information (a gene) from the DNA in the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm where it is translated in order to synthesize a protein.
Messenger RNA is assembled on one strand, or side, of a DNA molecule.
metabolism
the chemical and physical processes continuously going on in the cells of

living organisms. These are the processes by which energy and matter are
made available for use by the cells of an organism. Heat is a byproduct of
metabolism.
metafemale
a genetically inherited sex chromosome abnormality only affecting females.

Metafemales inherit three X chromosomes--their genotype is XXX. As
adults, these individuals are usually an inch or so taller than average with
unusually long legs and slender torsos. They have normal development of
sexual characteristics and are fertile. They may have slight learning
difficulties and are usually in the low range of normal intelligence. They tend
to be emotionally immature for their size during childhood. None of these
traits prevent them from being socially accepted as ordinary women. This
type of chromosomal abnormality is apparently rare and little is known
about it. However, the frequency is approximately 1 in 1,000 female infants
and it may be more common when the mother is older. Metafemales are
also called "triple-X females."
Metatheria
the infraclass of therian mammal species in which females bear their young
in an immature condition (while still in the early fetal stage) and then permit
their further infant development in an abdominal pouch covering their
mammary glands. Compared to the delayed births of placental mammals,
this is inefficient in keeping young infants alive. Metatherian mammals are
also called marsupials. Included in this infraclass are kangaroos, koalas,
opossums, etc.
microcephaly
an extremely rare genetically inherited condition in which babies are born

with extremely small brains and heads. This fatal condition has been found
only among the children of 23 Old Order Amish families in Lancaster
County Pennsylvania.
microevolution
small changes in a population's gene pool occurring over a few

generations. The accumulation of microevolutionary changes can result in
macroevolution.
micro RNA (miRNA)
a very short form of RNA in the nucleus of cells. Micro RNA molecules are
typically only 20-25 base units long. They are transcribed from DNA, but
are not involved directly in protein synthesis like other forms of RNA. They
perform important functions similar to enzymes in regulating chemical
reactions in our cells, especially in the embryonic stage at the beginning of
life. It is thought that 1/3 or more of human genes are controlled in some
way by micro RNA molecules. At least 200-255 human DNA genes code
for the production of micro RNA molecules.
midden
an archaeological term referring to composted soil resulting from a refuse

heap left by humans in the past. Middens often contain artifacts and food
refuse remains such as bone and mollusk shell fragments.
Middle Paleolithic
the part of the Paleolithic stage of development in which the Mousterian

tool tradition of the Neandertals and early modern humans was used. The
Middle Paleolithic began about 75,000 years ago and continued until at
least 28,000 years ago.
minerals
inorganic, naturally occurring materials consisting of specific elements.

They are usually rocks with a characteristic crystalline structure and other
identifiable physical traits. Quartz, talc, and ordinary table salt are
examples of minerals.
Miocene Epoch
the fourth geological epoch of the Cenozoic Era. The Miocene occurred
approximately 23-5.3 million years ago.
mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion )
small rod-like structures in the cytoplasm that produce fuel for the cell in the
form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A small amount of DNA in a circular
looping chromosome is located in mitochondria. This DNA is normally
inherited only from mothers and is distinct from DNA that makes up the
chromosomes within the cell nucleus.
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
DNA located in the mitochondria. Since it is normally inherited only from

mothers, an offspring's mtDNA will be identical to its mother's, unless a
mutation has occurred.
Mitochondrial Eve
The name given by advocates of the replacement model of modern Homo

sapiens to the last presumed common ancestor of modern humans based
on a comparison of mitochondrial DNA from around the world. She is
presumed to have lived about 200,000 years ago
mitosis
the simple cell division process that occurs in somatic cells. One cell
divides into two offspring cells that are identical to each other in their
chromosome complement. Mitosis produces cells with diploid numbers of
chromosomes--46 in the case of humans. See meiosis.
modifying gene
a gene that can alter the expression of another gene in the phenotype of an
individual.
molar teeth
the comparatively large grinding teeth at the back of the mouth in

mammals. In hominids and all other anthropoids, there are normally 3
molars in each quadrant of the mouth. See premolar and canine teeth.
Mongoloidism
a now rejected alternate term for Down Syndrome.
monogamous
having only one mate at a time. Monogamy is rare among nonhuman

primates but common among humans.
monosomy
the form of aneuploidy in which there is only one chromosome instead of

the usual two homologous chromosomes of each type. Conceptions with
autosomal monosomies die before birth.
monotremes
see Prototheria.
monozygotic twins
identical twins. Twins that come from the same zygote and are,
subsequently, the same genetically in terms of their nuclear DNA. Any
differences between monozygotic twins later in life are mostly the result of
environmental influences rather than genetic inheritance. Fraternal twins
may look similar but are not genetically identical. Monozygotic twins may
not share all of the same sequences of mitochondrial DNA. This is due to
the fact that the mitochondria in a cell may have somewhat different
versions of DNA, and the mitochondria can be dispersed unequally when a
zygote fissions. Female monozygotic twins can also differ because of
differences between them in X-chromosome inactivation. Subsequently,
one female twin can have an X-linked condition such as muscular dystrophy
and the other twin can be free of it.
10/16/2010 and the other twin canGlossary
be freeofofPhysical
it. Anthropology Terms
morphology
the physical form or structure of an organism or another object. Species

are usually identified from the fossil record based on morphological traits.
morphospecies
a species that has been defined on the basis of physical, measurable

characteristics. See biospecies.
mosaicism (or mosaic pattern of genetic inheritance)
a genetic pattern in which an individual has two distinct cell groupings--one

with normal cells and another with a genetic problem. For instance, some
people with Down syndrome produce both normal somatic cells and cells
with an extra
mosaic pattern of evolution
a pattern of evolution in which different parts of the body evolve at different

rates. In the case of humans, we essentially attained our modern form
below the neck by at least 2 million years ago. However, our cranial
capacity did not reach its current size until after 100,000 years ago.
mother-fetus incompatibility
the situation in which a mother's blood type is different from that of her
unborn child. In the case of some combinations of types, the mother's
blood system can produce antibodies to antigens on the surface of the red
cells of her fetus resulting in their agglutination. This is the case when the
mother is Rh- and her fetus is Rh+. As a result of this incompatibility, the
fetus can develop erythroblastosis fetalis.
Mousterian tool tradition
the most advanced tool making tradition of the Neandertals. It was also
shared by some other late archaic humans and early modern Homo
sapiens. The Mousterian tradition was characterized by a progressive
decrease in emphasis on core tools and a corresponding increase in the
importance of flake tools--especially those made with the Levallois
technique. The Mousterian tradition was sufficiently advanced over the
earlier Acheulian Tradition from which it was derived to be placed into the
Middle Paleolithic.
multiple-allele series
a situation in which a gene has more than two alleles. The ABO blood type
system is an example. Multiple-allele series only partly follow simple
Mendelian genetics.
multiple sclerosis (MS)
a genetically inherited progressive disease of the central nervous system.

MS occurs as a consequence of one's own immune system attacking the
insulating sheath that normally protects neurons. Symptoms range from
numbness and tingling to paralysis. There is a loss of motor and cognitive
functions. The gene(s) responsible for MS are incompletely penetrant in
that the onset of the disease is apparently triggered by a virus and possibly
other environmental factors. There is a correlation between the amount of
sunlight that children are exposed to and the likelihood that they will develop
MS later in life. People who spend much of their first 16 years in tropical
and subtropical regions of the world are much less likely to develop this
disease than those who live in far northern and far southern regions of our
planet. It is believed that the lack of abundant sun exposure early in life is
somehow responsible for the later onset of MS.
muscular dystrophy (MD)
any of a group of inherited progressive muscle disorders caused by a

defect in one or more genes that control muscle function. MD is
characterized by a gradual, irreversible wasting of skeletal muscle. It is a
sex-linked trait most often passed on to sons by their mothers. The most
common form, Duchene MD, begins to weaken the legs of boys by age 3
and inevitably gets worse with each passing year. There is no cure for this
disorder, and it usually results in death before the age of 30.
mutagen
an agent that can cause a mutation to occur. Various kinds of chemicals,

viruses, and radiation have been identified as mutagens.
mutation
an alteration of genetic material such that a new variation is produced. For

instance, a trait that has only one allele (A) can mutate to a new form (a). A
mutation can be a change in DNA bases or changes in chromosome
number and /or structure. Mutation is the only mechanism of evolution that
can produce new alleles of a gene. See mutagen.
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-N-
natural selection
an evolutionary mechanism that occurs when some individuals of a
population are better able to adapt to their environment and, subsequently,
produce more offspring. Nature, in effect, selects which members of a
population are fit to survive long enough to reproduce. Differential
reproductive success among individuals is the key. Those who produce
more offspring have a greater influence on the gene frequencies of the next
generation. This mechanism of evolutionary change was first described by
Charles Darwin.
Neandertals
the most well known late archaic humans. They lived mostly in Europe and
the Near East from 150,000 years ago or even earlier until at sometime
after 28,000 years ago. There is an on-going debate as to whether they
should be considered Homo sapiens or a distinct but related species. If
they were members of our species, they were a different variety or race
(Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). On the other hand, if they were
different enough to be a distinct species, they should be considered to be
Homo neanderthalensis.
negative assortative mating
a form of non-random mating in which individuals who are not genetically

alike for particular traits mate and those who are alike do not. The result is
a progressive increase in the frequency of heterozygotes and a decrease in
the homozygotes for the discriminated traits. See positive assortative
mating and random mating.
Negroid
a presumed human "race" consisting mostly of sub-Saharan Africans. This

classification is based on the discredited typological model. The term
"Negroid" was derived from the Latin word for the color black.
neural tube defects
defective developments of the brain or spinal cord. By the mid embryonic

stage (5 weeks in humans), a neural tube extends from the top of the head
to the lower end of the spinal column. Later, this tube becomes the brain
and spinal chord. Spina bifida and anencephaly are examples of neural
tube defects.
neurotransmitters
specialized proteins that relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals

between neurons in the brain and nervous system.
New World
The New World is the Americas. The Old World is Europe, Asia, and
Africa. This distinction is an ethnocentric reflection of the European origin
of our modern sciences.
niches
see ecological niches.
nocturnal
being awake and active when it is dark but sleeping during the day. See
diurnal.
nondisjunction errors
a mechanical error that can occur during meiosis and mitosis. Specifically,
members of a pair of homologous chromosomes move to the same pole
rather than opposite poles. In meiosis, this can result in one gamete
receiving two of the same type of chromosome and another receiving none
of this type. Nondisjunction is a cause of gross chromosomal
abnormalities.
non-random mating
mate selection based on one or more traits that are discriminated for or
against. This is a mechanism of evolution. See positive assortative,
negative assortative, and random mating.
notochord
a rudimentary internal skeleton made of stiff cartilage that runs lengthwise

under the dorsal surface of the body of chordates. Generally, there is a
single hollow nerve chord on top of the notochord. Among humans and the
other vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a more complex skeleton
following the embryonic stage of development.
nuclear family
an adult male and female mating pair along with their children.
nuclear membrane
the selectively permeable membrane enclosing the nucleus of a cell.
nucleic acids
the largest of the molecules in living organisms. It is composed of a chain

of nucleotides that code for the synthesis of specific proteins. DNA and
RNA are types of nucleic acid.
nucleotide
the basic building block of nucleic acid. It consists of any one of four
specific purine or pyrimidine bases attached to a ribose or deoxyribose
sugar and phosphate group.
nucleus
a comparatively large structure found in all eukaryotic cells. It contains the

chromosomes (nuclear DNA) and is enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
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-O-
obsidian hydration dating
potentially, a chronometric dating method based on the fact that obsidian,

or volcanic glass, progressively develops a thin chemically altered outer
layer due to the absorption of water. The thickness of this hydration layer is
directly proportional to the amount of time since the rock was formed or
since a fresh surface was exposed to the elements. Since the rate of
hydration varies between samples from different volcanic sources, this
technique could arguably be considered relative rather than chronometric.
Oldowan tool tradition
the earliest stone tool making tradition. The first Oldowan artifacts were
made in East Africa about 2.5-2.4 million years ago presumably by Homo
habilis and continued to be made by early Homo erectus until about 1.5
million years ago. They consisted of simple core (shown below) and flake
tools only slightly modified from their natural state by percussion flaking.
Old Stone Age
see Paleolithic.
Old World
The Old World is Europe, Asia, and Africa. The New World is the
Americas. This distinction is an ethnocentric reflection of the European
origin of our modern sciences.
olfactory
the sense of smell. With the exception of prosimians, primates are

relatively poor at olfactory sensing.
10/16/2010 relatively poor at olfactory sensing.
Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms
Oligocene Epoch
the third geological epoch of the Cenozoic Era. The Oligocene occurred
approximately 33.9-23 million years ago.
omnivorous
the ability to live by eating both meat and vegetable foods. See
carnivorous and herbivorous.
oöcyte
an immature female sex cell. These egg precursor cells, or primary

oöcytes, are produced before birth. They become secondary oöcytes
usually one by one after puberty when hormones trigger ovulation.
oögenesis
the meiosis process of female sex cells that produces ova. It takes place
mostly in the ovaries of humans and other female animals.
optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating
a comparatively new radiometric dating technique similar to thermal

luminescence. OSL is based on the fact that minerals in sediment grains
are affected by prolonged exposure to light. Specifically, light causes
electrons of the mineral atoms to be progressively dislodged. This
provides a natural clock. So far, the OSL technique has been used to date
silty or sandy water deposited sediments that are 1/2 million years old or
younger.
order
a Linnaean classification category above the level of species and genus

and below class. Each order can consist of many species and genera.
organelle
a general term referring to any of the discrete structures within a cell that
perform specific functions (e.g., mitochondria).
osmosis
diffusion of a liquid through a membrane.
Osteodontokeratic tool tradition
a hypothetical early human and possibly late australopithecine tool making
tradition based on the use of bones, teeth, and horns. This was proposed
in the 1940's by Raymond Dart, but most paleoanthropologists reject it
today.
osteoporosis
a bone disorder in which there is a progressive reduction in bone density

resulting in brittleness and increased porosity. People with osteoporosis
are at a high risk for bone fractures. This disorder is most commonly found
among post-menopausal women. However, it also occurs at a high
frequency among men who have low testosterone levels (e.g., men with
Klinefelter syndrome).
over expression
the abnormal expression of a trait in the phenotype of an individual resulting

from the presence of extra chromosomes or copies of the genes
responsible for the trait. For example, Down syndrome traits are likely the
consequence of inheriting three chromosome 21's instead of the usual two.
Apparently, the genes on the extra chromosome are also expressed.
overnourishment
regular consumption of too many calories. Prolonged over nourishment can

result in chronic obesity, which is associated with higher risks for type 2
diabetes, heart disease, and some kinds of cancer. See malnourishment.
ovulation
the release of a secondary oöcyte from an ovary to begin its path down a
fallopian tube (or oviduct) to the uterus.
ovum (plural, ova )
a female sex cell or gamete that has completed all of the phases of the
meiosis process.
oxidizable carbon ratio (OCR) dating
an experimental dating technique based on the fact that organic carbon in

soil humus and charcoal progressively convert to oxidizable carbon over
time. The ratios of these two forms of carbon vary directly with the age of
the material. This technique requires an inexpensive chemical analysis
procedure. The effective time range for OCR dating has not yet been
established.
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-P-
paleoanthropology
the study of the fossil and archaeological record of humans and their
primate ancestors. It is also known as "human paleontology."
Paleocene Epoch
The first geological epoch of the Cenozoic Era. The Paleocene occurred
approximately 65.5-55.8 million years ago.
paleoecology
the study of ancient environments. See geochronology and palynology.
Paleolithic
the earliest stone tool making traditions from the first ones made by Homo
habilis down to the most advanced ones of the last Ice Age made by
modern Homo sapiens. Paleolithic literally means "Old Stone" Age. See
Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic.
paleomagnetic dating
dating methods based on the fact that the magnetic north pole wanders
around the rotational north pole and has repeatedly reversed position with
the magnetic south pole at irregular intervals in the past. There are
permanent records of these movements in the form of thermoremanent
magnetism found in burned clay and rock as well as geological deposits of
volcanic origin. Archaeomagnetic dating is the term generally used for
dating based on the wandering of the magnetic north pole around the
rotational north pole over the last 10,000 years or so. Geomagnetic
reversal time scale (GRTS) dating and geomagnetic polarity time scale
(GPTS) dating are terms applied to the method based on the much
longer term reversals of the magnetic poles. The two related
paleomagnetic dating methods have been considered by some
researchers to be chronometric and calibrated relative by others.
paleontology
the study of earlier forms of life present in the fossil record. See
paleoanthropology.
paleospecies
a group of similar fossils considered to be members of the same species

because the range of their morphological variation does not exceed the
range of variation of a living species. See species.
palynology
the study of plant pollen, usually for the purpose of reconstructing ancient
climates and dating soil strata. Palynology is an important tool of
paleoecology.
pangenesis
Charles Darwin's incorrect theory about the inheritance of traits. He

proposed that hereditary particles in the body are affected by the things an
individual does during his or her lifetime. These modified particles were
thought to migrate via blood to the reproductive cells and subsequently
could be inherited by the next generation. This was a variation of
Lamarck's incorrect idea of the "inheritance of acquired characteristics."
parallel evolution
see parallelism.
parallelism
a similar evolutionary development in different species lines after

divergence from a common ancestor that had the initial anatomical feature
that led to it. Parallelism is thought to be due primarily to the independent
species lines experiencing the same kinds of natural selection pressures.
Parallelism is also referred to as parallel evolution. Parallelism results in
homoplasies. See convergence.
paranthropoids
members of the hominin genus Paranthropus described first in the

1930's by Robert Broom. Since the 1960's, most paleoanthropologists
have not classified them as a separate genus but, rather, as members of
the genus Australopithecus. From this perspective, the paranthropoids
were the robust australopithecines. They lived during the late Pliocene and
early Pleistocene geological Epochs in Africa (i.e., ca. 2.5-1.4 million years
ago). .
partial replacement model
See assimilation model.
pathology
the study of conditions, processes, or results of diseases. Pathology also

is used to refer to any abnormal physiological condition.
Peking Man
See Sinanthropus pekinensis.
pelvis
the bowl-shaped ring of bones in the hip region at the base of the torso,
supporting the spinal column and resting on the legs. It is also referred to
as the pelvic girdle.
pentadactylism
having five digits on the end of feet and hands. This trait is characteristic of
all primates except for the spider monkey which has five toes on each foot
but only four fingers on each hand. Pentadactylism is an ancient
mammalian trait that was inherited from their reptile ancestors.
percussion flaking
a tool making technique in which a brittle rock (e.g., obsidian, flint, chert,
and basalt) that will potentially be an artifact is struck with a heavy glancing
blow from another dense rock (i.e., a hammerstone) in order to cause a
flake to be removed. An artifact can be shaped by carefully and
systematically directing the percussion blows with the hammerstone.
Percussion flaking works when a sufficiently large shock wave is directed
into the target rock so that the elastic limit of the material is exceeded. This
causes one or more flakes to be broken off. See pressure flaking.
peripheral blood flow
blood flowing in vessels near the surface of the skin.
peripheral vision
the field of view outside of the line of direct site. Primates and most other
binocular animals only see two dimensions (2-D) peripherally since these
are areas beyond their overlapping field of view. See stereoscopic vision.
permafrost
permanently frozen soil. This is a common condition above the Arctic

Circle and in other similarly cold environments.
pheomelanin
See melanin.
phenotype
the observable or detectable characteristics of an individual organism--the
detectable expression of a genotype.
pheromones
chemicals produced and secreted by an animal that can have a powerful

affect on the behavior and development of other animals (usually in the
same species). Pheromones are common throughout the animal world,
including humans.
photosynthesis
the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use energy from sun
light to create new organic molecules (specifically carbohydrates) out of
carbon dioxide, water, and elemental nutrients in specialized chlorophyll-
containing cells. Most forms of photosynthesis produce oxygen as a
byproduct.
phyletic gradualism
a theoretical model of evolution in which species change slowly at a more

or less constant rate through time into other species. See punctuated
equilibrium.
phylum
the level of classification just below kingdom in the Linnaean Classification

system. At this level, animals are grouped together based on similarities in
basic body plan or organization.
physiological plasticity
referring to the physical moldability of an organism as it is developing. This

flexibility allows environmental forces to alter the genetically predetermined
shape of our bodies to some extent. Example: permanent changes in the
shape and position of foot bones resulting from the old Chinese practice of
binding, or tightly wrapping, the feet of girls.
physiology
referring to the organic or bodily processes of an organism. See anatomy.
Pithecanthropus erectus
the original name given by Eugene Dubois to the Homo erectus skeletal
remains from Java. Literally, Pithecanthropus erectus means "ape-man
who stands erect." This scientific designation is no longer in use.
placenta
an organ in the uterus of a mammal that develops from the chorion of an

embryo during gestation. The placenta is connected to an unborn child by
the umbilical cord. The placenta provides oxygen, nutrients, and antibodies
for a fetus. Following birth the placenta and umbilical cord are naturally
expelled from the uterus as the "after birth."
placental mammal
see Eutheria
plasma
the relatively clear liquid medium in blood which carries the red cells, white
cells, and platelets. Most of blood's volume is made up of plasma. As the
heart pumps blood to cells throughout the body, the plasma brings them
nourishment and removes the waste products of metabolism. Plasma also
contains salts, sugars, lipids, amino acids, hormones, and blood clotting
substances.
platelets
see thrombocytes.
plate tectonics
see tectonics.
pleiotropy
the situation in which a single gene is responsible for a variety of traits. The
collective group of symptoms known as sickle-cell trait is an example.
Pleistocene Epoch
the sixth geological epoch of the Cenozoic Era. The Pleistocene occurred
approximately 1.81 million to 10,000 years ago. This was mostly a time of
world cooling punctuated by 3-4 major ice ages. Most human evolution
took place during the Pleistocene.
point mutation
a mutation that occurs as an error in a codon of a DNA or RNA molecule.
pollen
the male sex spores of flowering plants. Pollen particles are usually nearly
invisible, except in large concentrations, due to their extremely small size.
They can survive for hundreds of thousands of years in silty, anaerobic
soils, such as mud sediments at the bottom of a lake. When excavated
from early human sites, they can be used to reconstruct what the climate
was like at the time of the occupations as well as relatively date them.
polyandrous
a mating pattern in which one female has more than one male mate.
Polyandry is rare among nonhuman primates. It is seen only among
marmosets and tamarins. Polyandry occurs in some human societies in
isolated rural regions of India, Sri Lanka, and especially Nepal, and Tibet.
polygenic trait
an inherited trait that is determined by genes at two or more loci. Simple

Mendelian rules of dominance do not apply to the complex interaction of
these genes. As a result, phenotypes may appear as apparent blends or
intermediate expressions. Human skin and hair color are polygenic traits.
Many polygenic traits are also influenced by environmental factors.
polygynous
a mating pattern in which one male has more than one female mate.
Polygyny is common among primates. It is found among hamadryas
baboons, geladas, langurs, howler monkeys, gorillas and many human
societies. It has been a culturally preferred marriage pattern in numerous
Native American, African, and South Asian cultures. However, polygyny is
not as common among humans as monogamy, even in cultures that
advocate it.
polymorphism
a genetic trait controlled by more than one allele, each of which has a
frequency of 1% or greater in the population gene pool. See balanced
polymorphism.
polyploidy
a chromosomal abnormality in which there are extra complete multiples of

chromosome sets (e.g., 23 + 23 + 23). Polyploids are rare among animals
but common in plants. A mosaic polyploidy (with only some ployploid cells)
is the common animal form. See aneuploidy.
population
a more or less distinct group of individuals within a species who are

reproductively isolated from other groups. In other words, they restrict their
mate selection to members of their own population. This is usually due to
geographic and/or social barriers to mating with outsiders. Members of a
completely isolated small population tend to have similar genetic
characteristics due to generations of inbreeding.
populational viewpoint (of classifying species from fossils)
the idea that if two fossils have major similarities they should be
categorized as being members of the same species. From this
perspective, minor anatomical differences within the same population are
expected since the members of living species have individual variation.
People who advocate this viewpoint are also referred to in the biological
sciences and "lumpers". See typological viewpoint.
population genetics
the study of biological inheritance patterns and changing gene pool

frequencies in populations largely through the determination of allele
frequencies. Population geneticists also identify processes resulting in
evolution. See synthetic theory of evolution.
populational model (of human variation)
a system for classifying people based on the assumption that the only
biologically distinct groups are long isolated breeding populations whose
evolutionary paths have separated from other populations. Since physical
and cultural barriers to interbreeding between most groups have broken
down to some extent, this approach is of marginal value in grasping the
reality of human variation today.
positive assortative mating
a form of non-random mating in which individuals who are alike for

particular traits mate and those who are not alike do not. The result is a
progressive increase in the frequency of homozygotes and a decrease in
the heterozygotes for the discriminated traits. See negative assortative
mating, consanguineous mating, and random mating.
posterior
see dorsal.
postmenopausal
after the period in a woman's life when her ovulations and menstruations
have reduced in frequency and finally stopped altogether--i.e., after
menopause. Menopause usually takes place between the ages of 45 and
55.
potassium-argon dating (K-Ar)
a radiometric dating method based on the fact that potassium-40 in

volcanic rock decays into argon-40 and calcium-40 at a known rate. The
half-life of potassium-40 is approximately 1.3 billion years. Chronometric
dates are determined by measuring the amount of argon-40 in a sample.
Similarly, argon-40 and argon-39 ratios can be used for chronometric
dating.
prehensile
the ability to physically grasp something. All primates have prehensile

hands. With the exception of humans, they all also have effective
prehensile feet. The larger New World monkeys (Cebidae) have prehensile
tails as well. Some marsupials living in the eastern islands of Indonesia
and New Guinea also have this characteristic.
premolar teeth
the teeth with two-pointed crowns located between the molars and the
canines. In hominins, apes, and all Old World monkeys, there are two
premolars in each quadrant of the mouth. The premolars are also called
bicuspids .
prepared core
a rock core that has been preliminarily shaped by rough percussion flaking
in order to remove flakes of standardized sizes and shapes. See punch
flaking and Levallois flake.
pressure flaking
a tool making technique developed in the Upper Paleolithic as a further

refinement in shaping brittle-flaking rock artifacts . After preliminary
shaping by percussion flaking, they often finished a tool with pressure
flaking. They used a hard pointed object, like the tip of a deer antler, to
literally push off flakes in the final shaping and thinning process. This
resulted in small, regular flake scars and much greater control in
determining the shape of the final product. Pressure flaking was also used
to retouch, or sharpen, sharp edges.
primary context
referring to the position in a site where an object was originally deposited.

Finding an artifact or fossil in primary context allows a researcher to apply
the principle of association in dating and interpreting it. This cannot be
done if the object is in a secondary context, which is to say that it was
moved to a new location after the original deposition.
primary oöcyte
see oöcyte.
Primates
the biological order that includes all humans, apes, monkeys, and
prosimians, and closely related animals.
primatology
the study of primates and their behavioral patterns. Primatologists usually

carry out long term field studies of free-ranging populations.
primitive trait (in regards to classifying organs)
a biological trait that has not changed over time from the ancestral form
and/or function that was present in the species from which it came. See
cladistics.
principle of association
the assumption that if two objects are found in their primary context in the
same strata of a site, they very likely date to the same time period.
principle of independent assortment
Gregor Mendel's second principle of genetic inheritance. It states that

different pairs of genes are passed to offspring independently so that new
combinations of genes, present in neither parent, are possible. In other
words, the distribution of one pair of alleles does not influence the
distribution of another pair. The genes controlling different traits are
inherited independently of one another.
principle of segregation
Gregor Mendel's first principle of genetic inheritance. It states that, for any
particular trait, the pair of genes of each parent separate (during the
formation of sex cells) and only one gene from each parent passes on to an
offspring. In other words, genes occur in pairs (because chromosomes
occur in pairs). During gamete production, the members of each gene pair
separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair. During
fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored, and members of
gene pairs are reunited.
principle of superposition
the assumption that if there are layers in a sedimentary deposit, those laid
down first will be on the bottom and those laid down last will be on the top.
This is the basis of using stratigraphy as a relative dating method.
prion
a protein that has the ability to cause the cells that it invades to repeatedly
duplicate it. Prions are responsible for causing Mad Cow Disease.
Apparently, prions are not effectively attacked by their host's immune
system nor can they be killed with existing antibiotics, extreme heat, cold, or
other normally lethal conditions. The word prion comes from
"proteinaceous infectious particle."
probability
the likelihood that a specific event will occur. Probability is usually

expressed as the ratio of the number of actual occurrences to the number of
possible occurrences.
prokaryotic cell
a cell that lacks a true nucleus and divides by simple fission rather than
mitosis. Bacteria and blue-green algae are prokaryotes. See eukaryotic
cell.
prosimians
the suborder of primates (Prosimii ) that includes all of the lemurs,

lorises, and related "primitive" primates.
prostate gland
a gland surrounding the urethra at the base of the bladder. It secretes most
of the seminal fluid that is expelled with sperm cells during ejaculation.
protein
any of a large number of organic molecules that are composed of one or

more chains of amino acids. These chains are twisted and folded back on
themselves in complex patterns. Proteins can serve a wide variety of
functions through their ability to bind to other molecules. Proteins may be
transporting molecules in blood, structural components, enzymes,
hormones, antibodies, or neurotransmitters.
proteome
the full complement of proteins produced by an individual (or a species). It

is estimated that each human produces approximately 90,000 types of
proteins. See Human Genome Project.
protocultural
referring to a very rudimentary culture. Chimpanzees and possibly other

great apes as well as our fossil ancestors 3-4 million years ago are said to
have such a protoculture. While they are dependent on their community's
learned behavior patterns for survival, they do not have complex cultural
technologies like humans.
proto-primates
early primate-like mammals that evolved 65-60 million years ago, shortly
after the end of the last dinosaurs.
Prototheria
the subclass of mammal species in which females lay eggs like birds and
reptiles. However, they feed their newborn with mammary gland secretions
like all other mammals. The Prototheria are also referred to as
monotremes, which literally means that they have only one opening for
excretion and reproduction. Included in this subclass are the platypus and
echidna.
puberty
the stage of maturation of an individual when secondary sexual

characteristics begin to develop and sexual reproduction first becomes
possible. These changes are genetically controlled and triggered by
hormones.
pulmonary edema
a pneumonia-like accumulation of fluid and swelling in the lungs. Like

cerebral edema, it can be caused by hypoxia at high altitude. While
pulmonary edema is potentially life threatening, it generally is less likely
than cerebral edema to result in death if treated in time.
punch flaking
An Upper Paleolithic technique for making blade flakes. After first

preparing a rock core, a hard pointed punch (usually made from a deer
antler tip) is placed near the edge of a striking platform and a percussion
blow with a hammer to the top of the punch sends a controlled shock wave
into the core which removes a thin, narrow blade flake. Upper Paleolithic
cores prepared for this technique were usually conical or cylindrical in
shape with a relatively flat perpendicular striking platform at one end.
punctuated equilibrium (or punctuated evolution)
an evolutionary history in which a species remains essentially unchanged

for hundreds of thousands or even millions of years and then experiences
short periods of very rapid evolution. The punctuated, or rapid change
periods, are the result of major environmental changes in predation
pressure, food supply, climate, etc. During these times, natural selection
may favor varieties that were previously at a comparative disadvantage.
The result is an accelerated rate of change in gene pool frequencies in the
direction of the varieties that became the most favored by the new
environmental conditions. See phyletic gradualism.
Punnett square
a simple graphical method of showing all of the potential combinations of

offspring genotypes that can occur and their probability given the parent
genotypes. Punnett squares are commonly used by genetics counselors to
predict the odds of a couple passing on particular inherited traits.
purebred
offspring that are the result of mating between genetically similar kinds of
parents--the opposite of hybrid. Purebred is the same as true breeding.
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-Q-
quadrupedal
having a four footed means of locomotion. Humans are bipedal all other
primates are primarily quadrupedal.
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race
any of the different varieties of humanity assumed by some people to exist,

based on the discredited typological model of human variation. Such
"races" are commonly distinguished on the basis of visibly observable traits
such as skin color, hair form, and body shape. From a biological
perspective, the term race should be reserved for distinct varieties or sub-
species. In the U.S. and other nations that use the concept of race, it refers
mainly to culturally created realities rather than biological differences.
racemization
the process by which amino acids change from the L-molecule form to their
mirror image D-molecule form. This occurs naturally following the death of
cells. See amino acid racemization dating.
radiation
electromagnetic energy that is given off by an object. Our bodies lose heat
by radiation. More specifically, we give off infrared radiation like the heat
from a light bulb.
radiocarbon dating (C-14 )
a radiometric dating method based on the fact that the amount of carbon-
14 steadily decreases in all organisms after death. The reduction in the
frequency of this isotope in a sample occurs at a half-life of 5730 ± 40
years. This technique is used to provide chronometric dates for organic
materials such as bone, shell, wood, and charcoal.
radiometric dating
referring to techniques for chronometric dating based on known half-lives of

particular isotopes or the rate of other cumulative changes in atoms
resulting from radioactivity. Examples include electron spin resonance,
fission track, potassium-argon, radiocarbon, and thermoluminescence
dating.
random mating
mate selection in which all individuals have an equal chance of being

selected--there is no conscious discrimination for or against any trait. See
non-random mating.
random sample
a sample that is selected by a researcher without any bias whatsoever. In

other words, all samples in a population have an equal probability of being
selected. This can be achieved by using a computer to randomly select the
sample.
recessive allele
an allele that is masked in the phenotype by the presence of a dominant

allele. Recessive alleles are expressed in the phenotype when the
genotype is homozygous recessive (aa).
recombination
The creation of a new combination of genes on a chromosome that results

from crossing-over.
red cell
see erythrocytes.
red-green color blindness (or red-green color deficiency)
an X-linked genetically inherited color vision deficiency in which an

individual cannot perceive red and green in the same way as people with
normal vision. This condition most often afflicts males.
regional continuity model

that modern people evolved from archaic humans in Africa, Europe, and
Asia. In other words, modern African, European, and Asian people have
considerable antiquity in their own continents. See replacement model and
assimilation model.
regulator gene
a gene that can initiate or block the functions of other genes. Regulator
genes control the timing of production of a variety of chemicals in humans
and other organisms. Shortly after conception, regulator genes work as
master switches orchestrating the timely development of our body parts.
They are also responsible for changes that occur in our bodies as we grow
older. Regulator genes are also called homeotic genes.
relative date
a date that gives the time of an event only with reference to another event
that is not worldwide in scale. It only indicates that one event occurred
earlier or later than another. For instance, the observation that strata 2 is
younger than strata 1 beneath it in a geological deposit does not provide
information about how many years ago strata 2 was laid down. It only
indicates its age relative to strata 1. In addition to the use of stratigraphy,
relative dating methods include biostratigraphy and fluorine analysis
dating. See chronometric date.
replacement model

that modern people only evolved from archaic humans in Africa and that
these new people expanded into Europe and Asia replacing all existing
older populations. In other words, we all have relatively recent African
ancestry. See regional continuity model and assimilation model.
replication (of DNA)
the process that occurs during the rest period (interphase) at the outset of
mitosis and meiosis by which a DNA molecule is duplicated or copied.
One DNA molecule becomes two identical ones. This is accomplished by
the DNA molecule unwinding and unzipping along its base pairs so that
both sides can be copied by free nucleotides. Replication is triggered by
an enzyme.
rhinarium
a moist, hairless pad of skin at the end of a nose. This is a characteristic of

prosimians (except for tarsiers), dogs, and some other animals.
Rho-GAM
a serum containing anti-Rh+ antibodies given to women at high risk for

having a baby with erythroblastosis fetalis (i.e., Rh- women with Rh+
mates). This must be done for the first and all subsequent pregnancies.
The injected antibodies quickly agglutinate any fetal red cells as they enter
the mother's blood, thereby preventing her from forming her own
antibodies. Since the serum given the mother is a passive form of
immunization, it will shortly leave her blood stream.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
the RNA molecules that are located in the ribosomes.
ribosomes
small structures usually near the surface of endoplasmic reticula in the

cytoplasm of cells. Ribosomes are the sites where proteins are
assembled. Each ribosome is composed of 3 RNA strands and 54
proteins woven into 2 separate, but entangled lumps.
Rickets disease
a disease of the skeletal system in which the bones are softened and often
bent as a result of vitamin D deficiency in the diet that hinders the normal
development of bones and teeth. Rickets most frequently affects
malnourished children.
ritual
a stylized and usually repetitive act that takes place at a set time and
location. Rituals are integral parts of religion, though not all rituals are
religious in nature.
RNA (ribonucleic acid )
a type of nucleic acid that is found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of
cells. Unlike DNA, RNA is single stranded. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
carries the genetic code from the DNA in the chromosomes and translates
it with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA) at the site of the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm in order to assemble, or synthesize, proteins.
robust
a term used by paleoanthropologists to refer to a big boned and muscular

body. The robust species of early hominins were Australopithecus
robustus, boisei, and aethiopicus.
rotational north pole
the point on the northern extremity of the earth where the axis of rotation is
located. Compared to the magnetic north pole, the rotational one is
relatively stable.
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-S-
sacculated
referring to a stomach with "saccules," or sack-like compartments, in which

bacteria slowly break down cellulose, thereby providing more useable
calories. Among the primates, only the Colobinae (colobus, langurs, and
proboscis monkeys) have this characteristic. Cows and some related
animals also have sacculated stomachs.
sagittal crest
a ridge of bone projecting up, from front to back, along the top midline of
the skull. It serves as a muscle attachment area for the temparalis muscles
that extend up both sides of the head from the mandible (jaw). The
presence of a sagittal crest indicates that there are exceptionally strong jaw
muscles. Some Australopithecus afarensis and the robust
australopithecines (Australopithecus robustus, boisei, and aethiopicus)
had sagittal crests. Among the living primates, the most prominent sagittal
crests are found on adult male gorillas. Humans do not have them.
savanna
a tropical or subtropical grassy plains. Savannas are usually the habitat of

larger herbivores and their predators. The first hominins apparently evolved
on and near African savannas.
secondary oöcyte
see oöcyte.
sedimentary rock
rock formed from sediments usually eroded from older rock or inorganic
remains of organisms (e.g., shells and skeletons). Examples: sandstone,
shale, and limestone.
selectively permeable
the characteristic of allowing only certain things to pass through. Cell and
nuclear membranes are selectively permeable.
selective pressure
environmental pressure that is placed on individuals within a population that

results in change of the genetic makeup of the next generation. Selective
pressure is the driving force of natural selection.
semi-terrestrial
referring to animals that spend much of their day on the ground but usually
return to the trees to sleep. See arboreal and terrestrial.
septum
the soft tissue separating the two nostrils of a mammal's nose.
seriation
a relative dating method based on the fact that artifact types change
through time in frequency as a result of new technologies, styles, and
available construction materials. The frequency of artifact types in a
stratum can be compared to known frequency changes previously recorded
for an ancient culture. In this way, the stratum can be dated relative to other
strata or sites. When a seriation sequence has been cross-calibrated with
reliable chronometric dating methods, it can be considered a calibrated
relative technique.
sex cell
a gamete, either a sperm or an ovum. Sex cells are produced by the

meiosis process and have a haploid number of chromosomes. See
somatic cell.
sex chromosome
the X and Y chromosomes which are responsible for determining whether

an individual is a male or a female. Normal males inherit an X from their
mother and a Y from their father. Normal females get an X chromosome
from both parents. See SRY gene.
sex-controlled gene
sex-controlled
10/16/2010 gene Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms
a gene that can be inherited by both genders but is usually expressed

differently in males and females. See sex-limited gene.
sex-limited gene
a gene that can be inherited by both genders but is usually expressed in

only males or females. See sex-controlled gene.
sex-linked
referring to a gene that is part of a sex chromosome. Since all of the genes
on a chromosome are inherited as a package, they are essentially linked
together.
sexual dimorphism
referring to anatomical differences between males and females of the

same species. Primate males are usually significantly larger and more
muscular than females. This is especially true of semi-terrestrial monkeys
and the great apes. Humans are also sexually dimorphic.
sexual skin or swelling
a nearly hairless large swollen patch of skin around the genital area of
females that becomes very prominent when they are in estrus . These
areas swell with fluids and turn bright pink or red due to hormonal changes
that occur in preparation for ovulation. The sexual skin also produces odors
that excite males of the species. They become highly attentive to the
females at this time. Sexual skins are found among many of the Old World
monkey species in the subfamily Cercopithecinae (e.g., baboons) as well
as the chimpanzees and bonobos.
shovel-shaped incisors
incisor teeth that have a "scooped out" appearance on the tongue side.
This pattern is characteristics of East Asian and Native American
Populations today. It was also common among Homo erectus.
sickle-cell trait
a genetically inherited recessive condition in which red blood cells are

distorted resulting in severe anemia and related symptoms that are often
fatal in childhood. Sickle-cell trait is the result of a pleiotropic gene.
People who are heterozygous for this trait rarely have these debilitating and
ultimately fatal problems but do have a high degree of immunity to malaria.
Sickle cell trait is at its highest frequency among Central African
populations and among people whose ancestors came from that region.
Sickle-cell trait is also known as sickle-cell anemia.
Sinanthropus pekinensis
the original name given to the Homo erectus skeletal remains from the
limestone cave site at Zhoukoudian near Beijing, China. Sinanthropus
pekinensis literally means "Chinese man from Peking" or Beijing. It has
also been called "Peking Man."
slash-and-burn
a traditional land-clearing practice whereby trees and other dense

vegetation are cut with axes or machetes and later burned. Ash from the
burned vegetation provides fertilizer for agricultural crops that are planted
among the remaining tree stumps. Since no other fertilizer is usually
applied, fields are abandoned after a few years, when crop yields go down,
and clearing occurs elsewhere. Traditional slash-and-burn farmers use
simple, hand-held digging sticks instead of plows.
small population size effect
rapid changes in gene pool frequencies that can occur in small

populations. See genetic drift, founder principle, and bottleneck effect.
somatic cell
all the cells in the body except those directly involved with reproduction.
Most cells in multicellular plants and animals are somatic cells. They
reproduce by mitosis and have a diploid number of chromosomes. See
sex cell.
spear thrower
a wood or bone rod with a hook on one end that fit into a socket at the base
of a spear. This device was used by the Cro-Magnon and other people
with Upper Paleolithic technologies to push off spears. It increased the
range and force of impact of projectiles by essentially increasing the length
of the spear thrower's arm. The spear thrower is also known as an atlatl
.
special creation
the idea that all life forms were created by God as separate, distinct
species. The implication is that they do not change through time and that
there is no evolutionary relationship between different species.
speciation
the evolution of new species from older ones. When this occurs in a single
evolutionary line without branching, it is referred to as successive
speciation and results in the pattern of evolution known as anagenesis
.
species
the largest natural population of organisms that can potentially interbreed to

produce fertile offspring. It is commonly assumed that members of one
species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species (i.e.,
they cannot mate with them to produce fertile offspring). However, we must
be cautious in defining species with this criterion because members of very
closely related species can sometimes produce offspring together, and a
small fraction of those may be fertile to some degree. This is the case with
mules, which are the product of mating between horses and donkeys.
About one out of 10,000 mules is fertile. This suggests that some species
differences are a matter of degree. See morphospeices, biospecies, and
paleospecies.
sperm
a male sex cell or gamete.
spermatogenesis
the meiosis process of male sex cells that produces sperm. It takes place
in the testes of humans and other male animals.
spina bifida
a neural tube birth defect in which there are malformations of vertebrae and
the protrusion of the spinal cord from the body. This can result in paralysis
of the legs, loss of bowel and bladder control, and "water" on the brain
(hydrocephaly). Spina bifida requires surgical correction.
SRY gene
sex-determining region Y gene. A gene on the Y chromosome which, if

present and functioning, causes the undifferentiated sex organs of an
animal embryo to become testes. These then produce the hormone
testosterone which, in turn, causes the development of masculine physical
traits.
stabilizing selection
Selection against extreme forms of a trait. In the case of polygenic traits

that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as human stature, it
would be selection for people who are in the middle of the range and
against those who are very tall or very short. The result would be fewer
people who are at the extremes in height. In the case of a trait controlled by
only two alleles, it would be selection against both homozygotes and for the
heterozygote. An example is nature selecting for people who are
heterozygous for the sickle cell allele in a malarial environment. See
directional selection and disruptive selection.
standard deviation
a statistical measure of the dispersion (or spread) from the arithmetic mean
(or average) of a group of scores. Chronometric dates derived with a
radiometric method are published with a "plus or minus" factor, which
usually is a range of dates within one standard deviation above and below
the mean. This should be read as a 67% likelihood that the actual date falls
within the given range.
stem cells
embryonic cells that have not yet become specialized tissue cells--they
potentially can develop into any type of tissue in the body. Children and
adults retain somewhat specialized stem cells in their bone marrow. These
stem cells are the source of the major blood cells--erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and thrombocytes (platelets).
stereoscopic vision
the ability to see things in three dimensions (3-D). Stereoscopic vision is

what allows for true depth perception. See peripheral vision and binocular
vision.
stratigraphy
the study of geological strata, or layers of rock or soil, usually for relative
dating based on the principle of superposition.
stuttering alleles
defective alleles that have segments which are doubled in their

transmission from generation to generation. In the case of genetically
inherited diseases, the result is increasingly severe symptoms each
generation. The myotonic form of muscular dystrophy is an example.
Stuttering alleles are also known as unstable alleles.
subadult
the stage of maturation in which animals are beyond infancy and early
childhood but are not yet fully grown.
subphyla
the plural of subphylum (the level of classification immediately below phylum

and above class in the Linnaean classification system).
subsistence pattern
referring to sources of food and the way they are obtained (e.g.,
scavenging, hunting, and farming). Subsistence base is another name for
subsistence pattern. "Subsistence strategy" refers to decisions made by
people as to the best way to obtain food in a particular environment (e.g.,
diversified foraging, specialized big game hunting, etc.).
subarctic
referring to climatic regions that are next to the arctic circle (e.g., Northern
Alaska and Northern Canada) and that have extremely long cold winters
with a great deal of snow and little or no day light. Subarctic regions are
farther north than temperate ones in the northern hemisphere.
subtropical
referring to climatic regions in between tropical and temperate zones.

Subtropical areas rarely have winter snow and are warm enough to grow
oranges and avocados.
successive speciation
see speciation.
supraorbital tori (singular: supraorbital torus)
prominent projecting bony bars or brow ridges above the eyes. This trait
was characteristic of Homo erectus and some other early humans.
survival of the fittest
the idea that those individuals in a species that have characteristics

selected for by nature are biologically the most fit. They are the ones who
more frequently survive to be the parents of the next generation. The fittest
individuals are not necessarily the strongest, largest, quickest, or smartest.
This concept was central to Charles Darwin's idea of natural selection.
suspensory climbing
see brachiators.
suture (in relationship to skulls)
the irregular line of joining between two bones, especially between the bone
plates of the skull in vertebrates.
symbol
a thing, such as a word, that can represent something else that is not here
and now. The meaning of a symbol is arbitrary and is given by those who
use it. Human languages are systems of symbols.
syndromes
a number of conditions that occur together and characterize a particular

disease or condition (e.g., Klinefelter syndrome).
sympathetic magic
a magical practice based on the principle that like causes like. For those
who believe that this works, it would be possible to cause another person or
animal harm by making an image of them and doing something to harm the
image such as painting a spear sticking into the body. The animal of whom
the image is a likeness would supposedly suffer the same effects. The
Cro-Magnon cave paintings of animals being wounded or pregnant was
very likely attempts to use sympathetic magic to cause the same effects on
the real animals. Sympathetic magic is also called imitative magic.
synthetic theory of evolution
the 20th century conception of evolution being caused by a number of

complex and often interacting processes. This is essentially a combination
of Darwin's concept of natural selection, Mendel's basic genetics, along
with the facts and theories of population genetics and molecular biology.
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-T-
tactile pad
a skin surface that is unusually sensitive to pressure, temperature, and pain

because there are high concentrations of nerve endings immediately below
these areas.
taphonomy
the study of the conditions under which plants, animals, and other
organisms become altered after death, buried, and sometimes preserved
as fossils.
taxonomy
naming, describing, and classifying organisms into different categories on

the basis of their appearance and other diagnostic characteristics as well
as their evolutionary relationships. The biological sciences primarily use
the Linnaean classification system for this purpose.
Tay-Sachs Disease
a genetically inherited condition caused by the inability to produce the

enzyme hexosaminidase A. This results in progressively increased fluid
pressure on the brain and the subsequent degeneration of the brain and
nervous system beginning about 6 months of age and inevitably resulting in
death usually by age 2-3. The gene responsible for Tay-Sachs Disease is
recessive. It has been most common among the descendents of Eastern
European Jews (Ashkenazi Jews).
tectonic movement
lateral and/or vertical movement of segments of the earth's crust. The

continents and the ocean floors consist of tectonic plates that are moving
relative to each other. On average, such movements are about 1 inch per
year.
tectonics
the study of the earth's crustal structures, such as continental plates, and the
forces that cause them to change shape and move relative to each other.
See tectonic movement.
temperate
referring to climatic regions between subtropical and subarctic zones.

Temperate areas usually have winter snow and are too cold to grow
oranges and avocados. However, summer temperatures can be warm.
temporal
referring to the temple regions high on the sides towards the front of the
head.
teratogen
a mutagen that can cause a mutation in a sex cell. Such mutations can be
inherited. Mutations that occur only in somatic cells are not inherited,
though they can result in cancer.
terrestrial
referring to animals that spend most of their time on the ground rather than
in the air, water, or trees. See arboreal and semi-terrestrial.
territorial defense behavior

active defense by community members of their shared home range or

territory. Many species of non-human primates use scent marking, loud
vocalizations, or threat gestures to defend their territories against
incursions by other communities of their species.
testosterone
a class of masculinizing hormones. Both men and women produce them,

but males normally produce much more. Testosterone is mainly produced
in the testes of males. Smaller amounts are produced by the cortex of the
adrenal glands in both males and females.
thalassemia
a group of genetically inherited forms of anemia caused by the production

of fragile hemoglobin molecules that are easily destroyed. Thalassemia is
most common around the Mediterranean Basin and in Southeast Asia. As
in the case of sickle-cell trait, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency, it may provide some immunity to malaria.
Theria
the subclass of mammal species that include the marsupials and placental
mammals.
thermoluminescence dating (TL)
a radiometric dating method based on the fact that trace amounts of

radioactive atoms, such as uranium and thorium, in some kinds of rock,
soil, and clay produce constant low amounts of background ionizing
radiation. The atoms of crystalline solids, such as pottery and rock, can be
altered by this radiation. Specifically, the electrons of quartz, feldspar,
diamond, or calcite crystals can become displaced from their normal
positions in atoms and trapped in imperfections in the crystal lattice of the
rock or clay molecules. These energy charged electrons progressively
accumulate over time. When a sample is heated to high temperatures in a
laboratory, the trapped electrons are released and return to their normal
positions in their atoms. This causes them to give off their stored energy in
the form of light impulses (photons). This light is referred to as
thermoluminescence (literally "heat light"). A similar effect can be brought
about by stimulating the sample with infrared light. The intensity of
thermoluminescence is directly related to the amount of accumulated
changes produced by background radiation, which, in turn, varies with the
age of the sample and the amount of trace radioactive elements it contains.
thermoremanent magnetism
magnetic fields that are altered or formed in atoms of iron by heat in excess
of 1100° F. (600° C.). Such fields line up with the magnetic field of the
planet at the time of the exposure to a high temperature. They will remain
oriented to that direction indefinitely despite the fact that the true position of
magnetic north wanders over thousands of miles around the rotational north
pole and even reverses with the magnetic south pole over longer periods of
time. See paleomagnetic dating.
thrombocytes
a type of blood cell that coagulates and clots blood when there is an injury
to a blood vessel. Thrombocytes are also called platelets. See stem cells.
thyroid
the large gland in the neck next to the trachea that secretes the hormone
thyroxine, which regulates body growth and metabolism.
toggle-head harpoon
a bone or antler harpoon tip or point with a hole for attaching a rope. It is
designed so that when the harpoon is thrust into the body of a large animal,
the wooden shaft falls off. The hunter keep holds of the animal with the rope
attached to the toggle-head harpoon point stuck in its body.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
a form of RNA that binds to specific amino acid molecules and transports
them to the ribosomes for the assembly of proteins. Transfer RNA
molecules temporarily bond with corresponding messenger RNA codons at
the ribosomes in this process of protein synthesis.
translocation
a structural modification of a chromosome in which a portion of a chromatid

is broken off and attached to a different location on that chromosome or on
another chromosome. This occurs as a result of crossing-over.
tree-ring dating
see dendrochronology.
triple-X female
see metafemale.
trisomy
the form of aneuploidy in which there are 3 chromosomes instead of just 2

for a specific homologous pair. An example is the common form of Down
syndrome in which there are 3 chromosome 21's. Most fetuses with
autosomal trisomies die before birth.
trisomy 18
a rare chromosomal abnormality in which there is a trisomy of

chromosome 18. This inherited condition is also called Edward's
syndrome. It is characterized by severe mental retardation, a small head
with malformed ears set low, and a face with a pinched appearance. Other
likely defects include a cleft palate, webbed hands, missing thumbs,
clubfeet, as well as heart and genitourinary defects. Individuals with
trisomy 18 usually die within a few months after birth.
trisomy 21
see Down syndrome.
tropical
referring to the usually warmest climatic regions. They are mostly found
within 20°-30° latitude from the Equator. All human evolution until relatively
late Homo erectus occurred in the tropics, especially in Africa. See
subtropical and temperate.
true breeding
see purebred.
tundra
cold, treeless regions having permanently frozen subsoil (permafrost )

that only supports extremely hardy low-growing vegetation such as lichens,
mosses, and stunted shrubs (in the summer).
Turner syndrome
a genetically inherited sex chromosome abnormality only affecting females.

Women with Turner's only have one X chromosome--their genotype is X0.
These individuals are short in stature, averaging 4'7" and have distinctive
webbed necks (i.e., extra folds of skin). They have exceptionally small
breasts and generally lack secondary sexual characteristics. Their ovaries
do not develop normally and they do not ovulate. They are in a sense
postmenopausal from early childhood and are sterile. In some individuals,
there is slight mental retardation. Turner syndrome is rare--current
estimates of its frequency range from 1 in 3000 to 1 in 10,000 females.
typological model (of human variation)
a system for classifying people based on the false assumption that humans
can be unambiguously placed into "races" on the basis of selected traits
such as skin color, hair form, and body shape. Advocates of this approach
incorrectly believe that there are more or less distinct populations of people
from different geographic regions. Negroid, Mongoloid, and Caucasoid
are examples of typological groupings.
typological viewpoint (of classifying species from fossils)
the idea that if two fossils look slightly different, they must be categorized as
being from two different species. This approach emphasizes minor
differences. People who maintain this approach are generally referred to in
the biological sciences as "splitters". See populationist viewpoint.
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-U-
ultrasound monitoring
the use of high frequency sound to form an image or picture of internal

organs for immediate medical diagnostic purposes. The Ultrasonography
device transmits sound waves directly into the body and then accurately
records the amount of time for echoes to return to a receiver, much like
radar. The sound waves used are at frequencies above the threshold of
human hearing--e.g., 20,000 vibrations per second.
ultraviolet radiation
electromagnetic radiation ranging in wave length just beyond violet in the

visible spectrum of light. The human eye cannot detect u.v. Our sun is the
major source of u.v. radiation on earth. Prolonged exposure to u.v. can
result in destructive skin burns and can promote the onset of skin cancer.
undernourishment
severe deficiency of calories in the diet. Prolonged undernourishment can

result in marasmus which is a wasting away of the body. See
malnourishment.
uniface
a stone tool that is shaped only on one face or side. See biface.
uniformitarianism
the late 18th century theory of James Hutton that the natural forces now
changing the shape of the Earth's surface have been operating in the past
much in the same way. The most important implication is that the Earth is
very old and that the present is the key to understanding the past.
Elaborated on by Charles Lyell in the 19th century, this theory opposed
catastrophism.
unit inheritance
Gregor Mendel's idea that the characteristics of parents are passed on to

descendants unchanged as units. In other words, the hereditary material of
any organism is made up of discrete units (now called genes).
universal donor
someone who has type O blood. Such people lack antigens for the ABO
blood system. As a result, their blood will not be agglutinated when it is
transfused into people with any other ABO type.
universal receiver
someone who has type AB blood. Such people do not produce antibodies
for the ABO blood system. As a result, they can receive transfusions from
people with any ABO type without agglutinating it.
universal time scale
a time scale, or calendar, that can be used any place in the world since it
has a finite beginning point from which any earlier or later event can be
related exactly. All chronometric dates are given in terms of a universal
time scale.
unstable alleles
see stuttering alleles.
Upper Paleolithic
the last part of the Paleolithic stage of development in which Cro-

Magnon and other late ice age modern Homo sapiens developed a
number of sophisticated stone tool making traditions including the
Magdalenian. This was the height of technical sophistication during the Old
Stone Age. The Upper Paleolithic in Europe began about 40,000 years
ago and ended around 10,000 years ago. Technological developments
leading to the Upper Paleolithic may have begun somewhat earlier in
Africa.
uranium series dating
a group of dating techniques based on measurement of the radioactivity of

short-lived daughter isotopes of uranium.
uranium-thorium dating
a radiometric dating technique based on the rate at which uranium-238 and

thorium-230 fission. This method has been used to date organic marine
sediments, bone, wood, coral, stone, and soil from deep water, cave, or
land fall areas. The time range that has been dated with this method so far
is less than 300,000 to about 1,000,000 years ago. The half-life of U-238 is
4.468 billion years and the half-life of Th-230 is 75,380 years. This is one
of several uranium series dating methods.
use-disuse theory
see inheritance of acquired characteristics.
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-V-
variable penetrance
the expression of a genetically inherited trait in different forms or degrees in

different people. For example, the alleles for the Down syndrome genes
may cause an effect in the phenotype of some individuals but not others.
As a result, there is considerable variability within the Down syndrome
population in regards to susceptibility to the characteristic unpleasant
medical problems.
varve analysis
a calibrated relative or potentially chronometric dating technique based on

counting annual silt deposits (i.e., varves) in former lakes resulting from the
summer melt of glaciers. In Scandinavia, this geological clock has been
used to date associated archaeological evidence from the melt years of the
last ice age, which began its final retreat about 15,000 years ago.
vasoconstriction
constriction or narrowing of blood vessels so that a decrease in flow

occurs. See vasodilation.
vasodilation
enlargement in the diameter of blood vessels so that an increased flow

occurs. See vasoconstriction.
ventral
see dorsal.
Venus figurines
small carvings of women that could fit into the hand made by the Cro-
Magnon people. They were not portraits but rather faceless idealized
representations of well fed, healthy, usually pregnant women with large
buttocks. Because of these characteristics, they are thought by most
paleoanthropologists to be ritual objects symbolizing female fertility. Many
of these stylized carvings are reminiscent of modern abstract art. Venus
figurines were made from 27,000 years ago down to the end of the last ice
age 10,000 years ago.
Vertebrata
the subphylum of chordates that includes the animals that possess a spinal
chord protected by a segmented vertebral column of cartilage and/or bone.
vertebrates
members of the animal subphylum Vertebrata.
vestigial
referring to body parts that are remnants of parts that were more fully
developed and functional in an earlier stage of evolution in the species.
virus
a category of extremely small microscopic parasites of plants, animals, and

bacteria. Viruses are not cells but rather RNA or DNA molecules
surrounded by a protein coating. Since viruses cannot reproduce without a
host cell, they are not strictly speaking living organisms. There are many
kinds of viruses.
vocalizations
sounds produced primarily by the throat and mouth. Primate vocalizations

include a wide variety of hoots, whistles, grunts, etc.
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-W-
Wernicke's area
a small area of the human brain that is involved in the comprehension of

a small area of the human brain that is involved in the comprehension of
speech. It is located in the cerebral cortex . See Broca's area for
illustration.
white cells
see leukocytes.
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-X-
X-linked
referring to a gene that is carried by an X chromosome. See sex-linked

gene.
XXX syndrome
see metafemale.
XYY syndrome
a genetically inherited sex chromosome abnormality only affecting males.

Men with XYY syndrome inherit an extra Y chromosome--their genotype is
XYY. They are usually quite tall (i.e., above 6 feet) and generally appear
and act normal. During adolescence, they frequently have severe facial
acne. They are usually fertile and lead ordinary lives as adults. Many, if not
most, are unaware that they have a chromosomal abnormality. The
frequency of XYY syndrome is not certain due to statistical differences
between different studies of this condition. It may be as common as 1 in
900 male births to as rare as 1 in 1,500 or even 1 in 2,000.
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-Y-
Y-linked
referring to a gene that is carried by a Y chromosome. See sex-linked

gene.
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-Z-
zygomatic arch
a bony arch extending horizontally on either side of the face just below the
eyes on primates and many other vertebrates. The major jaw muscles
pass under these two arches on their way up to the temporal areas of the
skull for attachment.
zygote
a "fertilized" ovum. More precisely, this is a cell that is formed when a

sperm and an ovum combine their chromosomes at conception. A zygote
contains the full complement of chromosomes (in humans 46) and has the
potential of developing into an entire organism.
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This page was last updated on Monday, August 02, 2010.

Copyright © 2005-2010 by Dennis O'Neil. All rights reserved.

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Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms

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10/16/2010 Glossary of Physical Anthropology Terms

Biological Anthropology Terms

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a genetically inherited condition in which intestines and other abdominal

ABO blood system

accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS)

a research instrument primarily used in physics to accelerate streams of

changes in the body in response to environmental stresses such as high or

the process by which populations of organisms respond to long term

the relatively rapid expansion and diversification of an evolving group of

the process by which individual organisms respond to environmental

the clumping together of red cells in blood as a result of antibodies

a threatening gesture, stare, pose, or display intended to intimidate others.

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Deficiency Syndrome)

the genetically inherited condition in which there is a marked deficiency of

within the same species of warm-blooded animals, individuals from

the common primate practice of carefully picking through the hair of

alpha-feto protein (AFP) sampling

a routine diagnostic procedure for pregnant women to determine whether

alpha male and alpha female

a kind of positively charged subnuclear particle (consisting of 2 protons and

a progressive, irreversible disease characterized by degeneration of brain

an organic molecule that is a building blocks of proteins. There are at least

amino acid racemization dating

members of a conservative Protestant sect related to the Mennonites. The

a diagnostic procedure for pregnant women to determine whether or not

the fluid surrounding a fetus inside an amniotic sac. It mostly consists of

the class of vertebrates that includes frogs, toads, and salamanders.

The pattern of non-branching evolution that results from successive

referring to the structural parts of organisms. See physiology.

a medical condition characterized by fatigue, weakness, poor appetite,

a chromosomal abnormality in which there is an addition or loss of

a rare genetically inherited form of mental retardation. The inheritance of

the degree difference between the direction of magnetic north and

an animal within the primate suborder Anthropoidea . Monkeys, apes,

a kind of protein produced by the body to identify and neutralize or destroy

sequences of three nucleotide bases on a transfer RNA molecule that can

molecules that provide the specific signature or identity to blood or other

tree-living; referring to animals that are adapted to life in the trees.

See paleomagnetic dating.

the variety or species of humans that was intermediate between Homo

argon-40/argon-39 dating (40Ar/39Ar)

a radiometric dating method based on the changing ratio of argon-40 to

a degenerative disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the joints

a thing that is intentionally made according to a cultural pattern or

artifact time marker

a hypothesis to explain the origin of modern Homo sapiens. It proposes

see spear thrower.

a species of the genus Australopithecus. They lived during the Pliocene

grooming oneself in contrast to allogrooming.

the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom of an element. See

any chromosome other than a sex chromosome. Human somatic cells

microscopic simple single celled organisms lacking chlorophyll and a

the maintenance of two or more alleles for a trait in a population at a more

basal metabolic rate

within the same species of warm-blooded animals, individuals from

the intercontinental land connection appeared between Siberia and Alaska

a kind of energy charged subnuclear particle (consisting of an electron or a

big game hunting

a specialized subsistence pattern based primarily on hunting large animals,

the yellow-red pigment of human bile. Small amounts of it are normally

the Linnaean classification system use of two Latin name categories,

the process of removing a tissue sample from a living organism for