1.

3 Characteristic loads

For loading we use the ‘characteristic’ load (Fk) as the basis. Ideally this should be
determined from the mean load and its standard deviation from the mean, and using the same
probability as for the materials we should say that Fk = Fm + 1.64s. The characteristic load
would be that value of loading such that not more than 5% of the spectrum of loading
throughout the life of structure will lie above the value of the characteristic load (Figure
1.4.1).

Figure 1.3.1 Characteristic load

The characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads have the notation Gk, Qk, Wk respectively,
where the upper-case letters denote the total load on a span. Lower-case letters denote
uniform load per square meter, although in design examples for beams the lower-case letters
have been used for a uniformly distributed load, so that Gk = gkl.

1.4 Design Strength of Materials

Design strength of materials will be obtained by dividing the characteristic strengths by the
partial safety factor m, i.e. design strength = fk/m.

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m takes account of possible differences between the material in the actual structure and the
strength derived from the test specimens. In concrete this would cover such items as
insufficient compaction, differences in curing, etc. For reinforcement it would cover such
items as the difference between assumed and actual cross sectional areas caused by rolling
tolerances, corrosion, etc.

Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS.

Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

Design Strength for Concrete

0.85 f ck
(a) In compression: f cd 
c
f ctk  f  0.21 f 2 3 
(b) In tension: f ctd 
c  ctk ck

Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd 
s

Figure 3.2.2 Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression

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 Figure 3.2.4 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel

1.5 Design Loads

We obtain the design load by multiplying the characteristic load by the other partial safety
factor f ; this factor f is introduced to take account of :
(i). possible unusual increases in the load beyond those in deriving the characteristic load.
(ii). inaccurate assessment of effects of loading.
(iii).variations in dimensional accuracy achieved in construction.
(iv). the importance of the limit state being considered.

f varies for different limit states and also for different combinations of loading.

Table 1.5.1 Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS.
Design Situation Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable
Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00

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Table 1.5.2 Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS.
Permanent Accidental Variable actions
Design Situation
actions actions Principal action All other actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk

Combination values: Qr = 0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk
Where,
Qr = representative value
Qk = characteristic value
Table 1.5.3 Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2.
Action 0 1 2
Imposed
Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8
*
Wind 0.6 0.5* 0*
Snow 0.6* 0.2* 0*
* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.
Category A – Domestic, Residential.
Category B – Offices.
Category C – Congregation areas
Category D – Shopping areas.
Category E – Storage areas

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Table 1.5.3 Imposed Loads on floors in Buildings.

qk Qk
Category Description Examples 2
(KN/m ) (KN)

Areas for general Rooms in houses, rooms & wards in

domestic & residential hospitals, bedrooms in hotels, 2.0 2.0
A activities kitchens and toilets
Stairs 3.0 2.0
Balconies 4.0 2.0
B Office areas 3.0 2.0
Areas where people
may congregate
C1 Areas with tables In schools, restaurants, reading rooms 3.0 4.0
C2 Areas with fixed In churches, theatres, lecture halls,
4.0 4.0
seats waiting rooms
C C3 Areas for moving In museums. Access areas in hotels
5.0 4.9
people and public buildings
C4 Areas for physical
Dance halls, stages, gymnasia 5.0 7.0
activities
C5 Areas susceptible
Concrete halls, grandstands 5.0 4.0
to overcrowding
Shopping areas
D D1 Retail shops 5.0 4.0
D2 Department stores Areas in ware houses, office stores 5.0 7.0
Areas susceptible to
E Areas for storage use, libraries 6.0 7.0
accumulation of goods

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