Rainwater Harvesting - An Option To Reduce Demand On Water Supply

ENNR 429 Final Year Project
Rainwater Harvesting – An Option

to Reduce Demand on Water Supply.
Final Report
Shane Phillips 81630278

Andrew Dow 15756629
06/10/08
Supervisors:
David Painter (University of Canterbury)
Katie Shorrock (MWH NZ Ltd)
Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering
University of Canterbury
Rainwater Harvesting – An Option to Reduce Demand on Water Supply Shane Phillips
Andrew Dow
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Akaroa relies on the town water supply for their potable water. During peak demand, as well
as times of drought, water restrictions are imposed on the community. One option to help ease
this problem is rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting is a method of collecting
rainwater, from rooftops, to alleviate these pressures on potable water supplies.
For our final year project for Natural Resources Engineering at the University of Canterbury
we have investigated the use of rainwater harvesting within the Akaroa Township. During
peak holiday times, the population of Akaroa can swell to more than twice its original size,
putting pressure on local amenities, in particular the already restricted domestic water supply.
The current water management practices imposed during water restriction times have a
significant impact in conserving water and reducing demand. Imposing Level 1 restrictions,
i.e. alternate day watering, can reduce demand by around 17%, whilst imposing Level 4
restrictions, i.e. a total hosing ban, can deliver around a 52% reduction in water demand
(Shorrock, 2008). Rainwater harvesting may provide a major part of the solution to water
problems in Akaroa.
The idea for this project was borne out of discussions with Katie Shorrock, MWH, during
Shane Phillips’ summer internship. Katie was working on the Akaroa Water Management
Strategy developing options for alternative sources of potable water to reduce the demand on
the Akaroa potable water supply. Our investigation is intended to complement the work
carried out by MWH and provide CCC with a detailed case study on rainwater harvesting that
is specific to Akaroa.
While looking at the feasibility of the rainwater tank, we also investigated the benefits
rainwater harvesting can provide to the community and the local council. These benefits are
closely aligned with the issues and actions raised in the Greater Christchurch Urban
Development Strategy 2007 (Chapter 6.23 Water Supply). In addition, we endeavoured to
provide the most effective solution.
A comprehensive literature review has been carried out on rainwater harvesting. The review
focuses primarily on current applications of rainwater tanks within New Zealand, focussing
on examples of rainwater tanks in use in New Zealand, end use of roof water, incentives,
behavioural considerations, water quality and treatment, components of a rainwater harvesting
system and installation.
We acquired funding for the project from Christchurch City Council in the order of $1,500,
and Liz Mars, a resident living on Beach Rd, Akaroa kindly volunteered for a rainwater tank
to be installed on her property. Prior to installing the rainwater harvesting system we carried
out a current consumption (baseline) study throughout the month of June, to give us an
indication of the current potable water consumption at the Mars residence. The total volume
of potable water used throughout this period was 12,410 litres.
The rainwater harvesting system was installed at the Mars residence on Thursday 26 June
2008, in accordance with the manufacturing instructions. The system is intended to be utilised
for external purposes in place of the reticulated domestic system. Following this, we
undertook a three month data collection period from July to September. Throughout this data
collection period Liz Mars was recording:
• The 24-hour rainfall depth from the rain gauge

• The level within the tank from the clear tank level indicator
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• The flow meter at her property boundary
The total rainfall during the July to September period was above average and the winter
period (June to August) could be classified as a wet winter. However, as the rainfall volumes
were within one standard deviation from the mean they can be classified as “typical” rainfall
volumes for Akaroa
The total potential volume of rainwater that could have been collected during out testing
period was 28.44 m³. However, due to the constant adverse weather conditions the rainwater
tank was full for the majority of this period, so most of that volume would have flowed down
the tank overflow pipe, and into the domestic storm water system.
The total volume of collected water used during our three month period was 13.46 m³.
However, this value is not indicative of actual consumption as the majority of this water was
used by Liz either to ensure the system was working correctly, or just flushed down the
domestic storm water pipe to provide variability in our readings, allowing us to ensure our
calculations and data analysis were accurate.
The water quality tests show an overall positive result. Two determinands showed values
outside of the maximum acceptable values (MAV) outlined by the Ministry of Health. Total
coliforms were unacceptable and the pH (6.3) was reasonable but outside of the recommended
range of 7 – 8.5.
Unfortunately, due to the incredibly wet winter very little water was actually used from the
system productively in place of potable water. As a consequence we could not get the results
required to effectively quantify a reduction in potable water demand. However, as the
Christchurch City Council requires a twelve month study it is our recommendation that the
data we have collected be used as a four month baseline period and a twelve month study is
continued henceforth. Also, for the collected rainwater to be maximised to its fullest potential
a pump is required for the system.
We believe that rainwater harvesting is an underutilised, alternative source of water. It can be

used in place of potable water for uses such as: garden watering, car and boat washing, or
filling pools, spas and ornamental ponds. “The use of alternative water sources such as roof-
collected rainwater is definitely part of the solution to diminishing water resources (Abbot,
2007).”
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NOTATION
The following symbols and abbreviations are used throughout this report:
V Volume (m³)
ARoof Roof Area (m²)
V AnnualAverage Annual Average Rainfall Depth (mm)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 AKAROA – SETTING THE SCENE.........................................................................1
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES..........................................................................................3
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................3
3.1 Rainwater Tanks Use in New Zealand ...................................................................3
3.2 End Use......................................................................................................................3
3.3 Council Incentives ....................................................................................................4
3.3.1 Subsidy ...............................................................................................................4
3.3.2 Tax and Cost Rebate...........................................................................................4
3.3.3 Rebates ...............................................................................................................5
3.3.4 Education and Raising Awareness .....................................................................5
3.3.5 Guidelines...........................................................................................................5
3.3.6 Restriction in Usage ...........................................................................................5
3.4 Behavioural Considerations ....................................................................................6
3.4.1 Human Behaviour...............................................................................................6
3.4.2 Climate Change ..................................................................................................6
3.5 Water Quality ...........................................................................................................6
3.5.1 Contaminant Sources..........................................................................................6
3.5.2 Methods to Improve Water Quality....................................................................7
3.6 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System ...................................................8
3.6.1 Gutters and Downpipes ......................................................................................9
3.6.2 First Flush...........................................................................................................9
3.6.3 Pipes ...................................................................................................................9
3.6.4 Storage Tanks .....................................................................................................9
3.7 Installation...............................................................................................................10
3.7.1 Site Preparation ................................................................................................10
3.7.2 Plumbing...........................................................................................................10
3.7.3 Consents ...........................................................................................................11
4.0 BUDGET .....................................................................................................................12
5.0 TIMEFRAME.............................................................................................................12
5.1 Project Proposal and Presentation........................................................................13
5.2 Meet with CCC .......................................................................................................13
5.3 Establish Location ..................................................................................................13
5.4 Baseline Monitoring Period ...................................................................................14
5.5 Construct Rainwater Harvesting System .............................................................14
5.6 Daily Water Measurements ...................................................................................14
5.7 Final Report ............................................................................................................14
6.0 METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................15
6.1 Selection of Location ..............................................................................................15
6.2 Sizing of Tank .........................................................................................................16
6.3 Installation of Rainwater Harvesting System ......................................................18
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6.4 Data Collection........................................................................................................20

6.4.1 Baseline Monitoring .........................................................................................20
6.4.2 Results Collection.............................................................................................20
6.5 Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................21
6.6 Water Quality Test .................................................................................................21
7.0 RESULTS .................................................................................................................... 22
7.1 Akaroa Rainfall ......................................................................................................22
7.2 Rainwater Harvesting System ...............................................................................23
7.2.1 Baseline Period .................................................................................................23
7.2.2 Rainfall .............................................................................................................24
7.2.3 Flow Meter .......................................................................................................25
7.2.4 Rainwater Harvesting System ..........................................................................26
7.3 Water Quality Testing............................................................................................27
8.0 DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................30
8.1 Rainwater Harvesting System ...............................................................................30
8.2 Water Quality Test .................................................................................................31
8.2.1 Physical Appearance.........................................................................................31
8.2.2 Effect from Salt Spray ......................................................................................32
8.2.3 Butynol Roofing ...............................................................................................32
8.2.4 Water Quality Improvements ...........................................................................32
8.3 Human Behavioral Response.................................................................................32
9.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................35
9.1 Options for Further Study .....................................................................................36
10.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................37
11.0 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................38
12.0 APPENDICES.............................................................................................................40
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A – MICO PIPELINES RAIN HARVESTING SYSTEMS BROCHURE

APPENDIX B – RX PLASTICS SITE PREPARATION AND TANK INSTALLATION
APPENDIX C – PROJECT TIMELINE
APPENDIX D – INITIAL COUNCIL CORRESPONDENCE
APPENDIX E – AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL
APPENDIX F – MICO PIPELINES INVOICE
APPENDIX G – HILL LABORATORIES TEST RESULTS
APPENDIX H – RAINWATER HARVESTING SPECIFICATION
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TABLES
Table 1 - 2004 - 2041 Population and Demand Data for Akaroa...............................................2

Table 2 - Future Demand Figures for Akaroa under Varying Degrees of Restrictions..............2
Table 3 - Total Required Costs.................................................................................................12
Table 4 - Total Project Costs ....................................................................................................12
Table 5 - Potential Rainfall Volume Available ........................................................................25
Table 6 - Rainwater Volume Used ...........................................................................................26
Table 7 - Water Quality Test Results .......................................................................................29
FIGURES
Figure 1 – Mars Residence .......................................................................................................15

Figure 2 – NIWA Rain Station .................................................................................................16
Figure 3 – Total Annual Rainfall..............................................................................................16
Figure 4 – Area of Roof Catchment .........................................................................................17
Figure 5 – Mars Roof ...............................................................................................................17
Figure 6 – Conceptual Outlay of System .................................................................................18
Figure 7 – Path to Tank ............................................................................................................19
Figure 8 – Leaf Slide ................................................................................................................19
Figure 9 – Rainwater Harvesting System .................................................................................19
Figure 10 – Leaky Fitting .........................................................................................................20
Figure 11 – Flow Meter ............................................................................................................20
Figure 12 – Monthly Average Rainfall.....................................................................................22
Figure 13 – Daily Water Use (June).........................................................................................23
Figure 14 – Rain Gauge............................................................................................................24
Figure 15 – Monthly Rainfall ...................................................................................................24
Figure 16 – Monthly Potable Water Use ..................................................................................25
Figure 17 – Clear Tank Level Indicator ...................................................................................26
Figure 18 – Rainwater Usage ...................................................................................................27
Figure 19 – Water Samples ......................................................................................................28
Figure 20 – Tank Water Surface...............................................................................................32
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1.0 AKAROA – SETTING THE SCENE
The township of Akaroa on Banks Peninsula has a long history of water shortages. The
residents of Akaroa currently rely on the town water supply for their potable water. During
peak holiday times, the population of Akaroa can swell to more than twice its original size,
putting pressure on local amenities, in particular the already restricted domestic water supply.
One option to help ease this problem is rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting is a
method of collecting rainwater, from rooftops, to alleviate these pressures on potable water
supplies. The benefits of rainwater harvesting include:
• A primary financial benefit of rainwater tanks to the community (in contrast to the
individual property owner) is the potential reduction in the cost of water and storm
water infrastructure
• A reduction in demand for mains water supply, resulting in a reduction in rates where
domestic water is charged
• A reduction in flooding by providing temporary storage for rainwater
• A reduction in wet weather sewage overflows
• A reduction in stormwater pollution of our beaches and waterways.
The idea for this project was borne out of discussions with Katie Shorrock, MWH, during
Shane Phillips’ summer internship. Katie was working on the Akaroa Water Management
Strategy developing options for alternative sources of potable water to reduce the demand on
the Akaroa potable water supply. During exceptionally dry years the Christchurch City
Council (CCC) has often relied on the goodwill of the Akaroa community to conserve water
where possible and there have been periods extending to several months where no water has
been available for non-essential uses such as garden watering.
The population of Akaroa is steadily-increasing. This means that management of the existing
water source alone can no longer provide an acceptable level of security of the water supply.
As a result the CCC is investigating options to alleviate demand and potentially provide
alternative sources of potable water.
Table 1 shows the 2004 and projected 2041 population data for Akaroa. The population data
have been taken from the Akaroa Water Management Strategy Part 4: Water Supply and
Treatment Options’ (Shorrock, 2008) and the 2041 projections are based on the 2026
population figures in the same report with a 9% growth rate as per the Greater Christchurch
Urban Development Strategy. These figures are the maximum values and therefore represent
the worst-case scenario.
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Table 1 - 2004 - 2041 Population and Demand Data for Akaroa (MWH NZ Ltd)
Peak Unit
Current Future
Demand
2004 2041
l/(pers.day)
Peak Peak
Maximum Maximum
Demand Demand
Population Population
m³/day m³/day
Residential 713 650 463 930 663
Holiday Homes 565 2,200 1243 2940 1661
Commercial 200 800 160 1850 370
Overnight Friends 200 80 16 190 38
Day Visitors 15 2,500 38 9810 147
Losses 15% - 282 - 473
Total 2202 3311
Demand figures have been calculated by multiplying the population figures by the peak unit
demand. The peak unit demand for each population category was calculated based on typical
usage data (Christchurch City Council, 2007). The current water management practices
imposed annually during water restriction times have a significant impact in conserving water
and reducing demand. Imposing Level 1 restrictions, i.e. alternate day watering, can reduce
demand by around 17%, whilst imposing Level 4 restrictions, i.e. a total hosing ban, can
deliver around a 52% reduction in water demand (Shorrock, 2008). Rainwater harvesting may
provide part of the solution to water problems in Akaroa. The effect of water restrictions on
the demand is illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2 - Future Demand Figures for Akaroa under Varying Degrees of Restrictions
(MWH NZ Ltd.)
Current Future Future Demand Future Demand
Demand Demand under Level 1 under Level 4
(m³/day) (m³/day) Restrictions(m³/day) Restrictions(m³/day)
Akaroa 2202 3311 2748 1589
Our investigation is intended to complement the work carried out by MWH and provide CCC
with a detailed case study on rainwater harvesting that is specific to Akaroa. The findings of
the research will be used to assess the viability of using rainwater harvesting as a method to
ease the strain on potable water resources in Akaroa. In addition, the model could be applied
to other similar rural settings within New Zealand and improve the way we use our natural
resources. An investigation has been made into the uses of the rainwater and also into the
costs and benefits of different rainwater systems.
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2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims and objectives of this project, as set out in our project proposal are:
• To install a rainwater harvesting system at a selected location in Akaroa

• To quantify the percentage reduction in demand for potable water as a direct result of
installing a rain water harvesting system
• To assess the quality of the water and whether or not that affects the end-use
• To produce a specification for a low-cost, easy-to-use rainwater harvesting package
with costs.
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
A comprehensive literature review has been carried out on rainwater harvesting. The review
focuses primarily on current applications of rainwater tanks in New Zealand and covers the
following areas:
• Examples of rainwater tanks in use in New Zealand

• End use of roof water
• Incentives
• Behavioural considerations
• Water quality and treatment
• Components of a rainwater harvesting system
• Installation.
3.1 Rainwater Tanks Use in New Zealand
Rainwater harvesting systems have been encouraged throughout New Zealand through
Councils such as the North Shore, Rodney, Waitakere and Kapiti. These city and district
councils have encouraged rainwater harvesting by providing subsidies and incentives to
homeowners to install and use rainwater harvesting systems. Waitakere City Council has been
at the forefront of such changes by providing $500 rebates for homeowners that install
rainwater tanks. North Shore City Council and the Rodney District Council have also
provided $500 subsidies. Further details of the current rainwater harvesting practices in the
aforementioned Councils are provided throughout the literature review.
3.2 End Use
In extreme cases, rainwater can supply up to 65% of a domestic household’s water (Waitakere
City Council, 2008). It can be used for:
• Watering the garden and lawn
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• Washing vehicles and boats

• Supplying the laundry and toilet
• Topping up spas, ornamental ponds and swimming pools.
3.3 Council Incentives
Economic incentives for rainwater harvesting can be classified (Mohd Shahwahid et al., 2006)
as follows:
i) Provision of subsidies
ii) Tax and cost rebates
iii) Rebates
iv) Education and raising awareness
v) Guidelines
vi) Restriction in usage of piped water.
3.3.1 Subsidy
In Malaysia it has been discovered that the cost of installation, maintenance and usage of
rainwater harvesting exceeds the cost of the reticulated water supply (Mohd Shahwahid et al.,
2006). As a result, they are looking at providing subsidies to rainwater harvesting systems and
services.
Similarly, in Queensland, Australia, the government has introduced a new programme, the
Home WaterWise Service, which is a subsidized plumbing service that amongst other services
provides water audits to homeowners. This could be applied in Akaroa in several measures,
including:
i) Providing water audits to homeowners,

ii) Providing subsidised rainwater harvesting installation.
3.3.2 Tax and Cost Rebate
Another economic initiative used to encourage the use of rainwater harvesting is to put in
place tax rebates for both homeowners and manufacturers and suppliers of rainwater
harvesting systems.
Rainwater harvesting can be integrated with the existing water supply which will result in less
demand on the existing water supply. A tax rebate could be provided to compensate those
homeowners that are using less of the existing water supply. This is simply a transfer of the
benefit to the homeowner.
Further, as there is a relatively short supply of manufacturers and suppliers of rainwater

harvesting, a tax rebate has the potential to encourage entry into the market. There is space in
the market for rainwater harvesting. For instance, the Waitakere City Council is finding it
difficult, due to the lack of commercial supply, to implement a scheme to encourage the use
of rain barrels as a smaller alternative of water supply for irrigation purposes. To encourage
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the manufacturers and suppliers of rainwater harvesting equipment a tax rebate could be put
in place to encourage a competitive market. Another example is that in Texas, USA, Sales
Tax Redemption has been offered on all water efficiency equipment, including rainwater
harvesting equipment (Texas Water Development Board, 2008).
3.3.3 Rebates
The provision of rebates has been the primary way in which the current rainwater harvesting
advocates have promoted installation and use of rainwater systems. North Shore City Council
provides a $500 rebate to homeowners who install and use rainwater harvesting. Similar
schemes have been implemented in Australia with rebates up to $800 given in Sydney and in
Toowoomba rebates of $500 are given. Each place has conditions on the rebates. For instance
in Toowoomba, to be eligible for the rebate the tank must have a capacity of 5,000 litres. In
Sydney, the eligibility is based on the size of the tank and also if it is connected to the toilet or
washing machine (Sydney Water, 2008).
3.3.4 Education and Raising Awareness
Education and raising awareness is a key initiative to encourage the use of rainwater
harvesting. Waitakere City Council has a series of brochures produced to educate the public
on rainwater harvesting. National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)
suggests that the use of rainwater harvesting should be incorporated in the school education
curriculum.
In Australia, certain state governments have introduced a “rainwater tanks in schools”

programme where participating schools are given rebates on rainwater harvesting systems.
Also, awareness campaigns are carried out in participating schools on the importance of
conserving water (Sydney Water, 2008).
3.3.5 Guidelines
With guidelines in place, homeowners are more likely to move towards rainwater harvesting.
Appropriate guidelines will make rainwater harvesting more efficient as homeowners will
install the proper and most suitable rainwater harvesting system.
The Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment in Australia published a
manual to assist the water industry to integrate rainwater harvesting systems into the urban
environment. The manual outlines the appropriate end uses, tank sizing, site design, collection
process, and conveyance from roof to tank, maintenance procedures and other issues involved
with rainwater tanks (Chapman et al., 2008).
3.3.6 Restriction in Usage
Another economic instrument to encourage rainwater harvesting is to restrict the use of piped
water. Water restrictions are already imposed in Akaroa.
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3.4 Behavioural Considerations
3.4.1 Human Behaviour
Rainwater harvesting is a change from the central water supply scheme to either an individual
or combined alternative water supply. However, it is not only a physical change but it
includes aspects of social and economic change. Rainwater harvesting can be promoted as a
sustainable water supply that also significantly improves the lifestyles of people in the
community. There has been a paradigm shift in people’s behavior more towards the ‘green’
approach to everyday commodities.
Installing a rainwater harvesting system in a home is the first step. However, making the
system as readily available and useable as the existing water supply is the next step.
The principles of the Treaty of Waitangi must be taken into consideration in decision-making
under the Resource Management Act (1991). Maori spiritual values are a primary concern of
the Treaty of Waitangi. Maori believe that water has a spiritual link to the past. In
environmental, cultural, social, and economic terms, sustainable urban water infrastructure
should be developed and operated in harmony with natural water cycles and water catchments
(Morgan, 2005). This aligns to the rainwater harvesting procedures and techniques.
3.4.2 Climate Change
Climate change will cause a general intensification of the earth’s hydrological cycle. In the
next 100 years it is expected that there will be an increase in precipitation, evapotranspiration,
occurrence of storms and significant changes in the chemical processes that influence water
quality (Mohd Shahwahid et al., 2006). In short, this means the consistencies of having water
supply will be under threat. There is a need for greater storage capacity to cope during the dry
periods. Rainwater harvesting may be part of the solution, as the rain can be collected over the
shorter rainfall times and stored for the time when there is a shortage of water.
3.5 Water Quality
The quality of rainwater is generally perceived as ‘pure’ because it has come from the sky.
This idea has been challenged by research into waterborne diseases that have become more
prominent as rainwater harvesting becomes more popular. The microbiological quality of
water is the most important factor to test for in determining the safety of water supplies from a
health perspective.
3.5.1 Contaminant Sources
The primary sources of contaminants for roof water are the algae and bacteria that can grow
in the system. This is of concern, but can be prevented; prevention methods are detailed in a
later section. A five-year Massey University study was completed investigating the
microbiological quality of roof water. 560 private dwellings were tested over the five-year
period and over half of the samples analysed exceeded the acceptable standards for
contamination. In more than 30% of the samples there was evidence of heavy faecal
contamination. The source of the contamination can be attributed to birds, frogs, possums,
rodents, and dead animals and insects either on the roof or in the gutters, or in the water tank
itself. The samples showing a large amount of contaminants were primarily in under-utilised
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systems where there was lack of maintenance. Also, in these tanks there was evidence of
inadequate disinfection, poorly designed delivery systems and storage tanks, and a failure to
adopt even simple physical measures to safeguard the water.
Stan Abbot of the Roof Water Research Centre at Massey University, Wellington, reports that
New Zealand studies show that consumption of roof-collected water is associated with a
threefold greater risk of campylobacteriosis than that of non-consumers. Also, in a case
control study on risk factors for giardiasis among children in Auckland, it was found that
consumption of roof-collected rainwater significantly increased the risk for this infection.
The drinking water standards of New Zealand (DWSNZ) have several requirements that must
be fulfilled. The DWSNZ describe the microbiological factors in rainwater in particular, with
reference to minimising the enteric pathogens, including types of bacteria such as Salmonella
and Campylobacter and protozoa such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The likely sources of
these contaminants are from animals in the gutters or in the tank itself (Ministry of Health
New Zealand, 2005).
The DWSNZ also describe the chemistry of rainwater, including what can lead to changes in
the chemicals in rainwater. Lead in rainwater can be attributed to motor vehicle fumes, with
other contaminants identified from high-density roads being nitrate, copper, nickel, cadmium
and zinc (Ministry of Health New Zealand, 2005)
Smoke from chimneys is seen as a source of contaminants. Some of the smoke and soot
settles on the roof and this is later washed off by the rain. Some researchers have related the
high incidence of stomach cancers in part of Iceland to the presence of polyaromatic
hydrocarbons in rainwater (Dungal, 1961). Storage materials and the effect of nearby trees is
also seen as a potential source of contaminants. The effect of nearby trees can lower the pH
below 6 but the primary concern is the leaves providing detritus that feed bacterial growth in
the tank.
3.5.2 Methods to Improve Water Quality
As rainwater harvesting becomes a more popular source of water supply there has been
ongoing research into the improvement of water quality. Testing of these systems is out of the
scope of this research but it is worthwhile noting the developed systems and their
effectiveness in improving water quality.
Once the rainwater lands, its quality will be affected by the roof, gutters and storage system.
Water does not stay on the roof for long so it is said to not have a marked effect on the water
quality, with the few exceptions being a newly painted roof and an unpainted galvanised steel
roof, which will lose zinc for months (Ministry of Health New Zealand, 2005).
Stan Abbott (2006) concludes that the quality of the water improves dramatically with the use
of first-flush diverters. The purpose of the study was to establish which products and systems
were effective in providing a safeguard against the contaminants collected on the roof. The
project was set up with six rainwater tank systems with various screens and first-flush
diverters. There were 25 sampling events over a period of 9 months and the Total Coliforms
and Escherichia coli were tested. The First-Flush Water Diverter consistently yielded low to
zero counts of both Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli, in contrast to the samples taken in
the first-flush diverter where the Total coliforms were high but the Escherichia coli were not
so high (Abbott, 2006).
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Additives for settling sediments or buffering pH and simple filters are optional treatments for
non-potable uses of rainwater. Fine filters and microbiological disinfection are only necessary
for drinking water.
It is important to note that water quality may be affected by dirt, rust, lime scale, bird and
rodent droppings, and airborne bacteria and algae may still enter the tank even when primary
screening and first-flush diverters are in place. Even for non-drinking uses, sedimentation of
suspended solids inside the tank and further filtration are a good idea.
Fine filters may be installed prior to the end use, e.g. at the washing machine and toilet
cistern. Simple cartridge filters similar to those used for domestic swimming pools or hot tubs
are suitable (e.g. 80 micron washable filters) (Waitakere City Council, 2008).
In rainwater systems the emphasis is on the maintenance of the whole system to prevent
contamination rather than treatment prior to end use. Waitakere City Council is a forerunner
in encouraging rainwater harvesting. They provide the public with general tips on keeping
water safe (Waitakere City Council, 2008). These include:
• A tight fitting top cover on the storage tank to keep mosquitoes and animals out as
well as preventing evaporation
• Locate storage tank in a cool place, out of sunlight to discourage the growth of algae
• Use safe roof paint suitable for roof water
• Inspect gutters regularly and clean them out if necessary
• Keep the roof clear of overhanging vegetation
• Install removable gutter guards if appropriate
• Inspect tank annually and if required get it cleaned out by a professional
• Use a backflow prevention device to stop contaminated water from flowing back into
the mains water supply in a dual system.
Treatment of rainwater can be avoided by following preventative measures and maintaining

each component of the rainwater harvesting system. However, if treatment is required, the
roof water quality can be improved by:
• Boiling water
• ‘under-the-bench’ filters
• UV disinfection units.
3.6 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
Rainwater harvesting systems have been developed with several additional components. For
this project we have used only the essential components required.
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3.6.1 Gutters and Downpipes
Seamless extruded Aluminium, galvanised steel or PVC are commonly recommended for
gutters and downpipes. Copper is also used; however, it is quite expensive and increasingly
likely to be stolen. Gutters and downpipes must be properly sized, sloped and installed to
maximise the quantity of rainwater collected.
Leaf guards are the primary screening devices designed to prevent leaves and other debris
from entering the rainwater harvesting system. They attach to the gutter and typically have a 4
mm mesh to keep out leaves and debris(Marley, 2008).
3.6.2 First Flush
First-flush diverters direct the first runoff from a roof after rainfall into a separate small
chamber because this water collects most of the dirt, debris and contaminants. Typically 40
litres for every 100 m² of roof area is diverted. Once the chamber has filled, the rest of the
water flows to the downpipe connected to the rainwater tank. The small chamber has a small
tube in it that allows it to empty itself before the next rainfall event (North Shore City
Council, 2008).
Generally, first-flush diverters are an optional item for systems where the end use is non-
drinking water.
3.6.3 Pipes
Effective plumbing is important for efficient rainwater collection and to protect the household
or mains water supply from contamination. Debris needs to be diverted and backflow
preventers may need to be installed. It is recommended that all plumbing be carried out by a
qualified plumber so that recognised plumbing standards are met.
3.6.4 Storage Tanks
Tanks come in a variety of different sizes, and even small tanks can provide significant
quantities of water for use around the house.
There are different types, styles and shapes of tanks available. The most common are
polyethylene or concrete and they can be installed either above or below ground. Putting the
tank underground is a good option for urban dwellers with smaller sections.
There are a lot of options available in tank materials, including:
• Polyethylene
• Timber
• Steel
• Concrete
• Fibreglass.
The tank should have a durable, watertight, opaque exterior and a clean, smooth interior. A
tight-fitting top cover is to prevent evaporation, mosquito breeding and keep insects, rodents,
birds and children out of the tank. It is best to locate the tank in a cool place, out of sunlight,
9
Andrew Dow
so that algae do not grow. A suitable overflow outlet and access for cleaning are also
important. The tank should be placed high enough for gravity to convey the water or be fitted
with a pump.
The rainwater tank size will depend on:
• The volume of water needed

• The amount and pattern of rainfall
• The area of the collection surface
• The security of the supply needed.
A full and comprehensive list of the available fittings and attachments for rainwater
harvesting systems can be found in the appendices (Appendix A – Mico Pipelines Rain
Harvesting Systems Brochure).
3.7 Installation
The installation of the tanks is generally the responsibility of the owner, not the supplier.
However, both manufacturers and suppliers produce recommendations and guidelines for the
installation of water tanks. A copy of the installation instructions provided by RX Plastics can
be found in the Appendices (Appendix B – RX Plastics Site Preparation and Tank
Installation).
3.7.1 Site Preparation
The site should be firm, level, stable ground that adequately and uniformly supports the base
of the tank over its whole area. The area should be free from any sharp objects such as stones
or roots. If the tank foundation is cutting into a sloping section care needs to be taken to
ensure that the area will not erode. If a tank stand is used the planks should not be spaced
more than 10 mm apart (Bailey Tanks, 2008).
3.7.2 Plumbing
It is recommended that all plumbing is carried out by a registered plumber to ensure that it
complies with the New Zealand Building Code. This states that:
• Any connection between the tank and a pump should include a flexible hose to absorb
vibration
• Pipe work between tanks or rigid structures should include a flexible hose or a 90-
degree loop to allow for expansion or shrinkage with temperature changes
• The overflow should be piped away from the foundation to prevent erosion.
Also, the Bailey Tank Installation Instructions recommend the use of an appropriate-sized
holesaw to cut the hole for inlets and outlets. It also recommends avoidance of chisels and
punches.
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Andrew Dow
3.7.3 Consents
A building consent is not generally required for tanks used only for garden irrigation. A
building consent is required for any tank connected to household plumbing (Waitakere City
Council, 2008).
This includes rainwater collection systems that:
• Connect to the mains water system as a backup and therefore require a backflow
prevention device
• Exceed 25,000 litres capacity and are supported directly on the ground
• Exceed 2,000 litres capacity and are supported more than two metres above the
ground
• Exceed 500 litres capacity and are supported more than four metres above the
ground.
Tanks larger than 6,000 litres may require resource consent to ensure that they meet certain
criteria such as distances in relation to boundary, etc. (Waitakere City Council, 2008).
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Andrew Dow
4.0 BUDGET
We initially obtained funding to a value of $1,500 for this project from Christchurch City
Council (Contact: Simon Collin, CW and W Network Planning). The value of $1,500 was
chosen as we thought that would be a sufficient amount to carry out the project given that we
had no prior experience with the price of rainwater harvesting systems. The total costs for the
project were:
Table 3 - Total Required Costs

Item Number Price Cost
90° 80 mm uPVC bend 2 $4.01 $8.02
3 m length 80 mm uPVC pipe 4 $21.96 $87.84
90° 50 mm LDPE bend 2 $20.99 $41.98
25 m coil 50 mm alkathene pipe 1 $84.92 $84.92
20 mm polyethylene tank connector 1 $3.85 $3.85
20 mm BSP ball valve 1 $10.09 $10.09
20 mm sprinkler adaptor 1 $1.62 $1.62
Leaf Slide 1 $71.16 $71.16
3200L PE Foam Tank 1 $1,095.00 $1,095.00
90° 25 mm LDPE bend 2 $14.99 $29.98
25 m coil 25 mm clear tubing 1 $38.98 $38.98
Water Sampling and Testing 1 $344.24 $344.24
Personnel Hours Price Cost

Research Facilitators 480 $0.00 $0.00
David Painter 30 $0.00 $0.00
MWH NZ Ltd 12 $0.00 $0.00
Christchurch City Council 5 $0.00 $0.00
Subtotal $1,817.68
GST $227.21
Total $2,044.89
From Table 3, it can be seen that the total required cost of the project exceeds the allocated
project budget. This is not an issue however, as we were able to procure a 3,200 litre RX
Plastics foam tank, worth $1,095, at no cost. The total value actually spent on the project,
from the $1,500 budget is shown in Table 4.
Table 4 - Total Project Costs

Mico's $309.48
Hill's Lab $344.24
Subtotal $653.72
GST $81.72
Total $735.44
This is well within our allocated budget and leaves $746.56 still available. Possible uses for
this surplus are discussed in Section 9.1 Options for Further Study.
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Andrew Dow
5.0 TIMEFRAME
A complete project timeline can be seen in the Appendices (Appendix C – Project Timeline),
the key components of which are discussed in detail below.
5.1 Project Proposal and Presentation
The project proposal and presentation was on Wednesday 19 March. The feedback from the
proposal has been incorporated into this report.
5.2 Meet with CCC
Following initial correspondence with Simon Collin (CCC) (Appendix D – Initial Council
Correspondence); we met with him on Friday 4 April 2008 to discuss the project in detail.
The purpose of the meeting was to confirm that we were meeting the Council’s expectations
of the project and attempt to acquire financial backing to fund our study.
The Council recommendations following this meeting were as follow:
• Each residential property within Akaroa has a flow meter, so we do not need to
purchase and install one for the purpose of our baseline monitoring period. This
baseline monitoring period will consist of daily readings of the flow meter to measure
the current water consumption.
• A rain gauge would be required at the selected location. This would provide us with
exact data and would be more readily available than National Institute for Water and
Atmosphere (NIWA) CliFlo data which are updated only periodically.
• A newer house would be preferred for the study as, being built from modern materials,
it would give a more accurate representation of the kinds of contaminants that can be
collected in rainwater from modern buildings.
• Ken Paulin, a retired engineer living in Akaroa, could be a possibility for the location
of the rainwater harvesting system.
• The Council also wanted assurance that the study would continue for 12 months, as
this would give them the most accurate set of data to quantify reduction in potable
water demand. This was to be confirmed with Canterbury University and MWH NZ
Ltd.
As a result of the meeting we were allocated a $1,500 budget for the purpose of our study.
5.3 Establish Location
A location has been established within Akaroa. Liz Mars, a resident living on Beach Rd,
Akaroa has kindly volunteered for a rainwater tank to be installed on her property. Details of
her property are further discussed in the methodology, Section 6.1 – Selection of Location.
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Andrew Dow
5.4 Baseline Monitoring Period
With the location selected for the rainwater harvesting system, it was then possible to proceed
with the baseline monitoring period. It was intended to monitor the current consumption at the
chosen site for one month prior to installing the rainwater harvesting system. As mentioned
earlier, Akaroa is already on flow meters so we did not have to install one for the purpose of
our study.
The data collection for the baseline monitoring was done by Liz Mars and consisted of her
reading and recording the consumption at the flow meter at her property boundary on a daily
basis from 1 June to 30 June 2008. This provided us with a baseline for current potable water
consumption at her property.
5.5 Construct Rainwater Harvesting System
The system was installed at the Mars property on Thursday 26 June 2008, prior to completion
of the baseline monitoring period. This was a major milestone for our project as it signified
the commencement of the measurement and sampling period. Details of the installation
process can be found in Section 6.3 Installation of Rainwater Harvesting System.
5.6 Daily Water Measurements
Daily water measurements commenced from Tuesday 1 July 2008 and will continue for
twelve months. The measurements are being carried out by Liz Mars and the data are being
forwarded to us on Wednesday of each week. Details of this data collection are in Section 6.4
Data Collection. We then analysed the data and recorded the results for this final report. This
analysis can be found in Section 6.5 Data Analysis.
5.7 Final Report
This final report was due on Monday 6 October 2008. It includes a summary, literature
review, our methodology, data, analysis, results, discussion, conclusions and
recommendations. Copies of this report will be presented to MWH NZ Ltd and the
Christchurch City Council.
For the purpose of this Final Report, the daily water measurements continued until Tuesday
30 September. This covered approximately a three-month period for our analysis. It has
further been proposed that, for the benefit of the Council, the data collection will continue
until 30 June 2009. It is proposed that the project be continued by MWH NZ Ltd’s summer
intern over the summer months, and students in their Final Year of Natural Resources
Engineering in 2009, to give the Council the complete 12-month study they requested. A full
data analysis will also be carried out over this period.
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Andrew Dow
6.0 METHODOLOGY
The methodology for our project is as follows:
• Selection of Location
• Sizing of Tank
• Data Collection
• Water Quality Test
• Data Analysis
• Data Communication
Each of these items is discussed in further detail below.
6.1 Selection of Location
After initial discussions with both MWH NZ Ltd and Christchurch City Council, Ken Paulin,
a retired engineer living in Akaroa, was identified as a possible candidate for allowing the
study to be undertaken at his residence. Following contact with Ken it was decided not to use
his property as he would be away for the majority of June and July, right through our initial
monitoring period. However, he did offer to talk to a few locals within Akaroa and see if
anyone was interested.
As a result of Ken’s investigations he passed

on to us the contact details of Liz Mars. Liz
was intending to install a rainwater harvesting
system at her property in the near future. Liz’s
property, located at 259 Beach Rd, (Figure 1)
seemed an ideal location for our study. The
Mars residence is a three-bedroom, two-storey
building with a total roof area of 111 m2. The
house is of modern construction with a plaster
and Coloursteel exterior and a butynol roof.
This was seen as “typical” of properties within
Akaroa and as a result was selected as the
location for our study. Figure 1 - Mars Residence (Liz Mars)
There is already a rain gauge at the Mars Residence as Liz monitors the current rainfall for her
own personal interest. This means that we did not have to purchase a rain gauge as a part of
the rainwater harvesting system for the purpose of our study.
Liz’s only concern was that she would be away from 3 June to 7 June 2008, but could get
someone to come and take the readings for her. Also, as the most probable location of the tank
on her property is in a garden of New Zealand native plants, she wanted the lancewood and
kowhai trees left alone, whereas all other plants could be removed or relocated.
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Andrew Dow
6.2 Sizing of Tank
The major design component of the rainwater harvesting system is the size of the tank. The
tank must be sized to adequately store the collected roof runoff without being too big, and so
be nearly empty a lot of the time, or too small, and be nearly full all the time.
To size the tank, first we needed to know

the total amount of expected rainfall for the
region. To do this we selected a NIWA rain
station close to our chosen site. (Figure 2).
The Rain station chosen was the Onuku
Weather Station (Latitude -43.843,
Longitude 172.962). It was selected as it is
the closest rain station to the Mars property
and Liz had previously indicated that due to
the geography of Akaroa the peninsula
where her house was situated was drier than
the township. With this weather station
selected, we were able to download the
CliFlo daily rainfall records dating back to
1 January 1963. These were then analysed
and put into a table showing the total annual
rainfall depth (mm) and the average Figure 2 - NIWA Rain Station (Google Earth)
monthly rainfall depth (mm) (Appendix E –
Average Annual Rainfall). We were then able to plot the total annual rainfall on a graph
(Figure 3) to see if there were any long-term trends.
Annual Rainfall (1963 ‐ 2007)

2500
Total Annual Rainfall
Average Annual Rainfall
Standard Deviation
2000
1500
Rainfall (mm)
1000
500
0
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
Figure 3 - Total Annual Rainfall
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Andrew Dow
After examining the long-term trends of the graph it was found that the average annual
rainfall for the region was relatively consistent over the 45-year period. As such we were able
to deduce that the Annual Average Rainfall Volume was 1,283 mm/year.
With this annual average rainfall volume we were then able to follow the North Shore City
Guidelines to calculate the recommended size of the tank:
The roof area had been identified by Liz Mars as

111 m². This was calculated by multiplying the
length by the width of the collection area (Figure
4) to give the total catchment area for our study.
Figure 4 - Area of Roof Catchment

(North Shore City Council)
Using (1), we were able to calculate the total
expected amount of rainfall that would be captured by our rainwater harvesting system.
V = 0.8 × ARoof × V AnnualAverage (1)
V = 0.8 × 111 m 2 × 1283 mm / year

V = 114 m 3 / year
V = 312 litres / day
Current literature states that only 80% of rainfall is actually captured and the rain tanks are
sized to provide approximately 10 days’ storage volume for the daily expected average
volume (North Shore City Council, 2008). This means that for our daily expected average
rainfall volume over the 45 year period of 312 litres/day (114 m³/year) we should have a tank
with storage capacity of approximately 3,120 litres. The closest tank size to this is a 3,200
litres tank and is produced by all the major tank
companies.
There are no Factors of Safety in this calculation.

However, as the Mars residence has two parts to
its roof structure, a flat area and a sloped area
(Figure 5), we intend to only use the flat area
(79.73 m²) to keep the installation process tidy.
Otherwise we would have a downpipe running
horizontally across the end wall of the house,
looking unsightly and as Liz has kindly
volunteered her property for the study, we want to
keep it as tidy as possible. As a result our total
roof area is slightly smaller than what is designed Figure 5 - Mars Roof (Liz Mars)
for, but in theory there is less chance of the tank
overflowing.
Liz Mars initially requested that we install a tank with a volume of 5,000 litres as she intends
to keep the system upon completion of the study, because she feels that “Akaroa will face
summer water shortages in the not too distant future”. As a result of this she offered to meet
the extra cost involved from having a 5,000 litre tank as opposed to a 3,000 litre tank.
17
Andrew Dow
However when we explained to her how the tank was sized, including that we only intended
to used the flat part of the roof, she was happy to have just a 3,200 litre rainwater tank as
originally sized. Irrespective of this, we had hoped to get sponsored by the tank manufacturers
and get either a free or subsidised tank. A sketch of the system can be seen be seen below
(Figure 6)
6.3 Installation of Rainwater Harvesting System
The rainwater harvesting system was installed at the Mars Residence on Thursday 26 June
2008, prior to the commencement of data collection on 1 July 2008. The installation was
carried out by us, in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions (Appendix B – RX
Plastics Site Preparation and Tank Installation).
We hired a trailer for the day, at a cost of $40 for full-day hire, and drove to Mico Pipelines to
acquire the required fittings required for the installation of the rainwater harvesting system
(Appendix F – Mico Pipelines Invoice). The required fittings were:
• A leaf slide, which was attached to the downpipe above the tank
• 2 x 90° 80 mm uPVC bends, used for plumbing the tank to the downpipe
• 4 x 3 m length of 80 mm uPVC downpipe, for plumbing the tank to the house
• 3200 litre RXP foam water tank
• 2 x 90° 25 mm LDPE bends, to connect the tank level indicator to the tank
• 1.2 m of 25 mm clear tubing, for the tank level indicator
• 6 m of 50 mm alkathene pipe, used as the overflow for the tank
• 2 x 90° 50 mm LDPE bends, used as part of the overflow
• 20 mm polyethylene tank connector, for the tank outlet
• 20 mm BSP ball valve, for the outlet tap
• 20 mm sprinkler adaptor, to connect a
conventional garden hose to the outlet
We then drove out to Ashburton to pick up the

3200 litre foam tank from RX Plastics
manufacturing facility. The tank had been procured
free of charge as it was a “seconds” tank, this was
due to a bubble in the side-wall of the tank which is
an aesthetic defect and has no effect on
performance. RX Plastics also kindly donated to us
the clear tubing and two 90° 25 mm bends to be
used as the tank level indicator. Figure 6 - Conceptual Outlay of System
(Waitakere City Council)
Once the tank was loaded onto the trailer we drove
out to Akaroa to install the system. The first part of the installation involved digging out the
site for the tank to sit on. The tank required a firm level base to provide adequate support. The
area needed to be cleared of any vegetation and sharp objects to ensure the tank would not be
punctured in any way. As the tank was being situated on a hill it required a “wedge” to be cut
18
Andrew Dow
out of the hillside. The total volume of the “wedge” was approximately 1.5 m³. This
excavated material was spread around the garden area as
landscape material, and used to create a clear path to the tank
itself (Figure 7).
As there were two of us doing the installation we were able

to simultaneously dig the solid foundation for the tank, and
prepare the tank and spouting for installation. This involved
drilling the required holes in the tank for the necessary
fittings. These included:
• A 20 mm hole in the side of the tank for the outlet tap

• Two 25 mm holes in the side of the tank for the tank
level indicator
• A 50 mm hole in the side of the tank for the overflow
pipe
Figure 7 - Path to Tank
• An 80 mm hole in the top of the tank for the inlet
To prepare the spouting for the rainwater harvesting system

we had to cut away some of the existing 80 mm aluminium
downpipe to connect the leaf slide (Figure 8). Once this was
in place we replaced the removed aluminium downpipe with
80 mm uPVC downpipe of the same colour. This was done to
blend in with the existing spouting, while negating any issues
surrounding connecting uPVC downpipe to the existing
aluminium downpipe.
Once the solid foundation for the tank was prepared and the
excess soil sufficiently landscaped, we were able to roll the
tank up the hill and put it in place. With the tank in place and
level, it enabled us to install the fittings to the tank and
plumb it up to the house. This involved connecting the clear
tank level indicator up the side of the tank, installing the 20
Figure 8 - Leaf Slide mm outlet tap at the bottom the tank and attaching the 50 mm
overflow pipe to the side of the tank. In the event that the tank
should completely fill, the overflow from the tank was be piped back into the domestic
stormwater system. We then connected the 80 mm tank inlet to the 80 mm downpipe,
completing the installation of the rainwater
harvesting system (Figure 9). Prices for the
required fittings are shown in Table 3.
As a part of the manufacturers installation

instructions we were required to partly fill
the tank. For this we filled it until water
came out the 20 mm outlet tap, resulting in
approximately 100 mm water in the bottom
of the tank.
Figure 9 - Rainwater Harvesting System
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Andrew Dow
By pure coincidence the following day there was 56

mm of rainfall at the site, which completely filled
the tank. As a result of this rainfall Liz noticed that
one of the fittings at the base of the tank was leaking
(Figure 10). This required us going out to the site to
tighten the fitting and also enabled us to take photos
of the system, as it was after dark when we had
previously finished installation.
Figure 10 - Leaky Fitting (Liz Mars)

6.4 Data Collection
6.4.1 Baseline Monitoring
Baseline monitoring in this case can be defined as measuring and recording the current
potable water consumption values for the Mars residence. This can be done by reading and
recording the flow meter installed at the property boundary (Figure 11) to give the current
domestic supply consumption.
To achieve this, water use was recorded at the Mars residence for one month prior to
installing the rainwater harvesting system. The property had a flow meter installed at the
property boundary which was read and recorded daily by Liz Mars from 1 June to 30 June
2008. Also throughout the month of June the daily rainfall was measured and recorded by Liz
Mars, from her rain gauge. This allowed us to see if the rainfall captured was “typical” of the
month of June when compared to the 45-year average values for June.
At the time of the baseline monitoring period, Liz Mars washed

her car about once a fortnight and watered her garden
approximately once or twice a week. Throughout the study we
continued to find out how often these two events occurred and if
she was using rainwater to do them i.e. taking demand off the
potable supply. We also assumed that the leaks within her pipes
were negligible, due to her house being relatively new, as
substantial pipe leakage would greatly affect our results.
Unfortunately, due to the adverse weather conditions experienced

throughout our test period very little water was actually used from
the system productively in place of potable water. The
implications of this on our results are discussed fully in Section
8.0 Discussion.
6.4.2 Results Collection Figure 11 - Flow Meter
Once the data collection period had commenced, 1 July 2008, daily water measurements were
taken by Liz Mars, to determine the quantity of water collected and used throughout the study.
The measurements consisted of:
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Andrew Dow
• Recording the 24-hour rainfall depth from the rain gauge, to give us the total volume
of rainfall within each 24-hour period.
• Recording the level within the tank from the tank level indicator. This gave us the total
depth of water in the tank, from which we can calculate how much water has been
used from the tank.
• Recording the flow meter at her property boundary. This told us her current potable
water consumption from which we can work out the reduction in demand.
The tank level and rain gauge measurements were recorded daily, and the flow meter weekly
and the data was emailed to us every Wednesday.
6.5 Data Analysis
Upon receiving the weekly collected data we carried out a detailed analysis of it. This
involved examining trends and looking at how much water is used compared to how much is
collected. The data was used in conjunction with NIWA climate and rainfall (CliFlo) data for
the region to analyse the conditions accurately. The water quality tests were compared against
the New Zealand Drinking Water Standards 2005 as well as government legislation (e.g. CCC
guidelines, Resource Management Act 1991, Natural Resources Regional Plan). This
provided us with an indication of the appropriate end use of the harvested water.
6.6 Water Quality Test
Rainwater supply can be used for both potable and non-potable uses. However, this is
dependent on the water quality. One of the project objectives is to assess the quality of the
water and the implications on the end use.
Rainwater quality can be affected by exposure to air pollution caused by large industrial
action such as, cement factories, gravel quarries or a high concentration of vehicle emissions.
In this case, it was expected that the remote location should not be affected by air pollution.
We expected the main source of contamination would occur after contact with the roof
surface and subsequent delivery and storage.
A sample of tank water was collected by us on 10 September 2008 from the tank outlet and
sent away to Hill Laboratory for testing. Ideally, the sample would have been taken after a
long dry period followed by a heavy rainfall – this is expected to give the worst case water
quality results. However due to time constraints we had to just take a sample of the tank water
during “normal” working conditions. The water was tested for pH, turbidity, conductivity,
hardness, solids and coliforms as recommended by (Matt et al., 2001). Stan Abbot has also
suggested testing for E. Coli and Total Coliform count along with lead. These parameters
were compared to the Drinking Water Standards (Ministry of Health New Zealand, 2005) and
provided us with an indication of the suitable end use of the water.
21
Andrew Dow
7.0 RESULTS
7.1 Akaroa Rainfall
The first part of the analysis involved looking at what the current situation was in Akaroa.
This was done by downloading the NIWA CliFlo data for the Onuku weather station (Figure
2) and carrying out a full analysis of it (Appendix E – Average Annual Rainfall). This gave us
45 years of data to work with, from 1963 to 2007, so we were able to get an accurate
representation of what was happening in terms of rainfall within Akaroa.
Figure 3 shows that while there have been dry years; the frequency of exceptionally wet years
is decreasing. However, irrespective of this, when a line of best fit was applied to the graph it
appeared to be linear and constant, with a slightly increasing trend. As a result of this, the
average annual rainfall was plotted almost exactly over the line of best fit, and from this we
were able to determine that the 45 year, average annual rainfall value was 1283 mm/year.
When comparing this to the average annual rainfall value for Christchurch of 655 mm/year, it
can be deduced that Akaroa receives almost twice as much rain as Christchurch.
For the next part of the analysis of the NIWA CliFlo data we looked at monthly rainfall trends
over the 45-year period from 1963 to 2007. This produced Figure 12. This graph was used to
identify how the rainfall volumes experienced during our sample year (2008/2009) compare
with the 45-year monthly average rainfall volumes.
Monthly Average Rainfall
350.0 Monthly Average Rainfall
Annual Average Monthly Rainfall

300.0
Standard Deviation
250.0
Rainfall (mm)
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
t
r
e
ay
r
ch
ay
ril
ly
y
be
us
be
be
be
ar
Ju
Ap
M
ur
ar
Ju
g
nu
m
em
m
to
Au
M
br
ce
ve
Oc
Ja
pt
Fe
De
No
Se
Month
Figure 12 - Monthly Average Rainfall
It was also interesting to note from this graph that September is the fourth driest month of the
year, after the three summer months from December to February.
22
Andrew Dow
7.2 Rainwater Harvesting System
7.2.1 Baseline Period
Prior to the rainwater harvesting system being installed, we carried out a baseline monitoring
period to determine the current consumption of potable water at the Mars residence. This
involved Liz Mars reading and recording the values of the flow meter at her property
boundary from 1 June to 30 June 2008. Also, throughout this period, the daily rainfall was
measured and recorded by Liz Mars, from her rain gauge. This allowed us to see if the rainfall
captured was “typical” of the month of June when compared to the 45-year average values for
June.
Daily Water Use (June)

3500
Daily Water Use
Average Monthly Water Use

3000
2500
Water Used (litres)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2‐ ‐ 08
3‐ 08
4‐ ‐ 08
5‐ 08
6‐ ‐ 08
7‐ 08
8‐ ‐ 08
9‐ 08
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
‐Ju 8
08
10 n‐0
1 1 n‐ 0
1 2 n‐ 0
13 n‐0
1 4 n‐ 0
1 5 n‐ 0
1 6 n‐ 0
1 7 n‐ 0
1 8 n‐ 0
1 9 n‐ 0
20 n‐0
2 1 n‐ 0
2 2 n‐ 0
23 n‐0
24 n‐0
2 5 n‐ 0
26 n‐0
27 n‐0
2 8 n‐ 0
2 9 n‐ 0
30 n‐0
n‐
n‐
n‐
n‐
n‐
n
n
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
Ju
1‐
Date
Figure 13 - Daily Water Use (June)
The total volume of potable water used throughout the month of June was 12,410 litres.
Figure 13 shows that the daily volumes of water used throughout the baseline monitoring
period vary greatly. Some explanations for the variances within the graph are as follows:
• The period of no data from 4 to 7 June Liz was away so no water was used during this
period
• The spikes on 3 and 15 June Liz used both the washing machine and dishwasher on
the same day
• The extreme value on the 21 June (3,002 litres) Liz watered the Coprosma acerosa,
then had visitors arrive so the garden irrigation was left on throughout this period
• The period from 26 to 30 June Liz had a guest staying and washing machine use was
high
From this baseline data it can be determined that the average daily water use throughout this
period was 414 litres/day.
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7.2.2 Rainfall
Throughout the data collection period (1 July to 30

September) Liz Mars was measuring the 24-hour rainfall
volume from the rain gauge (Figure 14), to give us the total
volume of rainfall within each 24-hour period. These values
were compared against the CliFlo 45 year average values
for the same months to determine whether or not the rainfall
volumes experienced during our testing period were
“typical” rainfall volumes for Akaroa.
Figure 15 shows the monthly rainfall volumes as measured

from the rain gauge throughout our test period, compared
against the calculated CliFlo 45 year average rainfall
volumes for the same period.
Figure 14 - Rain Gauge
Monthly Rainfall
350.00 2008
45 Year Average
Standard Deviation
300.00
250.00
Rainfall Volume (mm)
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
July August September
Month
Figure 15 - Monthly Rainfall
From the graph it can be seen that the July rainfall value of 236.6 mm is well above the 45
year average of 171.3 mm. The August rainfall value of 152.2 mm is very close to the 45 year
average value of 159.0 mm. The September rainfall value of 52.2 mm is low when compared
to the 45 year average value of 89.4 mm. Overall it can be determined that our test period July
to September 2008, was during a “wet” winter (June to August) as there was an above average
rainfall volume. However, they are still within one standard deviation (68.2%) from the mean
so can be classified as wet but not extreme weather conditions.
It is interesting to note at this point that within any 24 hour period, 38 mm of rainfall over the
79.73 m² catchment area is all that is required to completely fill the rainwater tank from
empty.
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Andrew Dow
As discussed earlier, the total area of the Mars roof is 111 m². However for the purpose of the
study and in the interest of neatness we only utilised the flat surface area of the roof, which
was calculated to be 79.73 m². Multiplying this roof area by the collected rainfall volume for
each month it was possible to determine the total potential volume of rainwater available
during our July to September test period (Table 5).
Table 5 - Potential Rainfall Volume Available

Monthly Volume
Available (m3)
June N/A
July 15.09
August 9.70
September 3.65
Total 28.44
From this table it can be seen that the total potential volume of rainwater that could have been
collected during out testing period was 28.44 m³. However, the majority of this rainwater
volume would have flowed down the black alkathene tank overflow pipe, and into the
domestic storm water system, as the rainwater tank was full for the majority of this period.
7.2.3 Flow Meter
Also during the 1 July to 30 September data collection period Liz Mars was recording the
flow meter readings from the flow meter at her property boundary. This was required to
enable us to determine her potable water consumption throughout our test period, from which
we were able to work out the reduction in potable water demand.
Monthly Potable Water Usage
18000
16000
14000
12000
Volume Used (litres)
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
June July August September
Month
Figure 16 - Monthly Potable Water Usage
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Andrew Dow
Figure 16 displays the domestic potable water use at the Mars residence throughout the
baseline and testing periods (1 June to 30 September). The June baseline value of 12,410
litres was measured prior to the installation of the rainwater harvesting system, while the July,
August and September values were recorded with the system in place.
It is interesting to note that both the July consumption value of 15,641 litres and the August
consumption value of 13,450 litres are both greater than the June baseline consumption value,
while the September consumption value of 10,607 litres is lower. These discrepancies can
partly be explained however, as Liz was away from 4 to 7 June i.e. during the baseline
monitoring period. Also, Liz had her son staying for a period of time during the month of
July, explaining the increase in consumption.
Another possible explanation for the discrepancies between the baseline consumption value
and the July to September consumption values is due to the generally adverse weather
conditions. The cold weather and continual rainfall throughout the winter months has meant
that there has been more than sufficient water on the gardens and Liz’s windows, car and
kayak have either not required cleaning, or have not been able to be cleaned due to the
weather. These are all activities that would typically be undertaken utilising the water from
the rainwater harvesting system.
7.2.4 Rainwater Harvesting System
The final piece of data collected by Liz Mars during the 1 July
to 30 September collection period was the recording of the
water level within the tank by measuring the height of water in
the tank level indicator (Figure 16). This gave us the total
depth of water in the tank, from which we were able to
calculate the volume of water that had been used from the
system.
After analysis of the values collected by Liz, and taking into
account the dimensions of the tank (1850 mm diameter, 1558
mm high) and the height of the 50 mm alkathene overflow
pipe (1120 mm), we were able to produce Table 6 –and Figure
18, below. As the tank was full for the majority of our study,
Table 6 shows the volume of water that was emptied out of the Figure 17 - Clear Tank
tank or utilised for beneficial purposes. Level Indicator
Table 6 - Rainwater Volume Used

Volume Used
Month
(m3)
July 5.14
August 6.92
September 1.40
Total 13.46
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Andrew Dow
Rainwater Usage
6.92 m³
5.14 m³
1.40 m³
July August September
Figure 18 - Rainwater Usage
This graph shows that during July, 5.14 m³ of rainwater was used from the system; during
August, 6.92 m³ of rainwater was used from the system; and during September, 1.40 m³ of
rainwater was used from the system. Unfortunately however, these values are not indicative of
actual consumption. This is because the majority of this water was used by Liz either to
ensure the system was working correctly, or just flushed down the domestic storm water pipe
to provide variability in our readings and allow us to ensure our calculations and data analysis
were accurate.
Unfortunately, due to the adverse weather conditions, very little water was actually used from
the system productively in place of potable water. This issue and the resulting consequences
are discussed fully in Section 8.0 Discussion.
It should also be noted that even though the capacity of the tank is 3,200 litres (3.2 m³), due to
the location of the overflow pipe the maximum storage volume within the tank is 3.01 m³.
7.3 Water Quality Testing
Testing was carried out under conditions to best provide indicative results of the water
quality. The worst case scenario described as a long dry period followed by a heavy
downpour was not logistically possible within the time frame of the project. Samples were
taken from the outlet of the tank to best represent the actual water used. The outlet was
allowed to flow for about 3 minutes to flush the valve of any bacterial growth that may have
grown on the outlet and thus affected the results. At the time of sampling the tank was close
to full level.
The samples were placed in their respective bottles and kept under the recommended
temperature of 10 degrees (Figure 19). This prevents the growth or decay of the micro-
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Andrew Dow
organisms. The samples were then sent to Hills Laboratories to conduct the appropriate
testing (Appendix G – Hill Laboratories Test Results).
The parameters that were perceived to create a

problem include: pH, turbidity, conductivity,
hardness and alkalinity, Total Organic Carbon
(TOC), E. Coli and Total Coliform, and metal
concentrations – lead and aluminium. Sodium
and chloride are also tested to determine the
salt concentrations. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) are tested to determine the effect from
the vehicle traffic.
Sea salt spray may have some effect on the

water quality. Long periods of onshore winds
and squally weather conditions without rainfall Figure 19 - Water Samples
may worsen the foreseen problem. Sodium, chloride and conductivity indicate the presence of
salt.
E. Coli and Total Coliforms indicate the presence of disease causing microorganisms. Disease
causing microorganisms are known as “pathogens” and include bacteria that cause cholera
and typhoid-fever.
The presence of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) indicates the level of organic material entering
the system. The main source of organic material is from overhanging trees and windblown
leaves. Reducing the amount of TOC is essential to ensure that the system does not produce
by products due to the build up of contaminants.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are evident in areas with high traffic flow. Ashpalt roofs can also
be a source of PAHs, which are a health concern.
pH, turbidity, hardness and alkalinity all give an indication of the general quality of the water.
New Zealand rainwater has a pH of about 5.7 which can be aggressive to metals. Turbidity
will give some indication of the suspended solids in the water.
The water quality tests show an overall positive result. Two determinands showed values
outside of the maximum acceptable values (MAV) outlines by the Ministry of Health. Total
coliforms were unacceptable and the pH (6.3) was reasonable but outside of the recommended
range of 7 – 8.5. The results are shown in full compared against the Drinking Water Standards
New Zealand in Table 7.
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Andrew Dow
Table 7 - Water Quality Test Results

Parameter Value MAV Units
Turbidity 0.87 2.5 NTU
pH (Acceptable Range) 6.3 pH 7.0–8.5
(Ca + Mg) as CaCO3 1.7 100–300 mg/L
Hardness (Total) 1.1 200 mg/L
Electrical Conductivity 13.6 - mS/m
Aluminium 0.011 0.1 mg/L
Dissolved Calcium 0.11 - mg/L
Total Lead <0.00011 0.01 mg/L
Dissolved Magnesium 0.21 - mg/L
Disolved Sodium 1.7 200 mg/L
Chloride 2.7 250 mg/L
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 1.1 - mg/L
Total Coliforms and E.Coli
per
Total Coliform 120 less than 1 organism per 100ml 100ml
per
E. Coli <1 less than 1 organism per 100ml 100ml
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Trace in Water, by SPE
Acenaphthene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Acenaphthylene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Anthracene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Benzo[a]anthracene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Benzo[a]pyrene (BAP) < 0.000008 - mg/L
Benzo[b]fluoranthene + Benzo[j] fluoranthene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Benzo[g,h,i]perylene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Benzo[k]fluoranthene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Chrysene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Fluoranthene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Fluorene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Naphthalene < 0.000008 - mg/L
Phenanthrene < 0.000040 - mg/L
Pyrene < 0.000008 - mg/L
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Andrew Dow
8.0 DISCUSSION
8.1 Rainwater Harvesting System
As mentioned earlier in Section 7.1 – Akaroa Rainfall, the average annual rainfall over the
last 45 years has been relatively consistent at 1283 mm/year. When we looked at the monthly
rainfall trends over the same period there was, as expected, a high variability annually with
the winter months receiving a higher rainfall volume than the summer months. However,
interestingly enough, September was found to be the fourth driest month of the year, after the
three summer months from December to February.
When we compared this to the rainfall volumes experienced during our testing period it was
possible to conclude that the 2008 July to September winter period experienced above average
rainfall. Also throughout this period there were at least four instances of snow settling on the
Mars property roof. These have not been taken into account as it is difficult to quantify
snowmelt in terms of rainfall volume. However, given the adverse weather conditions
experienced during our 2008 July to September test period, the data can still be considered
“typical” for Akaroa as the rainfall volumes experienced were all within one standard
deviation from the 45 year annual average rainfall values.
The major implication on our study from having the adverse weather conditions experienced
is that the majority of the rainwater that could potentially be collected would have instead
flowed out the tank overflow pipe. We determined that the total potential volume of rainwater
that could have been collected during our testing period was 28.44 m³. However the actual
collected volume was far less than this. Also, due to the adverse weather many of the
activities that would typically be carried out using the collected rainwater were unable to be
done. Tasks such as watering the garden, a major rainwater consumption activity, have not
needed to be done due to the excess rainfall. In addition, activities such as cleaning windows,
the car and kayak have not been able to be undertaken due to the frequency of the rainfall
events.
During our baseline study period (June) we determined that there was a high variability of
domestic potable water consumption from day to day. The total June consumption was 12,410
litres with daily consumption values ranging from 0 litres/day through to 3,002 litres/day.
Some possible explanation for this variability has been identified:
• Liz was away from 4 to 7 June so no water was used during this period resulting in a
zero reading
• When both the washing machine and dishwasher were used on the same day it resulted
in a large increase in water consumption 3 and 15 June)
• The extreme value on the 21 June (3,002 litres) Liz watered the Coprosma acerosa,
then had visitors arrive so the garden irrigation was left on throughout this period
• The high period from 26 to 30 June Liz had a guest staying and as a result both
washing machine and shower use were increased
As noted in Section 7.2.3 – Flow Meter both the July and August consumption values are
greater than the June baseline consumption value. A possible explanation for this is that Liz
was overseas from 4 to 7 June, during the baseline monitoring period, resulting in no water
being used. An average volume of 1,656 litres could have potentially been consumed during
this period. This would result in a potential June water consumption of 14,066 litres, which is
greater than the total consumption value for August. Another identified cause of discrepancy
30
Andrew Dow
between the baseline and test consumption values is that Liz had her son staying for a period
of time during the month of July. Having another person in the house would increase the
demand on the shower, toilet, washing machine and dishwasher, which would account for the
large increase in the July consumption values.
Another possible explanation for the increase in potable water consumption between the June
baseline value and the July to September test values is again the fact that it was such a wet
winter. The continual rainfall throughout the winter months resulted in the gardens being
naturally irrigated, or in some cases flooded, negating the need for irrigation to be used. Also
due to the adverse weather conditions Liz’s windows, car and kayak have either not required
cleaning, or have not been able to be cleaned due to the weather. These activities typically
would be carried out utilising the water from the rainwater harvesting system.
Irrespective of this, all of the consumption values, July, August and September, are acceptably
close to the June baseline consumption value. Naturally you would expect consumption
variation between months as you can never expect use exactly the same volume of water each
month.
The total volume of collected rainwater used during our test period was 13.46 m³. When
comparing this to the total potential volume collected throughout this period, 28.44 m³, it can
be seen that less than half the rainwater that was potentially available has been used.
Unfortunately however, these values are not indicative of actual rainwater consumption. As
mentioned earlier the majority of this water was used by Liz either to ensure the system was
working correctly, or just flushed down the domestic storm water pipe to provide variability
in our readings and allow us to ensure our calculations and data analysis were accurate.
Again this “wasting” of water can be attributed to the wet conditions experienced throughout
our test period. Had it been a dry winter our potable water consumption would be much
higher as water would have been required to irrigate the gardens and more than likely Liz
would have cleaned the car as well. However, as the wet conditions were experienced this
could not occur.
One of our initial objectives was to produce a specification for a low cost, easy-to-use
rainwater harvesting package with associated costs. This can be found in Appendix H –
Rainwater Harvesting Specification. The total cost of such a rainwater harvesting system is
$1,995 including GST. This is derived from the total cost of our system and allowing $300 for
a pump. Realistically, without a pump, most systems cannot derive the head required to be
totally functional.
8.2 Water Quality Test
8.2.1 Physical Appearance
Notably, there was a substance on the surface of the water inside the tank. It appeared to be
pollen that may have landed on the roof and collected inside the tank and formed an
interesting fractal pattern (Figure 20). This substance appeared to have minimal effect on the
quality of the water but perhaps added to the TOC result. The water samples taken appeared
very clean to the naked eye.
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Andrew Dow
8.2.2 Effect from Salt Spray
Salt spray is detected by the presence of sodium,

chloride and electrical conductivity. Both sodium
and chloride levels were well below the MAV limit
but the electrical conductivity was relatively high.
Reasons for the low concentrations may be (1) there
is not enough sea spray to cause a problem, (2) the
weather conditions leading up to the testing diluted
the concentrations of sodium and chloride,
effectively flushing the system of the salt spray.
8.2.3 Butynol Roofing Figure 20 - Tank Water Surface
Roofing material can be the major source of contaminants. As discussed in the literature
review, older roofs that used a lot of copper pipes and lead flashings can have a significant
impact on the quality of the water. The roof can also act as a collection area for contaminants
to enter the system.
It was initially thought that the butynol roof would pose some problems because of the black
leachate that appeared to be coming out of the water. However, the water quality tests do no
attest to any significant impact on the water quality.
Further to this, butynol roof manufacturers Ardex NZ Ltd have had their product technically
assessed by BRANZ Appraisals (Appraisal No. 436 2005). This testing included appraising
the suitability of the material for use in water potable supply systems.
8.2.4 Water Quality Improvements
The only measure of water quality enhancement is the use of a leaf diverter. This is a simple
design that intercepts the water as it is conveyed through the downpipe. A section is made to
allow water to flow through the system but diverts the unwanted material. The only downside
is the possibility of losing some of the collected water if the ‘grill’ becomes blocked and
water is lost.
Further possible measures to take to ensure water quality are discussed in the literature review
in Section 3.5 – Water Quality.
8.3 Human Behavioral Response
The general feedback from the project has been positive. From our literature review and
involvement in this project we have been exposed to a movement towards rainwater
harvesting. From this study the feeling has been favourable towards a more sustainable option
for water supply– rainwater harvesting.
The improvement in the state of water supply in Akaroa will ultimately require input from the
local community. We received a response from Liz Mars, the host of the rainwater system.
Liz Mars is a long-time resident of Akaroa and actively involved in the local community. We
asked her several questions based on the performance of the rainwater harvesting system.
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Andrew Dow
These questions were both directed for her personal response and also what she thinks the
response of the local community would be.
The use of the rain water has been limited due to the fact that the very wet winter period that
coincided with the analysis period. Changes that Liz would like to see in the system are
“An increase in flow/pressure would enable me to clean all my windows

(cottage and house) and the tiled outside living area which, at present, still has
to be done using town supply water. The garden watering systems could be
connected to the rainwater system which there is no point in doing at present
without a pump.”
There is a reoccurring theme throughout literature and in Liz’s comments, this is that the
system needs to, ultimately, be functional and for the user to prefer to use the tank water over
the mains water.
In correspondence with several people in the Akaroa area, Liz believes that the residents
within Akaroa would use a similar system to the one installed at her property in place of
potable water if it was readily available. Comments include:
“Residents are very aware of the need to conserve water during the Christmas
to Easter period.
Residents are also very aware that increasing pressure will be put on the town
water supply as more and more holiday homes are built and more
holidaymakers and tourists visit Akaroa.
Current economic conditions have seen a sharp rise in the cost of living,
including the price of vegetables suitable for the home vegetable garden
and therefore we may see a lot more residents growing their own vegetables
which may provide an incentive to install a non potable water supply.
Initially there may be resistance to rainwater tanks if householders perceive

them as detracting from the look of their property. Some work needs to be done
to source variously shaped tanks of the types available in Australia. I like my
round black tank but it is not suitable for all properties and therefore the
package would need to be flexible as regards tank shape.
Akaroa has a large percentage of retired residents for whom cost will be a
major factor but retired residents do not like waste and therefore there will be a
feel good factor about using a rainwater harvesting system.
The actual amount of water available in the town supply system over the
summer months preceding the introduction of a subsidized package may play a
part. Akaroa has not had a severe drought recently and when that next occurs
the severe water restrictions that will be essential will provide an incentive for
the uptake of a Council subsidized package for existing dwellings. I do,
however, hope the Council does not wait for a severe drought to introduce a
package.”
Further, factors that she perceives as having significant weight in whether residents will use
the system, are quoted below:
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Andrew Dow
“The cost of the purchase and installation of a rainwater harvesting system.
The cost of town supply water should the Council at some point in the future
introduce a water rate.
The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting systems put in by others.”
From a resident’s perspective, Liz provides insight into how best to implement rainwater
harvesting systems within Akaroa. Ideally, packages would be available through council or
council approved ‘whole package’ suppliers and installers. There is particular interest in a
subsidy for rainwater harvesting packages and in making rainwater harvesting systems
mandatory for all new dwellings. Liz says,
“Start by making rainwater harvesting systems mandatory for all new

dwellings and also for existing dwellings that are undergoing extensive
alteration. The system can be built into the design. The latter can easily be
linked to the cost of the alterations as is done in parts of Australia.”
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Andrew Dow
9.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the literature review, it has become evident that there is a lot of information surrounding
rainwater harvesting. Systems are being improved to increase efficiency and water quality,
and ultimately supporting the move towards rainwater harvesting. In order to effectively
utilize rainwater harvesting, correct systems must be employed, as there are many factors in
water quality that must be taken seriously. Research surrounding water quality has shown the
use of first-flush diverters to be an effective measure to improve water quality.
Furthermore, to encourage the move towards rainwater harvesting there are many economic
tools that can be employed. In short, these are simply to transfer the derived benefit to the
homeowner or manufacturer. Moreover, guidelines and education tools are an effective
measure to encourage homeowners to install and use rainwater harvesting systems.
The site selected for the placement of the tank was in a garden on a hillside with approximate
gradient of 3H:1V. The tank was dug into the hillside on a stable base in accordance with the
instructions of the manufacturer. It was also plumbed to the house with uPVC fittings and a
leaf slide doubling as the connection between the existing aluminium downpipe and our
uPVC connections.
The baseline testing took place over the month of June, and for the purpose of this final report
was followed by three months of testing from July to September. However, as this study is
Council funded, they require twelve months of testing to provide them with a more accurate
result. The continuation of this study will initially be carried out by MWH NZ Ltd’s summer
intern, and then it will be offered as a research project for final year Natural Resource
Engineering students in 2009.
As already indicated, during the July to September test period for our study there was above
average rainfall and generally adverse weather conditions. This has resulted in very low water
consumption from the rainwater tank, while the potable water consumption has been fairly
consistent. As a consequence of this we have been unable to quantify the percent reduction of
potable water due to the installation of our rainwater harvesting system. However, long term
this is not an issue as the Council requires a full twelve month study.
We do have a full set of both rainfall and domestic potable water consumption data for the
Mars residence that can be used for the continuation of the study. Accompanying this is a
fully functional and problem free rainwater harvesting system set up at the site. There is also
still $764.57 left in the budget for the continuation of the study. It is our recommendation that
this surplus be used first and foremost to purchase a pump for the system, then to carry out
further water quality tests to determine whether or not seasonal variations have an effect on
the quality of the water.
As noted from our water quality testing, sea spray does not pose a threat to the water quality
unless extremely long periods of onshore winds and squally weather conditions with extended
periods of no rainfall that allows the salt spray to accumulate on the roof. It is reinforced in
our testing that the microbiological factors will remain the most pertinent factor in ensuring
acceptable water quality.
New roofing materials, including butynol, are designed and manufactured at such a standard
that they are suitable for rainwater harvesting. This fact is pertinent in that it supports the
proposed action of making it mandatory for new houses to install rainwater tanks.
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Andrew Dow
9.1 Options for Further Study
Based on our findings and things that have come to our attention in the process of this study,
further options for research in this area are detailed below.
For a more robust study there is no substitute for longer periods of testing. There is the
possibility of using June to September as the baseline period and continue onto a 12 month
study. Further, to better utilise the water supply a pump must be installed prior to summer to
make the system more functional.
The water quality sampling is a complex problem. It is recommended that ongoing water
quality testing be carried out on the rainwater harvesting system to prove the quality of the
water. If the water is required for drinking use the system should include a micro-filter.
A full survey of the Akaroa residents’ response to rainwater harvesting is a recommended

requirement to better gauge the popularity and future use of rainwater harvesting systems.
A system integrated with the grey water system (i.e. plumb the rainwater to washing machine
and toilets) is a worthy possibility to consider and provide a greater reduction in water use
from the town water supply. This will particularly true for the winter period when the water is
of little external use.
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Andrew Dow
10.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge certain people who have been indispensable in the course of
our project:
• David Painter, our Academic Supervisor.

• Katie Shorrock (MWH NZ Ltd) our Industry Supervisor.
• Simon Collin (CCC) the major stakeholder without Simon’s contacts and the
Council’s funding this project would never have occurred.
• Liz Mars, for kindly volunteering her property for the study.
• Stan Abbot, Massey Roofwater Research Centre
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Andrew Dow
11.0 REFERENCES
(Abbott, 2006, 2007; Bailey Tanks, 2008; Brad Lancaster, 2008; Chapman, Cartwright, & Tripodi, 2008; Christchurch City Council, 2007; Dr. Michael Pidwirny, 2006; Dungal, 1961; Handia et al., 2003; Harrison, 2008; Herrmann et al., 2000; Landcare Research; Marley, 2008; Matt & Cohen, 2001; Mico Pipelines, 2008; Ministry of Health New Zealand, 2005; Mohd Shahwahid et al., 2006; Morgan, 2005; North Shore City Council, 2008; Shorrock, 2008; Suutari, 2008; Sydney Water, 2008; Texas Water Development Board, 2008; Thamer Ahmed Mohammed et al.; Waitakere City Council, 2008; Zeng et al., 2007)
Abbott, S. (2006). Improving water quality with First Flush Water Diverters.
Abbott, S. (2007). Benefits Outweigh the Costs of Rainwater Harvesting. The Scoop.
Bailey Tanks. (2008). Retrieved 3 May, from http://www.tanks.co.nz
Brad Lancaster. (2008). Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond [Electronic Version],
1 Retrieved 3 May from
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=17977057.
Chapman, H., Cartwright, T., & Tripodi, N. (2008). Guidance Manual for the Design and
Installation of Urban Roof water Harvesting Systems in Australia: The Cooperative
Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment.
Christchurch City Council. (2007). Greater Christchurch Urban Development Strategy and
Action Plan. In (pp. 110 - 113). Christchurch.
Dr. Michael Pidwirny. (2006). Fundamentals of Physical Geography. Introduction to the

Hydroshpere.
Dungal, N. (1961). The special problem of stomach cancer in Ireland. Journal of the
American Medical Association, No. 8, 93-102.
Handia, L., Tembo, J. M., & Mwiindwa, C. (2003). Potential of rainwater harvesting in urban
Zambia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 28(20-27), 893-896.
Harrison, F. (2008). (pp. Personal Communication): Waitakere District Council.
Herrmann, T., & Schmida, U. (2000). Rainwater utilisation in Germany: efficiency,

dimensioning, hydraulic and environmental aspects. Urban Water, 1(4), 307-316.
Landcare Research. Retrieved May 2008, from

www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/built/liudd/raintanks.asp
Marley. (2008). Marley Rainwater Solutions. Retrieved 18 May, 2008, from

www.marley.co.nz
Matt, A., & Cohen, J. (2001). Prepared as a Vital Signs Case Study: Harvesting Rainwater - a
Case Study [Electronic Version] from
http://www.uoregon.edu/~hof/S01havestingrain/.
Mico Pipelines. (2008). Retrieved 13 May 2008, from http://www.mico.co.nz
Ministry of Health New Zealand. (2005). Draft Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
Management for New Zealand.
Mohd Shahwahid, H. O., Suhaimi, A. R., Rasyikah, M. K., Ahmad, J. S., Huang, Y. F., &
Farah, M. S. (2006). Policies and Incentives for Rainwater Harvesting in Malaysia.
Morgan, T. K. K. B. (2005). An Indigenous Perspective on Water Recycling. Wollongong,

NSW, Australia.
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Andrew Dow
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39
Andrew Dow
12.0 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A – MICO PIPELINES RAIN HARVESTING SYSTEMS BROCHURE
APPENDIX B – RX PLASTICS SITE PREPARATION AND TANK INSTALLATION
APPENDIX C – PROJECT TIMELINE
APPENDIX D – INITIAL COUNCIL CORRESPONDENCE
APPENDIX E – AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL
APPENDIX F – MICO PIPELINES INVOICE
APPENDIX G – HILL LABORATORIES TEST RESULTS
APPENDIX H – RAINWATER HARVESTING SPECIFICATION
40

Rainwater Harvesting - An Option To Reduce Demand On Water Supply

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ENNR 429 Final Year Project

Rainwater Harvesting – An Option

Shane Phillips 81630278

Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering

• The 24-hour rainfall depth from the rain gauge

• The flow meter at her property boundary

We believe that rainwater harvesting is an underutilised, alternative source of water. It can be

ARoof Roof Area (m²)

V AnnualAverage Annual Average Rainfall Depth (mm)

6.4 Data Collection........................................................................................................20

APPENDIX A – MICO PIPELINES RAIN HARVESTING SYSTEMS BROCHURE

Table 1 - 2004 - 2041 Population and Demand Data for Akaroa...............................................2

Figure 1 – Mars Residence .......................................................................................................15

1.0 AKAROA – SETTING THE SCENE

2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

• To install a rainwater harvesting system at a selected location in Akaroa

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

• Examples of rainwater tanks in use in New Zealand

3.1 Rainwater Tanks Use in New Zealand

3.2 End Use

• Watering the garden and lawn

• Washing vehicles and boats

3.3 Council Incentives

i) Providing water audits to homeowners,

3.3.2 Tax and Cost Rebate

Further, as there is a relatively short supply of manufacturers and suppliers of rainwater

3.3.4 Education and Raising Awareness

In Australia, certain state governments have introduced a “rainwater tanks in schools”

3.3.6 Restriction in Usage

3.4 Behavioural Considerations

3.4.1 Human Behaviour

3.4.2 Climate Change

3.5 Water Quality

3.5.1 Contaminant Sources

3.5.2 Methods to Improve Water Quality

Treatment of rainwater can be avoided by following preventative measures and maintaining

3.6 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System

3.6.1 Gutters and Downpipes

3.6.2 First Flush

3.6.4 Storage Tanks

There are a lot of options available in tank materials, including:

The rainwater tank size will depend on:

• The volume of water needed

3.7.1 Site Preparation

This includes rainwater collection systems that:

Table 3 - Total Required Costs

Personnel Hours Price Cost

Table 4 - Total Project Costs

5.1 Project Proposal and Presentation

5.2 Meet with CCC

The Council recommendations following this meeting were as follow:

5.3 Establish Location

5.4 Baseline Monitoring Period

5.5 Construct Rainwater Harvesting System

5.6 Daily Water Measurements

5.7 Final Report

The methodology for our project is as follows:

Each of these items is discussed in further detail below.

6.1 Selection of Location

As a result of Ken’s investigations he passed

6.2 Sizing of Tank

To size the tank, first we needed to know