Anatomy and Physiology Core Concept Master Cheat Sheet
O1: Introduction to Human Physiology
• Physiology: Physiology is the science of body functions; it
is the study of mechanical, physical and biochemical
properties of living organisms.
• Levels of Organization: Chemical - made up of atoms and
molecules, Cell - are basic structural and functional units of
an organism. Tissue - groups of cells & the surrounding
environment that work together to produce a specific
function. Organ – organs are structures that are made of
two or more different types of tissues, they have specific
functions & a defined shape.
• There are 11 Organ Systems: 1. The Integumentary
System, 2. The Skeletal System, 3. Muscular System,
4. Nervous System, 5. Endocrine System, 6. Cardiovascular
System, 7. Lymphatic & immune system, 8. Respiratory
System, 9. Digestive System, 10. Urinary System and 11.
Reproductive System.
• Homeostasis: The process through which a nearly stable
internal environment is maintained in the body so that
cellular functions can proceed at maximum efficiency.
02: Chemical Basis of Life
• Organic Molecules: Monosaccharides contain C, H, and O
(1:2:1), Amino acids R-group specifies the identity (20
standard) as well as H20 solubility, Fatty acids are
hydrocarbon chain plus a carboxyl group and Nucleotides
are polymers which function as genetic material.
• Buffer Solutions: Buffers are solutions of weak acids or
weak bases that resist changes in pH. HCO3_/H2CO3 helps
maintain the blood pH around 7.4.
• Biochemical Reactions: The first law: the total energy of
the universe is always conserved and the second law: the
universe tends towards maximum disorder.
• Gibbs Free Energy: is the net change in free energy
(products – reactants), given as kcal/mol or kJ/mol.
• Enzymes: Energy of activation (Ea) = the free energy
necessary to start a reaction.
• Enzyme Activity: Increase [substrate] and [enzyme] will
increase the reaction rate until all the enzyme’s active sites
are filled (Vmax).
• Eneregy of Activation: is defined as the free energy
necessary to start a reaction, enzymes loer the energy of
activation.
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03: Cells: The Basic Unit of Life
• Cell Structure: The major parts of a cell are the nucleus,
cytoplasm, and cell membrane.
• Nucleus: The nucleus on the control center of the cell,
contains a nucleolus and is separated from the cytoplasm by
the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains the cell’s DNA, a
type of nucleic acid.
• Organelles: Are compartmentalized structures that perform
a specialized function within a cell. Golgi apparatus: ships
packages around the cell. Lysosome: destroy waste to clean
up the cell. Smooth ER synthesizes carbohydrates (sugars)
and lipids (fats). Mitochondria: produce energy to power the
cell. Ribosomes: make proteins for the cell. Rough ER helps
the attached ribosomes in finishing protein synthesis.
• Cell Membrane: A selectively permeable structure that
envelops the cell and protects the cell’s internal environment.
Plasma Membrane, the cell’s membrane is made of
phospholipids, which have carbohydrate heads and lipid tails.
• Cell Types: Prokaryotic: include bacteria and other
microscopic organisms and the do no have any complex
organelles (not even a nucleus). Eukaryotic: include plant
and animal cells.
04: Tissues of the Human Body
• Epithelial Tissue: Is made of cells arranged in a continuous
sheet with one or more layers, has apical & basal surfaces.
• Types of Epithelail Tissue: (1) Covering & lining epithelia
and (2) Glandular Epithelium.
• Connective Tissue: contains many different cell types
including: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and
adipocytes.
• Muscle Tissue: is divided into 3 categories, skeletal, cardiac
and smooth.
• Nervous Tissue: Consists of only two cell types in the
central nervous system (CNS) & peripheral nervous system
(PNS): Neurons and Neuroglia.
• Development: All tissues of the body develop from the
three primary germ cell layers that form the embryo:
Mesoderm, Ectoderm and the Endoderm.
• Cell Junctions: there are a number of types of junction used
by cells - tight Junctions, gap Junctions, adherens Junctions,
desmosomes and hemidesmosomes.
Epithelail Tissue:
 05: The Integumentary System
• Integument as an Organ: is an alternative name for skin.
The integumentary system includes the skin and the skin
derivatives hair, nails, and glands.
• Derivatives of the Integument: Hair: functions include
protection & sensing light touch, Nails: participate in the
grasp & handling of small things and Glands: participate in
regulating body temperature.
• Functions of the Skin: Thermoregulation - Evaporation of
sweat & Regulation of blood flow to the dermis, Cutaneous
sensation - Sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain,
warmth or coolness, Vitamin D production - UV sunlight &
precursor molecule in skin make vitamin D, Protection – The
sin acts as a physical barrier and Absorption & secretion –
The skin is involved in the absorption of water-soluble
molecules and excretion of water and sweat.
• Epidermis – The Epidermis is the thinner more superficial
layer of the skin. The epidermis is made up of 4 cell types:
(A) Keratinocytes, (B) Melanocytes, (C) Langerhan Cells and
(D) Merkel cells - participates in the sense of touch.
• Dermis: is the deeper, thicker layer composed of connective
tissue, blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles. The
epidermis contains 3 cell types: (A) Adipocytes, (B)
Macrophages and (C) Fibroblasts.
06: Bone, Bone Tissue and Joints
• Types of Bones: Muscles are attached to bones and use the
bones as an anchor from which to exert forces that result in
limb movement. There 4 main groups of bones: Long bones,
Short bones, Flat bones and Irregular bones.
• Clacium Storage: Calcium is stored primarily in bones and
is released into the blood in response to hormones. Calcium
is released into the bloodstream in response to parathyroid
hormone (PTH). Calcium is deposited in bone in response to
decreased PTH levels and increased calcitonin (CT) release
from the thyroid gland.
• Bone Structure: bone is a complex array of osteocytes,
canals and blood vessels. Bone matrix is made up of
Osteons, which are long narrow cylinders containing both
Haversian and Volkmann canals and Volkmann’s canals
which connect the individual osteons to each other and to
the periosteum.
• Bone Marrow: The bone marrow is the site of red blood
cells, white blood cell and platelet production. B-Cells and T-
Cells are produced in the bone marrow and then circulate to
other lymphoid organs to be stimulated by antigens.
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07: Axial Skeleton
• Axial Skeleton: provides: (a) structural support for the
body, (b) attachment points for ligaments and muscles, and
(c) protects the brain, spinal cord and major organs of the
chest. The axial skeleton includes bones of the skull, inner
ear, chest and spinal column.
• Bones of the Head: Can be categorized into two groups: (A)
bones of the skull and (B) bones of the face. Bones of the
skull: Frontal bone, Parietal bones, Temporal bones, Occipital
bone, Ethmoid bone, Sphenoid bone and the Palatine Bones.
Bones of the Face: 2 nasal, 2 maxilla, 2 zygomatic, 2
lacrimal, mandible, 2 palatine, 2 inferior nasal conchae and
vomer.
• Bones of the Inner Ear: The bones of the inner ear are
called the (a) Malleus (hammer), (b) Incus (anvil) and (c)
Stapes (stirrup). These bones function together to transmit
sound waves from the external environment to the fluid filled
cochlea.
• Bones of the Chest: Clavicles (or collar bones), twelve ribs -
in the rib cage, 10 pairs that are joined to the sternum and
spine and 2 floating pairs, Scapula: also known as the
shoulder bladeand the Sternum: also known as the
breastbone.
• Vertebral Column: is divided into 3 regions – Cervical,
thoracic and lumbar.
08: Appendicular Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton: includes the shoulder girdle, arm
and hand, leg and foot.
• Bones of the Shoulder: The shoulder joint provides a
connection between the chest and the arm. The shoulder
includes: Clavicle, Scapula and the Humerus.
• Bones of the Upper Extremity: Humerus, Radius and the
Ulna.
• Bones of the Pelvis: The pelvis is located at the base of the
spine and contains two sockets for articulation with the lower
extremities. It contains 3 bones: Ilium, Ischium and the
Pubis.
• Bones of the Lower Extremity: the leg bones are the
largest bones of the body and, along with the ankle and feet,
provide support for standing and walking. Femur, Tibia and
the Fibula.
 09: Muscles and Muscle Tisuue
• Organization of Muscles: Cardiac: Cardiac muscle is an
involuntary striated muscle found exclusively in the heart,
Smooth: Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated
muscle found in the walls of hollow organs such as the
bladder, and in blood vessels and Skeletal muscle fibers are
made up of many myofibrils surrounded by sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
• Sarcomere: dark striations of skeletal muscle that are
made up of a lattice of thick and thin filaments, made up of
actin and myosin.
• Sliding Filament Model: after the signal to contract comes
from the central nervous system, an action potential spreads
over the muscle fiber.
• Excitation-Contraction coupling: is the process by which
an action potential causes calcium (Ca2+) release and cross
bridge cycling.
• Length-Tension Relationship: The amount of tension
(force of contraction) a skeletal muscle creates is
dependent, in part, on the length of the muscle itself.
Sarcolemma
Muscle Fiber
(Plasma Membrane)
Transverse
Tubule
Nucleus
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
10: The Muscular System
• Muscle Naming System: Muscles are named, based on
various characteristics: location, size and number of
insertions.
• Muscle Lever Action: Skeletal muscles produce movement
by contracting and exerting force on tendons, which in turn
pull on bones. When producing a body movement, the bones
act as levers and the joints act as fulcrums.
• Muscles of the Head and Neck: orbicularis, buccinator,
frontalis, occipitalis, masseter, temporalis and
sternocleidomastoid.
• Muscles of the Neck and Shoulder: Sternocleidomastoid,
Trapezius, Deltoid, Rotator Cuff.
• Muscles of the Chest: include the Pectoralis Major,
Pectoralis Minor and the Intercostal Muscles.
• Muscles of the Back: include the Trapezius, Latissimus
Dorsi and the Serratus Posterior.
• Muscles of the Arm: include the Coracobrachialis, Biceps,
Brachialis and the Triceps.
First –class Lever Second –class Lever Third–class Lever
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11: The Nervous System
• Nervous System: The system of cells, tissues, and organs
that regulates the body's responses to internal and external
stimuli.
• Neuron: The basic functional unit of the nervous system,
consisting of a cell body, and its processes – the dendrites,
axon and terminal branches.
• Neurotransmitter: Biological molecules released from the
terminal branches in response to a propagating action
potential.
• Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes nerves in the
brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes all nerves
outside the CNS.
• Somatic Motor System: Controls voluntary movement.
• Autonomic Motor System: Controls involuntary muscle
movement (i.e. heart beat); sympathetic control increases
effects and parasympathetic control decreases effects.
The Nervous System
Central Peripheral
Brain Spinal Cord Motor Sensory
Autonomic Somatic
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
12: Central Nervous System
• Neuron: The basic functional unit of the nervous system,
consisting of a cell body, and it’s processes: the dendrites,
axon, and terminal branches.
• Synapses: The space between Terminal branches of one
neuron and the dendrites of another into which
neurotransmitters are released.
• Dendrites: The neuronal processes that detect
neurotransmitters from adjacent neurons.
• Terminal Branches: The part of the neuron which sends
impulses to another neuron.
• Axon: The major process that conducts impulses from the
dendrites to the terminal branches.
• Myelin Sheath: The fatty membranes that cover the axon,
allowing for faster electrical conduction.
• Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath. The electrical
impulses jump from one node to the next on an axon.
• Electrical Potential: A separation of charge, which gives the
ability to send electricity.
• White Matter: CNS tissue made up of myelinated neurons
providing pathways of communication between grey matter
areas.
• Grey Matter: CNS tissue made up of unmyelinated
interneurons involved in information processing.
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 13: Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System: The system of cells, tissues, and organs
that regulates the body's responses to internal and external
stimuli.
• Impulse: The electrochemical signal transmitted down a
neuron.
• Axon: The major process that conducts impulses from the
dendrites to the terminal branches.
• Myelin Sheath: The fatty membranes that cover the axon,
allowing for faster electrical conduction.
• Ventral Root: contains motor neurons.
• Mixed Nerves: Nerves that contain both sensory and motor
neurons.
• Reflex Arc: A simple neural circuit that includes an afferent
sensory neuron, an interneuron, and an efferent motor
neuron that does not rely on any input from the brain.
• Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary motor
systemAutonomic System: Involuntary nervous system.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System: The part of the
Autonomic system that inhibits function.
• Sympathetic Nervous System: The part of the Autonomic
system that inhibits function.
14: Sensory Nervous System
• Homeostasis: a state or tendency towards equilibrium.
• Baroreceptors: detect pressure in the vasculature.
• Proprioception: sensors that detect the position and
motion of the body.
• Mechanoreceptors: receptors that respond to tension,
pressure or displacement.
• Taste receptors: detect the five different tastes; sweet,
salty, bitter, sour.
• Olfactory system: organs and nerves that detect aromatic
compounds; smell.
• Organ of Corti: elegant organ in the inner ear designed to
detect sound waves.
• Hair cells: mechanoreceptors in the organ of corti that have
ion channels that open in response to displacement of the
cells.
• Retina: the back of the eye and the neural portion of the
eye.
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15: The Endocrine System
• Endocrine System: Allows communication between and
coordination among the various organ systems in the body.
• Endocrine glands: Produce and release chemicals called
hormones directly into the bloodstream.
• Exocrine glands: Secrete their products into ducts for
transport to their target sites.
• Hormones: Substances secreted by endocrine organs that
travel through the bloodstream to effect changes in the body
that contribute to homeostasis.
• Peptide hormones: Small peptides (e.g., anti-diuretic
hormone) or more complex polypeptides (e.g., insulin) that
act as hormones.
• Steroid hormones: Lipid-derived molecules, such as
estrogen, that function as hormones.
• Amino acid-derived hormones: Hormones made from one
or two modified amino acids, such as epinephrine.
• Pituitary gland: Gland at the base of the brain; has anterior
and posterior lobes that secrete hormones. Oversecretion is
prevented via negative feedback.
Ovary
FSH
LH
Day of Cycle
16: Cardiovascular System
• Cardiovascular System: delivers oxygen and nutrients to
the tissues and removes carbon dioxide and waste from
tissues.
• Pulmonary Circuit: The blood circulation pathway from the
heart to the lungs, that involves releasing carbon dioxide and
picking up oxygen.
• Systemic Circuit: The blood circulation pathway from the
heart to the body, that involves delivering oxygen to the
tissues and picking up carbon dioxide from the tissue.
• Heart: An organ specialized for pumping blood.
• Arteries: Blood vessels that go away from the heart.
• Veins: Blood vessels, which return toward the heart.
• Action Potential: initial depolarization due to an influx of
Na+ followed by a repolarization due to an efflux of K+.
• Sinoatrial Node: the SA node generates an action potential,
which then spreads over the atria, followed by their
contraction.
• Atrioventricular Node: the A-V node receives the action
potential from the atria and pacemaker cells continue the
signal to contract, the action potential spreads over the
ventricles, followed by their contraction.
Sinoatrial
Node
 17: Lymphatic and Immune Systems
• Pathogens: Are infections agents that cause illness or
disease.
• B-Cells: Develop in the bone marrow and become antibody
producing plasma cells.
• T-Cells: Develop in the thymus and differentiate into T-
Helper cells or T-Cytotoxic cells.
• Antibody Structure: Made up of 2 heavy chains and light
chains held together by disulfide bridges. Antibody diversity
is due to various combinations of heavy and light chain
variable regions.
• Lymph Node: located throughout the body and serve as
filters.
• Lymphatic System Organs: Primary: bone marrow and
thymus. Secondary: spleen, lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches
and tonsils.
• Lymphatic System Function: Equalize fluid distribution,
return material to the blood and produce antibodies and
sensitized lymphocytes.
• Lymph Fluid: Originates from fluid in the interstitial space
and is transported by tissue pressure and 1-way valves.
18: Respiratory System
• Respiratory System: acts to protect the body by trapping
and removing particulate matter and pathogens, before they
enter the bloodstream.
• Gas Exchange: Oxygen is delivered to the tissues and
carbon dioxide removed from the tissues.
• Gas Exchange: exchange of gases takes place in the
alveoli.
• Diaphragm: actively contracts during inspiration and
relaxes during expiration passively.
• Lung Pressure: at the end of expiration and just before
the beginning of inspiration, the pressure inside the lung is
the same as atmospheric pressure.
• Lung Pressure During Inspiration: at the beginning of
inspiration the pressure inside the lung is lower than the
atmospheric pressure.
• Lung Pressure During Expiration: at the beginning of
expiration the pressure inside the lung is higher than the
atmospheric pressure.
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19: Digestive System
• Digestive System: absorbs food and water, provides
mucosal immunity and stores/eliminates waste.
• Stomach: food is stored in the fundus prior to mixing with
gastric juices in the pyloric region.
• Liver: produces bile, which is, stored and concentrated in
the gallbladder. Bile breaks down fat for absorption.
• Gallbladder: ejects stored bile in response to the hormone
CCK, via the common bile duct.
• Pancreas: produces trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen,
which digest proteins in the duodenum.
• Small Intestine: is divided into three main segments:
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
• Absorption of Nutrients: takes place in the small
intestine. Glucose and amino acids are transported into
intestinal epithelial cells in a sodium dependent manner.
• Large Intestine: last stage of digestion via bacterial
action. Primarily responsible for the absorption of water and
ions such as sodium.
• Enteric Nervous system: can control the digestive system
independently of the CNS.
20: Metabolism and Nutrition
• Metabolism: After food is ingested digestion takes place in
the stomach and small intestine, eventually nutrients are
absorbed in the small intestine.
• Small Intestine: is lined with villi, which increase the
surface for absorption. On the surface of the villi there are
brush border enzymes, which facilitate the final process in
digestion, reducing proteins and carbohydrates to amino
acids and sugars (the form absorbed by the intestine).
• Absorption of Water and Ions: Water and electrolyte ions
(Na+, Ca2+, Cl-) move across the intestinal epithelial cells by
passive diffusion and are absorbed into the bloodstream.
• Absorption of Food Molecules: Glucose and the other
simple sugars are transported across the intestinal epithelial
cells by a GLUT transporter. Amino acids are transported
across the intestinal epithelial cells by four sodium dependent
amino acid transporters.
• ATP Production: Protons (H+) move down their
concentration gradient (from high to low) into the
mitochondrial matrix. The energy of this gradient is used to
drive the energy consuming reaction ADP converted into ATP.
 21: The Urinary System
• Homeostasis: A series of processes that allow organisms
to maintain a stable internal environment.
• Osmoregulation: The regulation of water and solute
concentrations that contributes to homeostasis.
• Excretion: The removal of waste products, excess
substances, or possibly toxic compounds from the body.
• The Urinary System: A collection of organs (2 kidneys, 2
ureters, one bladder, and one urethra) that contribute to
homeostasis through osmoregulation and excretion.
• Renal Tubule: The segment of the nephron that is
involved in reabsorption of essential solutes and water
from the glomerular filtrate back into the body tissues. Its
permeability to various compounds change along its
length.
• Proximal tubule: The main site of reabsorption of
nutrients, water, and salt (75% of the glomerular filtrate is
reabsorbed here).
• Collection duct: A tubular structure that collects the urine
from the distal tubules of multiple nephrons. The
collection duct is involved in transferring the urine to the
ureter for subsequent transport to the bladder.
cortex
pelvis
Renal artery
Renal vein
ureter
medulla
22: Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
• Body Fluid: Body Fluid: Water Accounts for 60% of Total
Body Weight, Body Fluid Is Comprised of 3 Compartments:
(1) Total Body Water, (2) Intra, Extra-cellular Fluid and (3)
Interstitial Fluid.
• Osmolality: is a measure of the osmoles of solute per
kilogram of solvent. An osmole is the unit of measure that
defines the number of moles of a molecule that contributes
to a solution’s osmotic pressure. In other words, for body
fluids, it reflects the number of moles of Na+, K+ etc that
contribute to the osmotic pressure of the body fluid.
• Body Fluid Movement: Water moves into the compartment
with a higher solute concentration or osmolality, until
equilibrium is reached between the two compartments.
• Acid-Base Imbalance Compensation: stimulating the
respiratory center and causing an increase in respiratory
frequency compensates for Acidosis. Stimulating the
respiratory center and causing a decrease in respiratory
frequency compensates for metabolic Alkalosis.
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23: The Reproductive System
• Gonads: The sites of gamete production: testes in males,
ovaries in females.
• Gametes: Haploid germ cells: spermatozoa in males, ova in
females. The germ cells fuse their nuclei during fertilization.
• Gametogenesis: The formation of the gametes through
meiosis; spermatogenesis in males occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes and oogenesis in females
occurs in the ovaries.
• Meiosis: A type of cell division that creates four haploid
daughter cells from a single diploid parental cell. Mitosis
creates two diploid daughter cells.
• Genitals: The sex organs (i.e., those organs or body parts
involved in sexual reproduction). Male genitals include the
penis, urethra, testicles, epididymis, bulbourethral glands,
and seminal vesicles. Female genitals include the vulva
(clitoris and labia), vagina, cervix, uterus, ovaries, and the
fallopian tubes.
• Fertilization: Penetration of the ovum by a sperm cell using
the degradative enzymes stored in its acrosome. The outer
membranes of the ovum degrade, and the nuclei of the two
gametes fuse to form the zygote.
spermatogonium (1 cell, diploid)
1° spermatocyte (1 cell, diploid)
First meiotic division
2° spermatocytes (2 cells, haploid)
Second meiotic division
spermatids (4 cells, haploid)
spermatozoa (mature, haploid)
24: Development and Inheritance
• Mitosis: cell duplication and division to produce another 2N
daughter cell.
• Meiosis: cell duplication followed by two cell divisions to
produce 1N germ cells.
• Gene: functional unit of DNA, specifies a trait.
• Allele: one of the two copies of the same gene in a cell.
• Implantation: burrowing of embryo into uterine wall.
• Gastrulation: cell movements that form three germ layerso
Ectoderm: outer cell layer
Endoderm: inner cell layer
Mesoderm: middle cell layer
• Chorionic villi: branch-like structures that absorb nutrients
from maternal blood.
• Placenta: connects embryo to mother, provides nutrients
and oxygen
Fertilization Blastocyst
Placentation