1

LA 303 ELECTRICAL TECHONOLOGY

FOR S3 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

MODULE I-D.C. GENERATOR

D.C. Generator-O.C.C- Condition for self excitation-field critical resistance-critical

speed-Load characteristics of generators-Losses-power flow diagram-efficiency-condition for
maximum efficiency-applications.

Introduction

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy in to

electrical energy. A d.c. generator generates direct current (d.c.). It works on the principle of
dynamically induced e.m.f. which states that 'whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic field an
e.m.f. is induced in it. Hence the essential requirement of a generator are (1) a magnetic field
(2) a conductor (3) a mechanism for the movement of the conductor so as to cut the flux.

************************

The working of a generator can easily be explained by considering a single loop

generator as shown in figure. Consider a single turn rectangular coil ABCD rotating about its
own axis in a magnetic field produced by magnets N and S. The ends of the coil are
connected to two slip rings. Two brushes press against the slip ring to collect current induced
in the coil to the external circuit. As the coil rotates in the clockwise direction the flux linked
with it changes and an e.m.f. is induced in the coil which is proportional to the rate of change
 dφ 
of flux linkage e = N  . When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the flux times,
 dt 
flux linkage is maximum, but the rate of cutting the flux is minimum and hence the voltage
induced will be zero. When the coil has rotated by 900, the plane of the coil is parallel to the
flux lines, and the flux linkage will be minimum. But the rate of change of flux will be
maximum and the induced voltage also will be maximum. At 180 0, The voltage will be zero,
at 2700, voltage will be maximum in the opposite direction and at 3600, the voltage will be
zero again. Voltage induced in the coil can be represented as shown below.

********************

Hence it may be seen that the induced voltage is alternating. For making the current
unidirectional in the external circuit, slip rings are replaced by commutator in a d.c. generator.

Working Principle of a Commutator

The working of a commutator can be easily explained by considering one rectangular

coil and a split ring which is equivalent to a commutator having only two segments. In the
************************
first half cycle, the direction of induced voltage and current in coil sides AB and CD will be
as shown in fig (1) AB is connected to segment 'a' of the split ring and CD is connected to
segment 'b' - 1 and 2 are the brushes. In the first case the direction of current in the load is
from M to L. After 1800 rotation, the position of coil will be riversed and the direction of
induced current in coil sides AB and CD will be riversed. But now brush '1' makes contact
with segment 'b' and 2 with 'a'. Hence in the external circuit current flow is in the same
direction as M to L. Hence, by employing a split ring, the alternating current induced in the
armature can be converted to direct current in the external circuit. In a practical generator,
there are no of coils and hence the split ring is replaced with commutator having no of
segments.

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Parts of a d.c. generator

A d.c. generator consists of the following parts:-

1) Magnetic frame or yoke
2) Poles and pole shoes.
3) Field coils
4) Armature core
5) Armature winding **********************
6) Commutator
7) Brushes and Bearings

Yoke
It provide mechanical support for the poles and carries magnetic flux. Yoke is made
of either cast iron, cast steel or rolled steel.

Poles and Pole shoes

The pole core may be a solid piece made of cast iron or cast steel and the pole shoe is
laminated and is fixed to the pole core. In another design, both pole core and pole shoe are
laminated. The pole shoes spread out the flux in the air gap and also they support the field
winding.

Field Winding

Consists of copper wire or strip, former wound for the correct diamension and the
wound coil is placed over the pole core. When current passes through these coils, they
electro-magnetise the poles, which produces the necessary flux which is cut by the revolving
armature conductors.

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Armature Core

It houses the armature conductors and also it provides low reluctance path for the
flux. It is cylindrical shaped, made of circular steel laminations of thickness approximately
0.5mm. It is keyed to the shaft. Slots are cut in the outer perifery. For larger machines, the
armature core stampings are made in segments.

Armature Winding

Armature winding is also former wound in the form of flat rectangular coils. The
coils are placed in the armature slot and secured in place by special hard wood or fibre
wedges.

Commutator

The function of the commutator in to collect current from the armature conductors. It
converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors to direct current. It is a
cylindrical structure and is built up of hard drawn copper segments insulated from the shaft
and from each other with mica. Each commutator segment in connected to armature
conductors.

Brushes and Bearings

Brushes are for collecting current from the commutator. It is usually made of carbon
or graphite and is placed in brush holders and a spring presses the brush against commutator.
A flexible copper pigtail conveys the current from brush to brush holder. The brush holders
are mounted on the end cover. Bearings are provided at both ends of the shaft.

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Armature winding types

There are two types of armature winding (1) wave winding (2) Lap winding. In wave
winding, no: of parallel paths are two. For lap winding, no: of parallel paths re equal to no of
poles Due to this for the same no. of armature conductors wave wound generator gives higher
voltage and lesser current where as lap, wound generator gives lesser voltage and higher
currents.

EMF Equation of a generator

Let φ Flux per pole in Weber

Z-Total No. of armature conductors
= No. o slots x No. of conductors per slot.
P-No. of poles
A- No. of parallel paths
(A=2 for wave winding, A=P for lap winding)
N-Speed in rpm (Revolution per minute)
Total flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = P φ Web (=d φ)
Time taken for N revolution = 60 Second (1 minute)
∴Time for one revolution = 60 N
Sec. (=dt)
dφ
Average voltage induced per conductor = (Since N=1)
dt
Pφ PφN
= = volts
(60 / N ) 60

Z
No. of conductors per parallel path =
A
PφN Z
∴Total voltage induced in one parallel path = 60 A
volts
φZN P
= Volt
60 A
where A= 2 for wave winding
A = P for lap winding

Types of Generators

Generators are classified according to the method of excitation of the field winding.
Firstly it is classified as (1) separately excited generator (2) self excited generators.

1. Separately excited generators

Generators, whose field is excited from an ****************

independent external source in called
separately excited generator

2. Self excited generator

In this case, the field winding is excited by the voltage produced by the generator
itself. There are three types of self excited generators depending on the manner in which the
field winding is connected to the armature.
a) Shut Generator

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The field winding is connected in ****************

parallel with the armature winding. It is
wound with small wires and no.of turns are
more.

b) Series generator
************** The field winding is connected in series with
the armature winding. Full armature current
flows through field winding also. Hence it is
wound with thick wires and the no. of turn
are less.

c) Compound generator

In this case the field, winding is a combination of few series winding and shunt
winding. Depending upon the method of its connection, it is again classified as Long shunt
and short shunt compound generators.

*************************

In a compound generator shunt field is stronger than series field. If the series field
aids the shunt field, the generator is called cumulatively compounded generator. If the series
field opposes the shunt field, then the generator is called differentially compounded generator.

Voltage and current relation in various types of generators.

Part of the voltage induced in the generator is dropped in the armature resistance and
series field resistance (In case of series generators) and part of it is dropped as brush contact
drop (normally it is 1 volt per brush and hence 2v total). Part of the armature current flows
through the shunt field and balance flow through load. When we say voltage of the generator
it is to be considered as terminal voltage. From the above, the following voltage and current
relation can be arrived at.

Let IL = Load current

V = Terminal voltage
φZN P
Eg = Generated emf =
60 A
Ia = Armature current
Ish = Shunt field current
Ra = Armature resistance (usually less than 1 ohm)
Rsh = Shunt field resistance (50 Ωto 150 Ω)

Rse = Series field resistance (less than 1 Ω)

1. Separately Excited generator

Ia = IL
V = Eg - I LRa
2. Shunt generator

Ia = I L + Ish

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V
Ish =
Rsh
Eg = V+ Ia Ra
3. Series Generator

Ia = IL
Eg = V+Ia Ra + Ia Rse = V+Ia (Ra+Rse)
4. Long shunt generator
V
Ish =
Rsh
Ia = I L + Ish
Eg = V+Ia Ra+Ia Rse
5. Short shunt generator

V +I L Rse
Ish =
Rsh
Ia = I L +Ish
Eg = V+ I L Rse + Ia Ra
Note: If brush contact drop is mentioned the same has to be added to get Eg.

Open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.)

It is also known as no load characteristics or magnetisation characteristic. It shows
the relation between the field current, if and the no load generated e.m.f. E 0 at a given fixed
speed. Its shape is the same for all types of generators.

****************
The O.C.C. of a d.c. generator is determined as follows. The field winding is
disconnected from the armature (whether series or shunt) and is separately excited from an
external d.c. source as shown in figure 3.1(ii). The generator is run at rated speed. If can be
varied by varying the resistance. The ammeter gives the value of field current If and
voltmeter gives the value of induced voltage, Eo. By plotting a curve between If and Eo, a
curve as shown in figure 3.1(i) in obtained. This curve is known as O.C.C. of the generator.

When If = 0 there will be a small voltage induced in the armature due to residual
magnetism. When If is increased Eo increases. There is a slight curvature at the initial portion
due to magnetic inertia. There after up to point B the graph is almost a straight line. After
point B, the poles get saturated and graph flatens. The O.C.C. for a higher speed will lie
above this graph.

O.C.C. of a shunt generator

The circuit diagram is shown above. The ****************

shunt field winding is connected across the
armature. A rheostat is put in the circuit to
vary the field current.
Ammeter measures the field current. Voltmeter gives the values of induced voltage. A
switch 's' is provided which is kept open initially. The generator is run at rated speed. A
small voltage induced due to residual magnetism is noted down and now the switch 's' is
closed. A small current well flow through the field winding and this will strengthern the flux
existing due to residual magnetism. This increased flux will induce a higher voltage. This
process well continue until equilibrium is reached. O.C.C. is plotted with field current in the
X-axis and voltage in the Y-axis.

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Maximum voltage build up

The O.C.C. is shown in the figure. A line ****************

OA is drawn such that it represents resistance
R. It cuts the O.C.C. at point P. Voltage OL
corresponding to point P represents the
maximum voltage to which the machine will
build up with resistance R in the field circuit.
OB represents a smaller resistance. The
maximum voltage build up for this smaller
resistance will be more.
If R is increased so that the resistance line does not cut O.C.C. then the machine will fail to
excite (resistance line OD). If the resistance line is tangential to the O.C.C. (as resistance
line OC) the machine will just-excite. This value of resistance represented by the tangent to
O.C.C. is known as critical field resistance Rc for a given speed.

Critical field resistance is the maximum value of field resistance with which a shunt
generator will just excite. If the field resistance is more than this value, the machine will not
excite at all (Field resistance = resistance of the field winding + resistance of field regulating
rheostat)

How to find critical field resistance Rc

First O.C.C. is plotted with the data given or obtained in test. A tangent is drawn to
the initial portion of the O.C.C. The slope of this line gives the value of critical resistance for
the speed at which the data was obtained.

O.C.C. at different speeds

N P
We know that Eg =φZ or Eg αφN . If φ is kept constant
60 A
N
Eg α N , then E 1 = KN 1 and E 2 = KN 2 ∴E 2 = E 1 x 2 . Hence to obtain the
N1
N2
voltage E2 for a speed N2, the value of E1 can be multiplied by . Hence set of values of
N1
induced voltage for a speed N2 can be obtained mathematically from the values for speed N 1
and new O.C.C. can be plotted.

Critical Speed Nc
Critical speed of a shunt generator is that speed for which the given shunt field
resistance will become critical and at this speed the machine just excites. If the O.C.C. is
drawn for a speed N and if Rc is the critical resistance for this speed and Rsh is the shunt field
resistance, then critical speed
Rsh
Nc = Nx
Rc

Condition for self excitation of a d.c. Shunt Generator

1. There must be some residual magnetism in the field poles.

2. The shunt field winding should be properly connected to the armature, so that the
field current strengthens the residual magnetism.
3. The resistance of the field circuit should be less than the critical resistance. In other
words the speed of the generator should be more than critical speed.

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4. If excited on load, then external load resistance should be more than the critical load
resistance.
5. Other factors are (i) rotation of prime mover in the correct direction (ii) field
connection proper (iii) residual magnetism in the proper direction.

Armature Reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under the main poles of a d.c. machine. It has two effects (1) It
demagnetic or weakens the main flux. This will lead to a lesser generated voltage (2) It cross
magnetic or distorts the main flux. This causes sparking at the brushes.

********************

In the figure (a) shown above conductors under north pole carry current in the
inwards direction and conductors under south pole carry current in the out ward direction.
This is equivalent to a current carrying solenoid. This will set up a flux directed along the
brush axis. OB represents this flux produced by armature currents. OA represents the main
flux produced by field poles. The resultant flux is in the direction O.C. The magnetic neutral
plane (MNP) is now shifted and is perpendicular to OC. At no load the value of OB is
practically zero and MNP will be in the same direction as GNP. But as load increases the
value of OB increases and MNP is shifted round the direction of rotation. The brushes are to
be located in the MNP and hence it is given a forward shift.

When the brushes are shifted to the MNP, the direction of current will be as shown in
fig (b) and the flux due to armature current will be in the direction OC. OC can be resolved in
to two components OD and OE. The direction of OE is just opposite to the direction of the
main flux and hence this component demagnetise the main flux and is known as
demagnetising component. This reduces the value of induced voltage and can be
compensated by increasing the field current. OD is known as cross magnetising component
and causes arcing at the brushes.

Compensating Winding

Compensating winding are provided to neutralize the cross magnetising effect of

armature reaction. It is provided in slots on the pole faces and connected in series with the
armature conductors in such a way that the currents flow in a direction opposite to that of the
current in the armature conductors below it.

Commutation

In an armature conductor, the current will be in one direction when it is under a north
pole and will be in the opposite direction when under south pole. The riversal of current
taken place along the brush axis, when the brush short circuits that particular coil. The
process by which the current in the short circuited coil is riversed when it crosses the brush
axis is called commutation. Period for which the coil remains short circuited is termed as
commutation period.

******************

Consider the armature element B in fig (a), that is before short circuit, the direction of
current is in the anti clockwise direction. In fig (b) the coil is short circuited by the brush and
hence the current is zero. Fig (c) shows the condition of coil after short circuit. The direction
of current is in the clockwise direction; That is the direction of current has changed. But after
short circuit if element B fails to attain the full current, a portion of the current has to jump

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from element A to brush. This creates arcing at the brush. If the current in the short circuit
coil attains full value in the opposite direction, the commutation is said to be ideal. Arcing at
the brushes results in wear of the commutator and brushes.

Commutation can be improved by (1) Resistance commutation (2) By providing inter

poles or com poles.

1) Resistance Commutation

Instead of copper brushes, high resistance carbon brushes are used. Hence during
short circuit period part of the current passes through the short circuited coil.

2) Inter poles of Com poles

Inter poles are small poles spaced in between main poles and fixed to the yoke. They
are wound with a few turns of heavy gauge wire and connected in series with armature so that
they carry full armature current and their polarity is that of the main pole ahead. The e.m.f.
produced on account of inter poles compensates the reactance voltage and hence commutation
is improved.
Load characteristics of Generators

1. Shunt Generator

A shunt generator when loaded, its terminal voltage drops due to the following
reasons.

i) Armature resistance drop-Ia Ra drop

ii) Armature reaction drop- Due to the demagnetising effect of armature reaction main
flux will be weakened, which results in reduction of induced e.m.f.
iii) Due to the first two reason, the terminal voltage will drop and hence field current will
be reduced which is turn reduces the induced voltage.

**************

The arrangement for a load test on a shunt generator is shown above. When the load
on the generator in gradually increased, the terminal voltage drops. Ammeter A 2 gives the
load current and voltmeter gives the terminal voltage V. Load characteristics is plotted with
load current in the x-axis and terminal voltage in the y-axis. This is known as external
characteristics. Ref. to the figure. Beyond point P if the load resistance is further reduced
(with an intention to increase load) the load current tend to rise, but due to armature reaction
and armature resistance drop, the terminal voltage drops and load current reduces and the
curve turns back and when the generator is short circuited the characteristics cuts the x-axis at
point A. OA represents the short circuit current.

Internal characteristics or Total characteristics

This is a curve plotted with armature current Ia in the x-axis and induced voltage E in
the Y-axis. This curve can be deduced from the external characteristics if the value of
armature resistance Ra is known.

Ia = IL + If IL load current If - Field current

E = V+Ia Ra

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Tangent OC drawn to internal characteristics represent critical load resistance. If the

load resistance is below this value, the generator will not develop voltage.

2. Separately excited generator

In this case the excitation is independent of the terminal ***************

voltage of the generator since it is connected to an external
source. On loading the drop will be due to armature reaction
and armature resistance only. Curve II represents internal
characteristics and III represents external characteristics.
In a separately excited generator, the voltage variation on loading is not appreciable since
the drop in terminal voltage does not affect the field current since it is a from a separate
source.

Series generator

In the case of series generator the load current flows through the field winding.
Hence when there is no load current, there is no voltage and voltage increases as load
increases.

**********************

Curve I is the magnetisation characteristics of a series generator. But when the

machine is delivering load the induced voltage will be less due to armature reaction. Curve II
shown is the internal characteristics. Again due to ohmic drop in the armature resistance and
series field resistance, the terminal voltage will be still less V = E-I (Ra+Rse) Curve III
plotted with V in the Y-axis and I in the X-axis is the load characteristics or external
characteristics.

Compound Generator

When a constant voltage is required, shunt generator is not suitable. Performance of

a shunt generator can be improved by adding a few field turns in series with the armature
winding.

If the series excitation is such that the ****************

terminal voltage at full load is same as at no
load, the generator is said to be level
compounded.

If the terminal voltage on load condition is more than no load voltage, the generator is said to
be over compounded.

Differentially compounded generator

If the series field opposes shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially
compounded. The voltage drop is very high on loading. It is a constant current generator and
is used in arc welding generators, where generator is practically short circuited.
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation means change in terminal voltage with change in load current. If
the change in voltage between no load and full load is small, the generator is said to have a
good voltage regulation. Percentage full load voltage regulation is the rise in voltage when
the load is reduced from rated full load to zero, expressed as a percentage by rated voltage.

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No load voltage − Rated full load voltage

% voltage regulation = x100
Rated Voltage
Efficiency of d.c. Machines
Output Output Input −losses
Efficiency η = = or =
Input Output +losses Input
Hence efficiency can be calculated if input and output or one of them and losses are
known. In case of generators it is easy to measure output and losses.

Losses
The losses occurring in a d.c. machine can be broadly classified as (1) Copper loss (2)
Core loss (3) Mechanical loss.
1) Copper loss - This is the loss occurring in the copper conductors of armature and
field due to its ohmic resistance.
(a) Armature copper loss- Ia2 Ra loss. This is due to armature resistance and is about
30% to 40% of total losses.
b) Field copper loss - Includes shunt field copper loss (Ish 2 Rsh) and series field copper
loss (Ise2 Rse). Field copper loss is about 20% to 30% of total losses.

2) Iron loss or Core loss

Due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the magnetic flux of the field
some losses are taking place and this loss is known as core loss or iron loss. It consists of (i)
Hysterisis loss and (2) Eddy current loss.

i) Hysterisis loss
This loss is due to the cyclic riversal of the magnetisation of the core. If P is the no.
NP
of poles and N is the speed in rpm, then frequency of magnetic riversal f = . This loss
120
depends upon the volume and grade of iron, B max and 'f', the frequency of flux riversal.

Wn =ηB max 1 .6
f V walts

η= Steinmetz hystensis co-efficient

V = Volume of iron material
f = Frequency of flux riversal
Hystensis loss is reduced by using silicon steel.
ii) Eddy Current loss
When the armature core rotates it cuts the magnetic flux. Hence an e.m.f. is induced
in the core. This e.m.f. well set up a large short circuiting current. This current is known as
Eddy Current and power loss due to this is known as eddy current loss. Laminated and
varnished core is used to reduce this loss.
We = K Bm α2 f 2t 2V
K is a constant and t is the thickness of lamination. Core loss is a constant loss in
machines where flux is constant, ie in shunt and compound machines. Core loss will be
variable in series machines.

3. Mechanical losses
a) Friction loss at bearing and commutator
b) Windage loss - due to air friction
Core loss + Mechanical loss → stray loss
Core loss + Mechanical loss + Shunt field copper loss = constant loss
Armature copper loss + Series field copper loss → variable loss.

***********************

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Efficiency and condition for maximum efficiency

Total loss = Armature copper loss + constant loss
= (I+Ish)2 Ra + Pc
Output =VxI V- Terminal voltage
Output I - Load current
η= Ra- Armature resistance
Output +losses
Ish- Shunt field current
Pc - Constant loss

VI
η =
VI + ( I + Ish ) 2 Ra + Pc
VI
= (Since Ish is very small compacted to I)
VI +I 2 Ra +Pc
Dividing both numerator and denominator with VI

1
η=
 I Pc 
1 +  Ra + 
V VI 
Efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum and denominator is a
minimum, when the term within the bracket is a minimum.

d  Ra Pc 
ie  I+ =0
dI  V VI 
Ra Pc
ie − 2 =0
V VI
Ra Pc
ie − 2 =or I 2 Ra = Pc
V VI
Or variable loss = constant loss

Hence the condition for maximum efficiency is that load current should be such that the
variable loss I2 Ra should be equal to constant loss Pc.
Ia 2 Ra = Pc
Pc
I =
Ra
This give the value of load current for maximum efficiency.
Efficiency Curve
If the value of efficiency is plotted against load current or output, efficiency curve is
obtained.

***************
Average value of full load efficiency varies from 70% for 1 KW machine to 95% for a 1000
KW machine.

Applications of d.c. generators

Use of a particular type of generator depends on its load characteristics.
a) Shunt Generator - With field regulators it gives a almost constant voltage and is used
for ordinary lighting and power supply. Also used in battery chargers.
b) Series Generators - Used as voltage boosters in power supply system for railway
service.

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c) Compound Generators - Level compounded generators can be used for lighting and
power supply. Also used in motor drives which requires constant voltage power supply and
in electric railways. Differentially compounded generators are used in arc welding where
voltage drop is desirable with increase in current.
d) Separately excited generators
Expensive since separate power source for excitation is required-Used in ward-
Leonard speed control system used in mine hoists steel mill drives, paper making machines
and also used in diesel electric locomotives.

Power Flow Diagram

******************
B Electrical Power developed
1. Mechanical efficiency = A = Mechanical Power Input
C Electrical Power Output VI
2. Electrical efficiency = = = Eg Ia
B Ele . Power developed
C VI
3. Over all commercial efficiency= A = Mechanical output of prime mover

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