CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, How do we interpret the result/s of
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
PRESENTATION
 Is the process of organizing, data into
logical, sequential and meaningful
categories and classifications to make
them amenable to study and interpretation.
THREE WAYS OF PRESENTING
DATA
 Textual – statements with numerals or
numbers that serve as supplements to
tabular presentation.
 Tabular – a systematic arrangement of
related idea in which classes of numerical
facts or data are given each row and their
subclasses are given each a column in
order to present the relationships of the
sets or numerical facts or data in definite,
compact and understandable form.
 Graphs – are visual representations. They
are used to organize information to show
patterns and relationships.
A graph shows this information by representing
it as a shape. Researchers and scientists often
use tables and graphs to report findings from
their research.
ANALYSIS
 To analyze means to break a topic or
concept down into its parts in order to
inspect and understand it, and to
restructure those parts in a way that makes
sense to you.
 According to Le Compte and
Schensul, research data analysis is a
process used by researchers for
reducing data to a story and interpreting it
to derive insights. The data
analysis process helps in reducing a large
chunk of data into smaller fragments which
makes sense.
COMMON QUALITATIVE
SOFTWARES
Atlas ti 6.0 HyperRESEARCH 2.8
Max QDA The Ethnograph 5.08
QSR N6 QSR Nvivo
Weft QDA Open code 3.4
our study?
1. Tie up the results of the study in both theory
and application by pulling together the:
A. Theoretical framework
B. The RRL
C. The study’s potential significance for
application
2. Examine, summarize, interpret and justify
the results; then, draw inferences.
Consider the following:
 Conclude or summarize
 This technique enables the reader to get
the total picture of the findings in
summarized form, and helps orient the
reader to the discussion that follows.
 Interpret
 Questions on the meaning of the findings,
the methodology, the unexpected results
and the limitations and shortcomings of the
study should be answered and interpreted.
 Integrate
 This is an attempt to put the pieces
together.
 often, the results of a study are disparate
and do not seem to “hang together”.
 In the discussion, attempt to bring the
findings together to extract meaning and
principles.
 Theorize
 When the study includes a number of
related findings, it occasionally becomes
possible to theorize.
1. Integrate your findings into a principle.
2. Integrate a theory into your findings; and
3. Use these findings to formulate an original
theory.
Guidelines in the presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data:
1. The chapter is organized and divided into
several main components or topics.
2. Present only relevant data.
3. In reporting data, choose the medium that
will present them effectively.
4. Presenting tables that can be presented as
well in a few sentences in the text must be
avoided.
5. The textual presentation should supplement
or expand the contents of tables and charts,
rather than duplicate them.
6. Only objective data embodied in tables are
made the bases of discussion.
7. The analysis of the data should be objective
and logical.
8. In analyzing and interpreting data, point out
those that are consistent or inconsistent with
the theory presented in the study’s theoretical
framework.
9. The findings are compared and contrasted
with that of other previous studies and
interpretations are made thereof.
CONCLUSION
 A type of inferential or interpretative
thinking that derives its validity, truthfulness
or reasonableness from your sensory
experience.
 It arises from the factual data you
encountered and analyzed.
 Drawn or deduced from facts or statement
resulting from logical thinking.
WARRANTED CONCLUSION
 Any conclusion that you found out through
your analysis of the data you collected
POINTERS IN WRITING CONCLUSION
1. Explain your point in simple and clear
sentences.
2. Use expressions that center on the topic
rather than on yourself, the researcher.
3. Include only necessary items; exclude any
piece of information or picture not closely
related to your report.
4. Have your conclusion contain only validity
supported findings instead of falsified results.
5. Practice utmost honesty and objectivity in
stating the results of your critical outcomes of
evaluation that you expect to support your
conclusions.
6. It should appropriately answer the specific
questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation.
7. It should not be repetitions of any
statements in the research.
RECOMMENDATIONS
 Are based on the conclusions of the study
 Give a detailed description of the
suggestion for future action based on the
significance of the findings.
 It includes implications for future use of
findings and recommendation for future
research.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
(DATA ANALYSIS)
 The process of systematically
applying statistical and/or logical techniques
to describe and illustrate, condense and
recap, and evaluate data.
 An essential component of
ensuring data integrity is the accurate and
appropriate analysis of research findings.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS (QDA)
 involves the identification, examination and
interpretation of patterns and themes in
textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes answer the research
question.
CODE
 is a short word or phrase describing the
meaning and context of the whole
sentence, phrase or paragraph.
THEMES
 are features of participants' accounts
characterizing particular perceptions and/or
experiences that the researcher sees as
relevant to the research question.
CODING
 the process of identifying themes in
accounts and attaching labels (codes) to
index them.
PATTERN
 Consistent and recurring characteristic or
trait that helps in the identification of a
phenomenon or problem, and serves as an
 indicator or model for predicting future
behavior
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
1. Getting to know the data.
 Read and re-read the text. The taped
recordings should be played and listened to
several times.
 2. Focusing the analysis.
This can be done using two approaches:
A. Focus by question or topic, time period, or
event.
B. Focus by case, individual or group.
3. Coding.
 This is the process of categorizing the data.
This will help the researcher analyze the
relationship between categories and
patterns.
A. Predefined codes – refer to codes that are
formulated by the researcher based on his or
her knowledge through the reviewed
literatures.
B. Emergent codes – refer to codes that
become apparent as one reviews the data
4. Entering and organizing the data.
 This can be done manually by using a piece
of paper or through computers.
5. Cleaning the data.
 This is a process for checking data for
errors.
 The “dirty” data when not eliminated can
negatively influence the results of the study.
6. Identifying meaningful patterns and
themes.
 This is the core process of qualitative data
analysis.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
 used when qualitative data had been
collected through interviews, focus groups,
observation and documentary analysis
 involves coding and classifying of data
referred as categorizing and coding or
indexing
 is used both for qualitative and quantitative
data.
 Focused on codes
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
 •a process of analyzing data by grouping
them into themes
 Themes either evolve directly from the
research questions or preset, or naturally
emerge from the resulting data.
 Thematic coding is a form of
qualitative analysis which involves
recording or identifying passages of text or
images that are linked by a common theme
or idea allowing you to index the text into
categories and therefore establish a
“framework of thematic ideas about it”
(Gibbs 2007)
 Thematic analysis (TA) is a widely-
used qualitative data analysis method.
 Patterns are identified through a rigorous
process of data familiarization, data coding,
and theme development and revision.
STEPS IN THEMATIC ANALYSIS
1. Familiarize yourself with your data.
2. Assign preliminary codes to your data in
order to describe the content.
3. Search for patterns or themes in your codes
across the different interviews.
4. Review themes.
5. Define and name themes.
6. Produce your report.
IN-TEXT CITATION (APA STYLE)
STYLES OF CITATION
American Psychological Association (APA)
Style
 APA style is most commonly used to cite
sources within the social sciences.
Citing an Author or Authors
A Work by Two Authors
Name both authors in the signal phrase
or in the parentheses each time you cite the
work. Use the word "and" between the authors'
names within the text and use the ampersand
in the parentheses.
Examples:
Research by Wegener and Petty (1994)
supports...
… has been supported (Wegener & Petty,
1994)
A Work by Three to Five Authors
 List all the authors in the signal phrase or in
parentheses the first time you cite the
source. Use the word "and" between the
authors' names within the text and use the
ampersand in the parentheses.
Examples:
(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
 In subsequent citations, only use the first
author's last name followed by "et al." in the
signal phrase or in parentheses.
Examples:
(Kernis et al., 1993)
NOTE: In et al., et should not be followed by a
period.
Six or More Authors
 Use the first author's name followed by et
al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
Examples:
Harris et al. (2001) argued...
(Harris et al., 2001)
Unknown Author
 If the work does not have an author, cite the
source by its title in the signal phrase or use
the first word or two in the parentheses.
 Titles of books and reports are italicized or
underlined; titles of articles, chapters, and
web pages are in quotation marks.
Example:
A similar study was done of students learning
to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).
Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is
used for the author, treat it as the author's
name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list,
use the name Anonymous as the author.
Organization as an Author
 If the author is an organization or a
government agency, mention the
organization in the signal phrase or in the
parenthetical citation the first time you cite
the source.
Example:
According to the American Psychological
Association (2000)
 If the organization has a well-known
abbreviation, include abbreviation in
brackets the first time the source is cited
and then use only the abbreviation in later
citations.
Examples:
First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving
[MADD], 2000) Second citation: (MADD, 2000)
Two or More Works on the Same
Parentheses
 When your parenthetical citation includes
two or more works, order them the same
way they appear in the reference list (viz.,
alphabetically), separated by a semi-colon.
Example:
(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)
Authors with the Same Last Name
 To prevent confusion, use first initials with
the last names.
Example:
(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)
Two or More Works by the Same Author in
the Same Year
 If you have two sources by the same author
in the same year, use lower-case letters (a,
 b, c) with the year to order the entries in the
reference list. Use the lower-case letters
with the year in the in-text citation.
Example:
Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...
Introduction, Prefaces, Forewords, and
Afterwords
 When citing an Introduction, Preface,
Foreword, or Afterwords in-text, cite the
appropriate author and year as usual.
Example:
(Funk & Kolln, 1992)
Personal Communication
 For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other
person-to-person communication, cite the
communicator's name, the fact that it was
personal communication, and the date of
the communication. Do not include personal
communication in the reference list.
Examples:
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January
4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her
students had difficulties with APA style
(personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Citing Indirect Sources
 If you use a source that was cited in
another source, name the original source in
your signal phrase. List the secondary
source in your reference list and include the
secondary source in the parentheses.
Example:
Johnson argued that… (as cited in Smith, 2003,
p. 102).
Note: When citing material in parentheses, set
off the citation with a comma, as above. Also,
try to locate the original material and cite the
original source.
Electronic Sources
 If possible, cite an electronic document the
same as any other document by using the
author-date style.
Example:
Kenneth (2000) explained...
Unknown Author and Unknown Date
 If no author or date is given, use the title in
your signal phrase or the first word or two of
the title in the parentheses and use the
abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").
Another study of students and research
decisions discovered that students succeeded
with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Sources without Page Number
 When an electronic source lacks page
numbers, you should try to include
information that will help readers find the
passage being cited. When an electronic
document has numbered paragraphs, use
the abbreviation "para." followed by the
paragraph number (Hall, 2001, para. 5).
 If the paragraphs are not numbered and the
document includes headings, provide the
appropriate heading and specify the
paragraph under that heading. Note that in
some electronic sources, like Web pages,
people can use the Find function in their
browser to locate any passages you cite.
Example:
According to Smith (1997) ... (Mind over Matter
section, para. 6).
Note: Never use the page numbers of Web
pages you print out; different computers print
Web pages with different pagination.
REFERENCE LIST APA STYLE
Reference
 It appears at the end of your paper.
 It provides the information necessary for a
reader to locate and retrieve any source
you cite in the body of the paper
 Each source you cite in the paper must
appear in your reference list; likewise, each
entry in the reference list must be cited in
your text.
Basic Rules
• All lines after the first line of each entry in
your reference list should be indented one-half
inch from the left margin. This is called hanging
indentation.
• Authors' names are inverted (last name
first); give the last name and initials for all
authors of a particular work for up to and
including seven authors. If the work has more
than seven authors, list the first six authors and
then use ellipses after the sixth author's name.
After the ellipses, list the last author's name of
the work.
• Reference list entries should be
alphabetized by the last name of the first
author of each work.
• For multiple articles by the same author, or
authors listed in the same order, list the entries
in chronological order, from earliest to most
recent.
• Present the journal title in full.
• Maintain the punctuation and capitalization
that is used by the journal in its title.
For example: ReCALL not RECALL or
Knowledge Management Research & Practice
not Knowledge Management Research and
Practice.
• Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
• When referring to books, chapters, articles,
or Web pages, capitalize only the first letter of
the first word of a title and subtitle, the first
word after a colon or a dash in the title, and
proper nouns.
• Italicize titles of longer works such as books
and journals.
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes
around the titles of shorter works such as
journal articles or essays in edited collections.
• Please note: While the APA manual provides
many examples of how to cite common types
of sources, it does not provide rules on how to
cite all types of sources.
• Therefore, if you have a source that APA
does not include, APA suggests that you find
the example that is most similar to your source
and use that format.
• For more information, see page 193 of the
Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, (6th ed., 2nd
printing).
Author/Authors
Single Author Last name first, followed by
author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and
social development. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.
Two Authors
 List by their last names and initials. Use
the ampersand instead of "and."
Example:
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994).
Mood management across affective states:
The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 66,
1034-1048.
Three Authors (List the names in the
order they appear on the title page.)
 Revilla, C. A., Bautista, C. C., and Vinuya,
G. F. 2017. Boy scout jamborees. Pasay
City: ABC Press.
 Manaloto, J. D., Gracia, B. C., and Ferrer,
S. V. 2017. The victims of super-typhoon
Yolanda. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing
House.
Three or More Authors
Use the name of the first author listed
on the title page.
 Sonora, E. N. et al. 2016. Regional trial
courts. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore.
Sevilla, V. et al. 2016. Labour strikes. Pasig
City: Hope Press.
Two or More Works by the Same
Author
Use the author's name for all entries and
list the entries by the year (earliest comes first).
 Berndt, T. J. (1981).
 Berndt, T. J. (1999).
Anonymous Author
If the authorship of a work is known but
not revealed on the title page, the name is
given in brackets.
 [Valerio, E.]. The millennium condominium
craze. 2016. Nowhere: Nonesuc Press.
 [Valderon, L.]. Non-verbal language. 2016.
Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication.
Editor, Translator, Compiler
 Pareja, G. F. 2016. ed. Pacquio’s lucky
charm. Manila: PH Press.
 Orosa, L. F. 2016. comp. Merging of banks.
Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
 Floro, J. S. 2016. Students’ activities. trans.
(Makati City: Rex Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an
Author
 Lauriano, G. F. 2016. Language textbook
writing. Edited by Gina Alamares and Ching
Cortez. Manila: PH Press.
 Bravo, Luisa F. 2016. Faculty Evaluation
System. Compiled by Baby Lapid. Quezon
City: Abiva Publishing House.
 Clemente, J. S. 2016. Pope Francis’ papal
visits. Translated by Carina Davalos. Makati
City: Rex Press.
Organization, Association,
Corporation as Author
 International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey
of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia,
Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines New
York International Monetary Fund.
No Ascertainable Publication Facts
 Ramona, L. The rise and fall of the Marcos
regime. (n.p., n.d.) Soriano, D. Western law
schools. (n.p., n.d.)
Popular Magazines
 Salvador, M. March 2016. “The Chinese
Dishes,” Panorama, pp. 23–26.
 Olarte, A. May 8, 2016. “Catholicism in
Asia.” World Mission, p. 8.
Newspapers
 Abad, C. S. “Gated subdivisions in
Caloocan City,” 2016. Philippine Daily
Inquirer. 7 May.
 Manila Bulletin. 2017. Editorial, 2
December.
 Malaya. 2016. Editorial, 18 July.
Interviews
 Ballesteros, F. April 2016. “K-12 curriculum:
Interview with Felicitas
 Ballesteros.” April 2016. Interview by
Anabelle De La Cruz. The Manila Bulletin.
 Templo, E. May 2017. “High-school
dropouts: Interview with Dr. Juan.
Barrameda.” Interview by Lucy Amarillo.
The Daily Tribune.
Thesis, Dissertations, and Other
Unpublished Works
 Villarica, R. D. 2016. “Contemporary
Language Theories.” Ph. D. diss., U.P.
Diliman.
 Corpuz, D. G. 2017. “The UST faculty
evaluation system: Critical Analysis.” M.A.,
UST.
Slides and Film's Videocassettes
 Gaudencio, K. C. 2016. “Family Planning. ”
Quezon City: Palmall Press. Slides.
 Arenas, E. A. 2017. “Philippine Rental
Laws.” Manila: SSG Press. Filmstrip
Online Materials
1. Signed article in a magazines
 Duterte, R. July 2016. “Social-media
networks.” Personality growth. http://
www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/.
2. Unsigned article in a magazine
 “Unstructured interview. August 2016.”
Business Trends Magazine. http://
www.BusTRendscom/BusTrends/Trends/ct
shoot.htmlz.
3. Article in Journal
 “Linguistic competence. 18 May 2016.”
English Forum. http://www.jhu.edu/English
Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson.html.
4. Article in Newspapers
 Lepanto, J. “globalization vs. climate
change.” 21 December 2016. New Daily
 Life Star. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26
world/28 MIDE. html.
5. An Editorial
 “Political Dynasty in the Philippines. 7 July
2016.” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
http://www.a-
pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.html.
6. Online books
 Litchten, F. D. 2016. American pragmatics.
http: AMPRA 2 etext2014/14w0310txtz.
 De Gracias, J. G. 15-20, May 2017.
“Collaborative language activities” dialog
ERIC AED23376.