KU 3195 Lecture 20 21 - May 10 And12 (2010)

Materials Engineering (KU 3195)
Lecture #20 and #21
Professor Kwok Wai Lem
Department of Materials Chemistry and Engineering

Konkuk University
May 10 and 12, 2010
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 Slide # 1
Materials Engineering (KU 3195)- Schedule
Lecture # Contents
1. Introduction the Need of Materials - Processing Structure Property Relation.
Cost Analysis, Supply and Demand /Dr. Lem's Expectations (Lecture #1)
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding/Project Selection Finalize and
Team Identify (Lecture #2)
3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids
4. Imperfection in Solids
5. Diffusion
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals
7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanism
8. Failure
9. Phase Diagrams
10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of
Mechanical Properties
11. Applications of Processing of metal Alloys
12. Structure and Properties of Ceramics
13. Applications of Processing of Ceramics
Team Project Interim Report
14. Midterm
15. Polymer Structures
16. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers Composites
17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
18. Electrical Properties
19. Thermal Properties
20. Magnetic Properties
21. Optical Properties
22. Design of Materials Using Design for Six Sigma
23. Life Cycle of Materials - Economics, Environmental, and social Issues in
Materials Science and Engineering
24. Project Management and Lean Six Sigma - Applications in Materials
engineering
25. Best Practices/Team Project Final Report Presentation
26. Final Examination
Homework Lecture #18 (HW –L18-1) (Due Lecture 20)
A vehicle is to be parked overnight in the open away from large surrounding objects.
It is desired to know if dew or frost may form on the vehicle top. Assume the
following:
•Convection coefficient h from ambient air to vehicle top is 6.0 W/m2⋅°C.

•Equivalent sky temperature is -18°C.
•Emissivity of vehicle top is 0.84.
•Negligible conduction from inside vehicle to top of vehicle.
Determine the temperature of the vehicle top when the air temperature is 5oF. State
which formation (dew or frost) occurs.
Tsky = -18
Tair = 5 C
Qconv Qrad
Ttop
• Reading Assignment - Application Brief AB27
A two-liter bottle of your favorite beverage has just been removed from the trunk of
your car. The temperature of the beverage is 35°C, and you always drink your
beverage at 10°C.
a. How much heat energy must be removed from your two liters of beverage?
b. You are having a party and need to cool 10 of these two-liter bottles in one-
half hour. What rate of heat removal, in kW, is required? Assuming that your
refrigerator can accomplish this and that electricity costs 8.5 cents per kW-hr,
how much will it cost to cool these 10 bottles?
1. Briefly describe where does the color in

nature come from?
“Only 1, 2 , and 3....
He said”
Professor Lem’s Only 3 Expectations from You
1. Stand up ! - to speak English proficiently and effectively
2. Own it ! – all the materials become your knowledge capital

3. Have fun! – when you’re doing it
Team Project Final Presentation
Preparation Resume
Class Rep: Kim Su Jin

1. Project: LED Lighting
2. Team Leader: Park Ji Sung (me),
3. Members: Park Sung Eun, Kim Su Jin,
Park Ji Sung (me), Lee Chung Hwan
1:00 PM May 10, 2010

Practice, Practice, Practice…
LEDs have a dynamic future…
A Key Player in Displays!
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 After Conway, 2007 Slide # 9
BLU Structure (LED BLU For Notebook)
Large TFT LCD panel 11-17” Notebook
Prism Sheet
LED Diffuser
Cover
LGP = Light Guide Plate
Reflector
Photo: Courtesy of AUO
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 Source: DisplaySearch 2006 Slide # 10
BLU Structure (LED BLU For LCD TV)
Large TFT LCD panel 20-50” LCD TV
LED Backlights for Monitors
However, attempts to introduce LED backlights

Wide Color Gamut is the most prominent
into the LCD monitor have not been accepted
strength for LED backlights in LCD monitors.
by the market.
NTSC
NEC Display SONY VAIO

CCFL
LCD2180WG D23-HD1
21.3” UXGA 23” WUXGA
LED AUO panel with 85 NEC LCD panel with 100
LEDs LEDs
Stop in Q2’05 Stop in Q1’06
High color gamut CCFL has been

introduced into LCD monitor panels from
Samsung
2007 to target on the high end market, and
XL20
with small price premium.
20” UXGA
AUO panel with 100
LEDs
Introduced in Q4’06
To Adapt the LED Backlight for LCD TV
Why Why Not

Environmental Current CCFL is already
No Mercury
Friendly Under the min. Hg standard
High Color Gamut CCFL

High Color Gamut NTSC > 100%
is rapidly growing
(R, G, B) achievable And cost premium is small
Dynamic Range
High Dynamic Range Backlight Dimming
Can be 6000~10,000
Some believes that Field

Field Sequential Color Filter-less
Sequential Color is still a long
Color become possible way to go
LCD BLU Supply Chain Structure
BEF Film Maker CCFL Supplier Diffuser Film Maker
Light Guide Plate Raw
Material Suppliers
( PMMA )
( Zeonor )
Film Cutting Trimmer Film Cutting Trimmer
(In-House or Sub Contract) Lamp Set Packer (In-House or Sub Contract)
( Sub Contract)
Welding & Assembly
Light Guide Plate
Maker
Package & Shipment
(Printing / Injection)
BLU Maker
Film Cutting Trimmer Reflector film

Metal Frame Metal Frame
(In-House or Sub Contract) Maker
Materials Makers
Thermal Management in LED Backlight
1. LED Demands
2. LED Backlight Value Chain
3. TFT LCD BOM Breakdown
4. Cost Comparison of Backlight with Four Different
Light Sources
5. Thermal Management Opportunities in LED
Backlight
6. How big is the markets, who are the players, what
tech do they have
7. Recommendations
Backlight Value Chain
Key Elements for Colors of LEDs
Green-Blue-UV
Red-Orange-Amber
("white")
IIIA IVA VA IIIA IVA VA
"AlInGaP"
1 "InGaN"
"AlGaAs"
2 B C
Boron
N Carbon Nitrogen
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
3 Al
Alum inum
Si
Silicon
P
Phos phorus
Al
Alum inum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
4 Ga Ge As
Galium Germ anium Ars enic
Ga Ge As
Galium Germ anium Arsenic
5 In
Indium
Sn Sb
Tin Antim ony
In
Indium
Sn Sb
Tin Antim ony
6 Tl
Thallium
PbLead
Bi
Bis m uth
Tl
Thallium
Pb Bi
Lead Bism uth
LED Value Chain
LED Demand
LCD Backlight, Demand Forecast
5 Unmet Needs for LED Backlight
Display Research, 2005
Critical Path for LED BLU will be 4Q’06 - 1H’07, Especially on the Cost Reduction
TFT BOM Costs Breakdown
32” WXGA
BLU has the biggest share in

TFT BOM cost
(1) Is there a thermal

management opportunity in
LED backlight?
(2) If so, can we play?

How and where? Source: Display Research, 2005
Current LED Backlight Applications in Displays
Notebook PC Monitor LCD TV

Luminance Panel Luminance Panel Luminance
Notebook TFT LCD LCD Maker LED # Monitor TFT LCD LED # LCD TV TFT LCD LED #
(NITS) Supplier (NITS) Supplier (NITS)
Sony VAIO D23- 40" WXGA+
Sony VAIO TX 11.1" WXGA+ TMDS 240 40 23" WUXGA AUO 200 85 Sony Qualia S-LCD 500 450
HD-1 46" WXGA+
Toshiba Libertto NEC Display Samsung
7.2" WXGA Sharp 220 12 21.3" UXGA NEC LCD 200 100 32" WXGA+ Samsung 500 300
U10 2180 Prototype
Samsung
Fujitsu T70 10.6" WXGA Samsung 170 20 17" SXGA Samsung 220 100
Prototype
Samsung
21.3" UXGA Samsung 200 100
Prototype
Performance to Cost is the Major CTQ for All Display Players

Cost Comparison of Backlight with Four Different Light Sources
Base: Q4’05, 32” 1366 x 768 TFT LCD TV Applications
Source: Display Research, 2005
CCFL EEFL FFL* LED

Cold Cathode
Light Source External Electrode Flat Fluorescent Light Emitting
Fluorescent
Fluorescent Lamp Lamp Diode
Lamps
Protection Sheet
Size 32" 32" 32" 32"
Prism Sheet (H)
Price (Now) 1X 1X ?? 2.5 - 3X
Price (2H' 06 - 1H' 07) 1X 0.9X ?? 1.8 - 2X Prism Sheet (V)
Light Guide Panel
Power Consumption Standard Lower Higher Higher Diffuser Sheet
Reflector Sheet
Lifetime (hrs) 50- 60K 60K 50- 60K 50-90K
Supply Status OK Limited Limited Complex Mold Frame
CCFL
CCFL# or
16 20 1 150
LED #
Lamp CCFL Reflector
Unit Price $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 42.00 $ 2.00
Total Price $ 26.00 $ 32.00 $ 42.00 $ 270.00
Diffusion For Direct
$ 11.20 $ 11.20 $ 11.20 $ 11.20
Board Type
Diffusion
Normal $ 7.80 $ 7.80 $ 7.80 $ 7.80
Sheet
Reflective
LED Backlight costs
Sheet
Normal $ 6.00 $ 6.00 $ 6.00
about 2.5X More.
BEF3 $ 10.70 $ 10.70 $ 10.70 $ 10.70
BEF RBEF LED lamps
BEF2
DBEF alone account
Metal Bezel Backlight
Key Materials Subtotal
$
$
8.50
70.20
$
$
8.50
76.20
$
$
8.50 $
80.20 $
8.50
314.20
for ~80% of
Other Materials Subtotal $ 8.80 $ 7.80 $ 6.00 $ 25.00 the total cost
BOM Cost $ 79.00 $ 84.00 $ 86.20 $ 339.20 LED Backlight
L.O.P., SG&A, Package $ 10.00 $ 8.00 $ 7.00 $ 8.00
Total Cost (W/o Inverter) $ 89.00 $ 92.00 $ 93.20 $ 347.20 Uses Many lamps
Inverter Cost $ 28.00 $ 12.00 $ 10.00
Total Cost (W/h Inverter) $ 117.00 $ 104.00 $ 103.20 $ 347.20
Cost Reduction and Low Cost Thermal Management Solutions are the currently
Unmet Needs in LED Backlights
LED Number/Technology
Source: Everlight & DigiTimes, November 2005, assumes one LED emits 45 lumen per watt
Panel Type Number of CCFLs Number of LEDs used*
Mobile phone - 2 to 4
Notebook (for 12-inch) 1 45 white LEDs
LCD monitor (for 17-inch) 4 55 white LEDs or more than 100 RGB LEDs
LCD TV (for 32-inch) 16 2,400 RGB LEDs (600R+1200G+600B)
Item LED+phosphor RGB LED

Lighting method Combination of blue LEDs and Mixture of red, green and blue LEDs
YAG phosphor
Pros Lower production costs, better Better color uniformity and gamut, flexible color
solution for slim-profile objects temperature adjustment
Cons Insufficient red color rendition Different RGB color degradation rates results in
unstable white color tone
Market Applications that require less Applications that require better color uniformity
color uniformity (such as mobile (such as TVs)
phones and notebooks)
• Number of LEDs scales dramatically with size,

drives significant cost LCD TV (for 32-inch)
• Either white or RGB LEDs can be used to LCD Monitor (for 17-inch) # LED (RGB)
illuminate LCD
# LED (White)
– RGB LEDs provide best, tunable color Notebook (for 12-inch)
# CCFL
– White LEDs cheaper, do not need as many, Mobile Phone (for 2-inch)
but poor color reproduction
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
• LED Makers: Lumileds, Osram, Cree, others # Lamps used
Low cost thermal solution is critical !!

4Q’05 Backlight Manufacturers Activities (Display Research 2006)
BOE- Hitachi
Samsung S-LCD LPL AUO CMO TMD Sharp CPT
Hydis Display
1. 10”W LED
BLU MP
*11.1W LED
2. Plan to start
BLU under
produce •Sep’06~ White *12.1” LED
MP now.
12.1”W LED LED BLU on BLU MP from
*Studying FFL *Study LED *10.4”,12.1”,1
Backlight from 14.1”W,13.3”W July’06
and LED backlight for 2”W LED
Notebook Sep.’06. , 12.1”W *12.1”W
backlight for 12”W, BLU MP from
13.3”W from •Q2’07~ RGB Tablet LED
Notebook 13.3”W. Q1’07.
Mar.’07. BLU on 17”W, BLU MP from
*13.3”W LED
3. Study on 15.4”W Jan’07
BLU MP from
14.1”W and
Nov.’06
15.4”W for LED
backlight
* EOL (End Of
Life) the 23”
LCD Monitor
WUXGA LED
Backlight
1. *Start small
production on
*LED *Sep’06~ 42”
FFL on
backlight of LED backlight *Dec’06~ 32” *Prototype
32”,40”,46” *Develop on
40” and 46” and 47” LED LED backlight. on 37” LED
from Q1’06 Hybrid (LED
LCD TV for high end backlight *Co-develop BLU. Keep
2. *Continue to + CCFL )
model but in * Feb.’07~ 52” 20” FFL with on
develop on CFL- BLU
small LED backlight Delta Optronics developing
LED Backlight
production
3. (CFL=Color
Filter Less)
*Developing *Developing *Developing

some 8”~10” some 8”~10” some 8”~10”
below panels below panels below panels
Others of LED of LED of LED
backlight for backlight for backlight for
special special special
applications applications applications
Very little low cost thermal solution development activities

seen from the major players !!
Thermal Management Opportunities in LED Backlight SM Opportunities
Vessel
Panel
LCD
Driver IC
Circuit Board
Diffusion sheet
Diffusion
Prism or BEF
Prism or BEF
LCD Panel Back
Light Diffusion
System
Lamp
Light Guide Plate
Reflective Plate
Vessel
Light Source LED

LED # 150
Lamp Unit Price $ 2.00
Total Price $ 270.00
Diffusion For Direct Thermal Management Opportunities in LED Backlight
$ 11.20
Board Type Current Future Can HON
Backlight
Diffusion Technology Technology Play?
Normal $ 7.80 Packaging
Being Used in
Sheet Be Used in How?
Cooling Cooling
Reflective
Normal $ 6.00
Sheet
LED Unlikely
BEF BEF3 $ 10.70
Package
Metal Bezel Backlight $ 8.50
Key Materials Subtotal $ 314.20
Other Materials Subtotal $ 25.00 LED ??
BOM Cost $ 339.20 Backlight
L.O.P., SG&A, Package $ 8.00
Total Cost $ 347.20
How much doLecture
you#20
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010)
get pay for?
and #21 Slide # 25
LED Packaging
Thermal Management Designs in LED Component
(Level 1 in LED Backlight Package)
Cost per Cost of TM,

Efficiency Thermal Management Technology
Lamp, $ $
LED Colour Player
Active Fan Thermal
lm/W Gap Pad Al/Cu Tape Grease
solution Pads
Yellow-Green 8 P.Tec Opto
True -Orange 22 Toshiba
Blue-Green 25 Lumileds
Blue-Green 25-28 Nichia
Yellow/Amber 35 Lumileds
Green 42 Nichia
Red 42 Lumileds
Blue-Green 40-60 Cree
Orange 53 Lumileds
Blue 65 Cree
Green 65-70 Cree
White 74 Cree
Thermal Management Designs in LED Component Support Structure
(Level 2 in LED Backlight Package - After Chiu et. al., 2005)
Layout of LED Component 100
Maximum Steady State Temperature
Support Structure 90
(1) 20.1” TFT-LCD TV 80
Temperature, oC
(2) 1W RGB LEDS Lumileds Luxeon 70
(3) Total # 122 LED Lamps
60
50
40 Safe
Operation
30 Temperature
20
10
0
Design A Design B Design C
Cooling Technologies Temp, oC

Design A Copper 90 Fans
(1) Copper
Fins
Design B (2) Heatpipes 80
(3) Fins Heatpipes
(1) Copper
(2) Heatpipes
Design C
(3) Fins
53 Copper Based Board
(4) Fans (5000rpm)
The Speed of Heat Interchange with Air Using Fans is the Key to Provide Sufficient Heat
Dissipation
Thermal Management Designs in LED
Backlight Housing Box
Thermal Management Opportunities in LED Backlight
Light Source LED Thermal Management Opportunities in LED Backlight
LED # 150 Current Future Can HON

Backlight
Lamp Unit Price $ 2.00 Packaging
Technology Technology Play?
Being Used in Be Used in How?
Total Price $ 270.00 Cooling Cooling
Diffusion For Direct
$ 11.20
Board Type LED
Diffusion Package Unlikely
Normal $ 7.80
Sheet
Reflective
Normal $ 6.00
Sheet
BEF BEF3 $ 10.70
Metal Bezel Backlight $ 8.50
Key Materials Subtotal $ 314.20
Other Materials Subtotal $ 25.00
BOM Cost $ 339.20 LED
L.O.P., SG&A, Package $ 8.00 Backlight ??
Total Cost $ 347.20
Take Aways
Why Power and Thermal
Management?
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 After Zhou, 2006 Slide # 31
Why Power Management?
• Mobile device
– Battery life
• High-end server &
desktops
– Heat dissipation
– Electricity bills
– Example:
• ENIAC - first general
purpose electronic
computer had 18,000
vacuum tubes and
consumed 140,000 watts
of power.
Approaches to reduce energy
consumption
• How do you save energy in your home?
• Computer energy conservation

– OS turns off parts of the computer when
it is not in use (mostly IO devices such
as display)
– Application program uses less energy,
possibly degrading quality of the user
experience
Display Energy Management
• One of the biggest energy consumer in
laptop/desktop
• Reason
– Require backlit to get a bright sharp
image
• Solutions:
– shut down the display if there is no
activity for some number of minutes.
– divide the screen into zones and turn on
only zones where the active window
resides (work by Flinn and
Satyanarayanan)
Wireless Communication
• If radio receivers always listen for messages, this
can be expensive.
• Solution
– turn off the receiver if it is being idle for some
time.
– Challenge: how to avoid lost incoming
messages?
• use base-stations to buffer incoming messages.
• When to turn off the radio?
– determined by the application;
– or by the system
– Or decided by users
• Research
– Find more from our network
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010)
group
Lecture #20 and #21 After Zhou, 2006 Slide # 38
Thermal Management
• Difference between energy and thermal management
– Energy: sum of power over a long period of time
– Thermal: maximum of power over a short period of time
• Heat dissipation
– CPUs or devices get hot due to their high speeds
• Solutions:
– electric fan to blow the hot air out of the chassis
– Switch device off
• OS needs to monitor the temperature
– the OS can make a decision to turn on or off the fan.
– OS performs thermal management
• If the system gets close to the maximum allowable
temperature, the OS may reduce the back-lighting of the
screen, slow down the CPU, spin down the disk to reduce
the energy, hence decrease the temperature, hence
avoiding to turn the fan on.
Battery Management
• Smart batteries can communicate with OS.
– report on maximum voltage, current
voltage, maximum charge, current
charge, maximum drain rate, and other
parameters.
• Laptops can query for these parameters
and visualize them.
• Multiple batteries possible.
– The OS switches in a graceful manner
from one battery to another.
• Question: how to budget your battery?
– Trade off with performance or accuracy
Design Issues
Introduction to the Basic Heat Transfer Mechanisms
For those of us who do not have the opportunity to have a complete course in
heat transfer theory and applications, the following is a short introduction to the
basic mechanisms of heat transfer. Those of us who have a complete course in
heat transfer theory may elect to omit this material at this time.
Heat transfer is energy in transition due to a temperature difference. The three

modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction through Plane Walls

Conduction heat transfer is a
progressive exchange of energy
between the molecules of a
substance.
Example 4-1
A flat wall is composed of 20 cm of brick having a thermal conductivity kt = 0.72
W/m⋅K. The right face temperature of the brick is 900°C, and the left face
temperature of the brick is 20°C. Determine the rate of heat conduction through the
wall per unit area of wall.
& ΔT
Qcond = kt A
Δx
Q& cond ΔT W (900 − 20) K
= kt = 0.72
A Δx m⋅ K 0.2m
W
= 3168 2
m
Tright = 900°C
Tleft = 20°C
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21
20 cm Slide # 43
Convection Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The rate of heat transfer by convection Q& conv is determined from Newton's law of cooling,
expressed as
Convection Heat Transfer
Q& conv = h A ( Ts − Tf )
here
Q& conv = heat transfer rate (W)
A = heat transfer area (m2)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2⋅K)
Ts = surface temperature (K)
Tf = bulk fluid temperature away from the surface (K)
The convective heat transfer coefficient is an experimentally determined parameter
that depends upon the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, the properties
of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity. Ranges of the convective heat transfer
coefficient are given below.
h W/m2⋅K
free convection of gases 2-25
free convection of liquids 50-100
forced convection of gases 25-250
forced convection of liquids 50-20,000
convection in boiling and condensation 2500-100,000
Fourier's law of heat conduction is
Here
& dT
Qcond = − A k t
Q& cond = heat flow per unit time (W) dx
kt = thermal conductivity (W/m⋅K)
A = area normal to heat flow (m2)
dT
dx
= temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (°C/m)
Integrating Fourier's law
ΔT
Q& cond = kt A
Δx
Since T2>T1, the heat flows from right to left in the above figure.
Radiative Heat Transfer
Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from the surface of one body to the
surface of another due to electromagnetic radiation. The radiative energy transferred
is proportional to the difference in the fourth power of the absolute temperatures of
the bodies exchanging energy.
&
Qrad = εσA Ts − Tsurr
4 4
( )
here
Q& rad = heat transfer per unit time (W)
A = surface area for heat transfer (m2)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 and 0.1713x10-8 BTU/h ft2 R4
ε = emissivity
Ts = absolute temperature of surface (K)
Tsurr = absolute temperature of surroundings (K)
Unsteady Heat Transfer in Semi-infinite Solids
Solidification process of the coating layer during a thermal spray

operation is an unsteady heat transfer problem. As we discuss
earlier, thermal spray process deposits thin layer of coating
materials on surface for protection and thermal resistant purposes,
as shown. The heated, molten materials will attach to the substrate
and cool down rapidly. The cooling process is important to prevent
the accumulation of residual thermal stresses in the coating layer.
liquid
Coating with density ρ,
latent heat of fusion: hsf
S(t) δ
solid
Substrate, k, α
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 Source: Queens’ University Slide # 48
Example
As described in the previous slide, the cooling process can now be

modeled as heat loss through a semi-infinite solid. (Since the substrate
is significantly thicker than the coating layer) The molten material is at
the fusion temperature Tf and the substrate is maintained at a constant
temperature Ti. Derive an expression for the total time that is required
to solidify the coating layer of thickness δ.
• Assume the molten layer stays at a constant
temperature Tf throughout the process. The heat loss to
the substrate is solely supplied by the release of the
latent heat of fusion.
From energy balance:
hsf Δm (solidified mass during Δt) = ΔQ = q" AΔt (energy input)
Heat transfer from
the molten material h sf dm = q" A, where m = ρV = ρAS,
to the substrate dt
(q=q”A) where S is solidified thickness
dS
ρ = q"
dt
Example (cont.)
Identify that as a semi-infinite transient heat transfer problem with a

constant surface temperature boundary condition (note: the case in the
textbook corresponds to an external convection case. However, it can
be modelled as constant surface temperature case by setting h=∞,
therefore, Ts=T∞).
If the surface temperature is Ts and the initial temperature of
the bolck is Ti , the analytical solution of the problem can be found:
The temperature distribution and the heat transfer into the block are:
T(x,t)-Ts ⎛ x ⎞
= erf ⎜ ⎟ , where erf( ) is the Gaussian error function.
Ti − Ts ⎝ 2 αt ⎠
2 w − v2
It is defined as erf(w)= ∫ e dv π 0
k(Ts − Ti )
qs"(t)=
παt
Example (cont.)
From the previous equation

δ
k(Tf − Ti ) k(Tf − Ti ) dt
t
dS
ρ hsf =q"= , and ∫ dS = ∫
dt πα t 0 ρ hsf πα 0 t
2
2k(Tf − Ti ) πα ⎛ δρ hsf ⎞
δ (t ) = t , therefore, δ ∝ t. Cooling time t = 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟
ρ hsf πα 4k ⎜⎝ T f − Ti ⎠
Use the following values to calculate: k=120 W/m.K, α=4×10-5 m2/s,

ρ=3970 kg/m3, and hsf=3.577 ×106 J/kg, Tf=2318 K, Ti=300K, and δ=2
mm
Example (cont.)
2k(Tf − Ti )
δ (t ) = t = 0.00304 t
ρhsf πα
• δ(t) ∝ t1/2
0.004
• Therefore, the layer solidifies
0.003
very fast initially and then slows
down as shown in the figure
δ( t )0.002 • Note: we neglect contact
resistance between the coating
0.001 and the substrate and assume
temperature of the coating
0 material stays the same even
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 after it solidifies.
t
• To solidify 2 mm thickness, it takes 0.43 seconds.
Example (cont.)
What will be the substrate temperature as it varies in time? The

temperature distribution is:
T ( x, t ) − TS ⎛ x ⎞
= erf ⎜ ⎟,
Ti − TS ⎝ 2 αt ⎠
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
T ( x, t ) = 2318 + (300 − 2318)erf ⎜ ⎟ = 2318 − 2018erf ⎜ 79.06 ⎟
⎝ 2 αt ⎠ ⎝ t⎠
Example (cont.)
• For a fixed distance away from the surface, we can examine the variation
of the temperature as a function of time. Example, 1 cm deep into the
substrate the temperature should behave as:
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 0.79 ⎞
T ( x = 0.01, t ) = 2318 − 2018erf ⎜ ⎟ = 2318 − 2018erf ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 αt ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠
2000
1600 • At x=1 cm, the temperature

T1( t )
Temperature
1200
rises almost instantaneously at a
T2( t ) very fast rate. A short time later,
800
T3( t ) the rate of temp. increase slows
400 down significantly since the
0
energy has to distribute to a very
0 2 4 6 8 10 large mass.
t
Time
• At deeper depth (x=2 & 3 cm),
x=1 cm the temperature will not respond
x=2 cm to the surface condition until
x=3 cm much later.
Example (cont.)
We can also examine the spatial temperature distribution at any given

time, say at t=1 second.
⎛ x ⎞
T ( x, t = 1) = 2318 − 2018erf ⎜ ⎟ = 2318 − 2018erf (79.06 x )
⎝ 2 αt ⎠
3000
• Heat penetrates into the
Temperature (K)
T1( x )
2000
substrate as shown for different
time instants.
T2( x )
• It takes more than 5 seconds for
T3( x ) 1000 the energy to transfer to a depth
of 5 cm into the substrate
0 • The slopes of the temperature
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
profiles indicate the amount of
x
distance (m)
conduction heat transfer at that
t=1 s. instant.
t=5 s.
t=10 s.
Extended Surfaces / Fins
Extended Surfaces (Fins)
An extended surface (also known as a
combined conduction-convection system or a
fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by
conduction is assumed to be one dimensional,
while heat is also transferred by convection
(and/or radiation) from the surface in a
direction transverse to that of conduction
36
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly

used as fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface
area available for convection (and/or radiation).
37
Typical Fin Configurations
38
True or False?
• Heat is transferred from hot water flowing
through a tube to air flowing over the tube. To
enhance the heat transfer rate the fins should
be installed on the tube interior surface (the hot
water side)
• Fins are particularly beneficial when h is small
(typical for a gas or when only natural
convection exists).
• Ideally the fin material should have a large
thermal conductivity to minimize temperature
variations from its base to its tip.
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
of constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area with negligible
generation and radiation, the fin equation is of the form:
d 2T hP
2
− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx kAc
where p is the fin perimeter
Define:
θ = T ( x ) − T∞
θ b = Tb − T∞
39
Boundary Conditions
• At the base T = Tb or
θ(0)=θb Case A
• At the tip:
Case A: Convection
heat transfer
Case B: Adiabatic tip
Case C: Prescribed
temperature,
θ(L)=θL
Case D: Infinite fin,
T(L)=T∞ or θ(L)=0
40
Solutions of Differential Equation
(3.6.2) qf = hPkAc (Tb − T∞ )

41
Selection of fin material (
(1) SS
(2) Al
kCu>kAl>kSS
(3) Cu
Fin Performance
• Fin effectiveness: Ratio of the fin heat transfer
rate qf to the heat transfer rate that would exist
without the fin
where θb=Tb-T∞, and Ac,b is the
qf fin cross-sectional area at
εf =
hA θ c,b b
the base
¾ εf should be as large as possible
(at least >2)
• For a very long (infinite) fin (Case D
boundary condition):
1/ 2
⎛ kP ⎞
εf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ hAc ⎠
43
Fin Performance
• Fin heat transfer rate:
Tb −T∞ θb
qf = = where Rt,f is the fin resistance
Rt ,f Rt ,f
¾ Can express fin effectiveness as a ratio of thermal

resistances:
where Rt,b is the resistance
Rt ,b due to convection of the
εf =
Rt,f exposed base (=1/hAc,b)
44
Fin Performance
• Fin efficiency: The ratio of the actual heat transfer rate from the fin to
the maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy
qf qf See Figure and Table for the
ηf = =
qmax hAf θ b efficiencies of common fin shapes
¾ We can use
the efficiency
to calculate
the fin
resistance
1
Rt,f =
hAfηf
45
Fin Arrays
• Define the overall efficiency, ηo as qt qt
ηo = =
qmax hAtθ b
NAf
ηo = 1 − (1 − ηf )
At ηo = 1 −
NAf
(1 −ηf )
At
where N is the number of fins
in the array, Af the surface
area of each fin and At the
total surface area.
• We can then calculate the
heat rate for the fin array
q t = η o hA t θ b
1
• Thermal resistance of the fin array Rt ,o =
ηo hAt
46
Extended Surface Analysis
Tb P: the fin perimeter

Ac: the fin cross-sectional area
dq x
q x = − kAC
dT q x + dx = qx + dx
dx dx
AC is the cross-sectional area
dq conv = h( dAS )(T − T∞ ), where dA S is the surface area of the element

dq x
Energy Balance: q x = q x + dx + dq conv = q x + dx + hdAS (T − T∞ )
dx
d 2T
− kAC 2
dx + hP(T − T∞ )dx = 0, if k, A C are all constants.
dx
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 After Dutta of IISc Bangalore Slide # 69
Extended Surface Analysis (contd….)
d 2 T hP
2
− (T − T∞ ) = 0, A second - order, ordinary differential equation
dx kAC
Define a new variable θ ( x ) = T ( x ) − T∞ , so that
d 2θ hP
2
− m 2
θ = 0, where m 2
= , ( D 2
− m 2
)θ = 0
dx kAC
Characteristics equation with two real roots: + m & - m
The general solution is of the form
θ ( x ) = C1e mx + C2 e − mx
To evaluate the two constants C 1 and C 2 , we need to specify
two boundary conditions:
The first one is obvious: the base temperature is known as T(0) = Tb
The second condition will depend on the end condition of the tip
Extended Surface Analysis (contd...)
For example: assume the tip is insulated and no heat transfer

dθ/dx(x=L)=0
The temperature distribution is given by

T ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh m( L − x )
= =
Tb − T∞ θb cosh mL
The fin heat transfer rate is
dT
q f = − kAC ( x = 0) = hPkAC tanh mL = M tanh mL
dx
These results and other solutions using different end conditions are
tabulated in Table 3.4 in HT textbook, p. 118.
Temperature distribution for fins of
different configurations
Case Tip Condition Temp. Distribution Fin heat transfer
A Convection heat cosh m( L − x ) + ( h ) sinh m( L − x ) sinh mL + ( h ) cosh mL
transfer: mk Mθo mk
hθ(L)=-k(dθ/dx)x=L cosh mL + ( h ) sinh mL cosh mL + ( h ) sinh mL
mk mk
B Adiabatic cosh m( L − x ) Mθ 0 tanh mL

(dθ/dx)x=L=0 cosh mL
(θ L (cosh mL − θ L
C Given temperature:
) sinh m( L − x ) + sinh m( L − x )
θ(L)= θL θb θb )
Mθ 0
sinh mL sinh mL
D Infinitely long fin e − mx M θ0

θ(L)=0
hP
θ ≡ T − T∞ , m2 ≡
kAC
θ b = θ (0) = Tb − T∞ , M = hPkAC θ b
Example
An Aluminum pot is used to boil water as shown below. The

handle of the pot is 20-cm long, 3-cm wide, and 0.5-cm thick.
The pot is exposed to room air at 25°C, and the convection
coefficient is 5 W/m2 °C. Question: can you touch the handle
when the water is boiling? (k for aluminum is 237 W/m °C)
T∞ = 25 °C
h = 5 W/ m2 °C
100 °C
Example (contd...)
We can model the pot handle as an extended surface. Assume

that there is no heat transfer at the free end of the handle. The
condition matches that specified in the fins Table, case B.
h=5 W/ m2 °C, P=2W+2t=2(0.03+0.005)=0.07(m), k=237 W/m
°C, AC=Wt=0.00015(m2), L=0.2(m)
Therefore, m=(hP/kAC)1/2=3.138,
M=√(hPkAC)(Tb-T∞)=0.111θb=0.111(100-25)=8.325(W)
T ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh m( L − x )
= =
T − 25 . (0.2 − x )]
cosh[3138
= ,
100 − 25 cosh(3138
. * 0.2)
T ( x ) = 25 + 62.32 * cosh[3138
. (0.2 − x )]
Example (contd…)
Plot the temperature distribution along the pot handle

100
95
T( x )
90
85
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
x
As shown, temperature drops off very quickly. At the midpoint

T(0.1)=90.4°C. At the end T(0.2)=87.3°C.
Therefore, it should not be safe to touch the end of the handle
Example (contd...)
The total heat transfer through the handle can be calculated

also. qf=Mtanh(mL)=8.325*tanh(3.138*0.2)=4.632(W)
Very small amount: latent heat of evaporation for water: 2257
kJ/kg. Therefore, the amount of heat loss is just enough to
vaporize 0.007 kg of water in one hour.
If a stainless steel handle is used instead, what will happen:

For a stainless steel, the thermal conductivity k=15 W/m°C.
Use the same parameter as before:
1/ 2
⎛ hP ⎞
m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 12.47, M = hPkAC = 0.0281
⎝ kAC ⎠
Example (contd...)
T ( x ) − T∞ cosh m( L − x )
=
Tb − T∞ cosh mL
T ( x ) = 25 + 12.3 cosh[12.47( L − x )]
100
75
T( x) 50
25
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
x
Temperature at the handle (x=0.2 m) is only 37.3 °C, not hot at all.
This example illustrates the important role played by the thermal
conductivity of the material in terms of conductive heat transfer.
Fins-2
If the pot from previous lecture is made of other materials other
than the aluminum, what will be the temperature distribution? Try
stainless steel (k=15 W/m.K) and copper (385 W/m.K).
Recall: h=5W/m2°C, P=2W+2t=2(0.03+0.005)=0.07(m)
AC=Wt=0.00015(m2), L=0.2(m)
Therefore, mss=(hP/kAC)1/2=12.47, mcu=2.46
Mss=√(hPkssAC) (Tb-T∞)=0.028(100-25)=2.1(W)
Mcu= √(hPkssAC) θb=0.142(100-25)=10.66(W)
Tss ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh m( L − x )
For stainless steel, = =
Tss − 25 cosh[12.47(0.2 − x )]
= ,
100 − 25 cosh(12.47 * 0.2)
Tss ( x ) = 25 + 12.3 * cosh[12.47(0.2 − x )]
Fins-2 (contd....)
Tcu ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh m( L − x )
For copper, = =
Tcu − 25 cosh[2.46(0.2 − x )]
= ,
100 − 25 cosh(2.46 * 0.2)
Tcu ( x ) = 25 + 66.76 * cosh[2.46(0.2 − x )]
100
95
T( x ) copper
90
T ss( x ) aluminum
85
T cu( x )
80 stainless steel
75
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
x
Fins-2 (contd...)
Inside the handle of the stainless steel pot, temperature drops

quickly. Temperature at the end of the handle is 37.3°C. This is
because the stainless steel has low thermal conductivity and heat
can not penetrate easily into the handle.
Copper has the highest k and, correspondingly, the temperature
inside the copper handle distributes more uniformly. Heat easily
transfers into the copper handle.
Question? Which material is most suitable to be used in a heat
sink?
Fins-2 (contd...)
How do we know the adiabatic tip assumption is good? Try

using the convection heat transfer condition at the tip (case A in
fins table) We will use the aluminum pot as the example.
h=5 W/m2.K, k=237 W/m.K, m=3.138, M=8.325W
Long equation
T ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh[ m( L − x )] + (h / mk )sinh[ m( L − x )]
= =
Tb − T∞ θb cosh mL + (h / mk )sinh mL
. (0.2 − x )] + 0.00672 sinh[3138
cosh[3138 . (0.2 − x )]
=
cosh(0.6276) + 0.00672 sinh(0.6276)
T ( x ) = 25 + 62.09{cosh(0.6276 − 3138
. x ) + 0.00672 sinh(0.6276 − 3138
. x )}
Fins-2 (contd….)
100
T: adiabatic tip
96.25
T( x )
Tc: convective tip
92.5
T c( x )
88.75
T(0.2)=87.32 °C
85 Tc(0.2)=87.09 °C
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
x
Note 1: Convective tip case has a slightly lower tip temperature

as expected since there is additional heat transfer at the tip.
Note 2: There is no significant difference between these two
solutions, therefore, correct choice of boundary condition is not
that important here. However, sometimes correction might be
needed to compensate the effect of convective heat transfer at
the end. (especially for thick fins)
Fins-2 (contd...)
In some situations, it might be necessary to include the

convective heat transfer at the tip. However, one would like to
avoid using the long equation as described in case A, fins table.
The alternative is to use case B instead and accounts for the
convective heat transfer at the tip by extending the fin length L to
LC=L+(t/2).
With convection LC=L+t/2 Insulation
Original fin length L t/2

L
Then apply the adiabatic condition at the tip of the extended fin as
shown above.
Fins-2 (contd...)
Use the same example: aluminum pot handle, m=3.138, the

length will need to be corrected to
LC=l+(t/2)=0.2+0.0025=0.2025(m)
Tcorr ( x ) - T∞ θ cosh m( Lc − x )
= =
Tb − T∞ θb cosh mLc
Tcorr − 25 cosh[3138 . (0.2025 − x )]
= ,
100 − 25 cosh(3138
. * 0.2025)
Tcorr ( x ) = 25 + 62.05 * cosh[3138
. (0.2025 − x )]
Fins-2 (contd...)
100
96.25
T(0.2)=87.32 °C
T( x)
Tc(0.2)=87.09 °C
T c( x) 92.5 Tcorr(0.2025)=87.05 °C
T corr( x)
88.75 slight improvement
over the uncorrected
85 solution
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
Correction Length
The correction length can be determined by using the formula:

Lc=L+(Ac/P), where Ac is the cross-sectional area and P is the
perimeter of the fin at the tip.
Thin rectangular fin: Ac=Wt, P=2(W+t)≈2W, since t << W

Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(Wt/2W)=L+(t/2)
Cylindrical fin: Ac=(π/4)D2, P= πD, Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(D/4)
Square fin: Ac=W2, P=4W,

Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(W2/4W)=L+(W/4)
Optimal Length of a Fin
In general, the longer the fin, the higher the heat transfer.
However, a long fin means more material and increased size and
cost. Question: how do we determine the optimal fin length?
Use the rectangular fin as an example:
1 q f = M tanh mL, for an adiabatic tip fin
0.8 ( q f ) ∞ = M , for an infinitely long fin
0.6 qf
R( mL ) Their ratio: R(mL)= = tanh mL
0.4 ( q f )∞
0.2 Note: heat transfer increases with mL
0 as expected. Initially the rate of
0 1 2 3 4
mL
change is large and slows down
drastically when mL> 2.
R(1)=0.762, means any increase beyond mL=1 will increase no
more thanKwok
23.8%
Wai Lem –of
(KU the fin2010)
3195, Spring heat transfer.
Lecture #20 and #21 After Dutta of IISc Bangalore Slide # 87
Temperature Distribution
For an adiabatic tip fin case:

¾ Use m=5, and L=0.2
T − T∞ cosh m( L − x ) as an example:
Rθ = =
Tb − T∞ cosh mL
High ΔT, good fin heat transfer Low ΔT, poor fin heat transfer
1
1
R θ ( x ) 0.8
0.648054
0.6
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0 x 0.2
Correction Length for a Fin with a
Non-adiabatic Tip
The correction length can be determined by using the formula:

Lc=L+(Ac/P), where Ac is the cross-sectional area and P is the
perimeter of the fin at the tip.
Thin rectangular fin: Ac=Wt, P=2(W+t)≈2W, since t << W

Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(Wt/2W)=L+(t/2)
Cylindrical fin: Ac=(π/4)D2, P= πD, Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(D/4)
Square fin: Ac=W2, P=4W,

Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(W2/4W)=L+(W/4)
Fin Manufacturing
Care must be exercised

to ensure that the
thermal contact
resistance does not
adversely influence the
overall fin performance
47
Example
As more components are placed on a single
intergrated circuit (chip), the amount of heat
dissipated increases. The maximum allowable
chip operating temperature, is approximately
75°C. Suggest ways to maximize heat
dissipation. Air, T∞=20°C
Top view Side view
48
Fins in Heat Exchangers
• Widely used to achieve large heat rates per unit volume,

particularly when one or both fluids is a gas.
• Characterized by large heat transfer surface areas per unit
volume (>700 m2/m3), small flow passages, and laminar flow.
Fin (extended surface) effects
• Fins reduce the resistance to convection
heat transfer, by increasing surface area.
• The expression for the overall heat
transfer coefficient includes overall
surface efficiency, or temperature
efficiency, ηo, of the finned surface, which
depends on the type of fin’
" "
1 1 Rf ,c Rf ,h 1
= + + Rconduction + +
UA (η o hA)c (ηo A)c (ηo A)h (ηo hA )h
where c is for cold and h for hot fluids respectively
EXTENDED SURFACES / FINS
Convection: Heat transfer between a solid surface and a moving

fluid is governed by the Newton’s cooling law: q = hA(Ts-T∞).
Therefore, to increase the convective heat transfer, one can
Increase the temperature difference (Ts-T∞) between the

surface and the fluid.
Increase the convection coefficient h. This can be

accomplished by increasing the fluid flow over the surface since
h is a function of the flow velocity and the higher the velocity,
the higher the h. Example: a cooling fan.
Increase the contact surface area A. Example: a heat sink

with fins.
Fin Design
T∞
Total heat loss: qf=Mtanh(mL) for an
Tb adiabatic fin, or qf=Mtanh(mLC) if there is
convective heat transfer at the tip
hP
where m= , and M= hPkA Cθ b = hPkA C (Tb − T∞ )
kAc
Use the thermal resistance concept:
(T − T )
q f = hPkA C tanh( mL)(Tb − T∞ ) = b ∞
Rt , f
where Rt , f is the thermal resistance of the fin.
For a fin with an adiabatic tip, the fin resistance can be expressed as
(Tb − T∞ ) 1
Rt , f = =
qf hPkA C [tanh(mL)]
Fin Effectiveness
How effective a fin can enhance heat transfer is characterized by the
fin effectiveness εf: Ratio of fin heat transfer and the heat transfer
without the fin. For an adiabatic fin:
qf qf hPkA C tanh(mL) kP
εf = = = = tanh( mL)
q hAC (Tb − T∞ ) hAC hAC
If the fin is long enough, mL>2, tanh(mL) → 1,
it can be considered an infinite fin (case D of table3.4)
kP k⎛ P ⎞
εf → = ⎜ ⎟
hAC h ⎝ AC ⎠
In order to enhance heat transfer, ε f > 1.
However, ε f ≥ 2 will be considered justifiable
If ε f <1 then we have an insulator instead of a heat fin
Fin Effectiveness
(contd...)
kP k⎛ P ⎞
εf → = ⎜ ⎟
hAC h ⎝ AC ⎠
To increase εf, the fin’s material should have higher thermal

conductivity, k.
It seems to be counterintuitive that the lower convection
coefficient, h, the higher εf. But it is not because if h is very high,
it is not necessary to enhance heat transfer by adding heat fins.
Therefore, heat fins are more effective if h is low. Observation: If
fins are to be used on surfaces separating gas and liquid. Fins are
usually placed on the gas side. (Why?)
Fin Effectiveness (contd...)
P/AC should be as high as possible. Use a square fin with
a dimension of W by W as an example: P=4W, AC=W2,
P/AC=(4/W). The smaller W, the higher the P/AC, and the
higher εf.
Conclusion: It is preferred to use thin and closely spaced

(to increase the total number) fins.
Fin Effectiveness (contd...)
The effectiveness of a fin can also be characterized as

qf qf (Tb − T∞ ) / Rt , f Rt ,h
εf = = = =
q hAC (Tb − T∞ ) (Tb − T∞ ) / Rt ,h Rt , f
It is a ratio of the thermal resistance due to convection to
the thermal resistance of a fin. In order to enhance heat transfer,
the fin's resistance should be lower than that of the resistance
due only to convection.
Fin Efficiency
qf
Define Fin efficiency: η f =
q max
where q max represents an idealized situation such that the fin is made up
of material with infinite thermal conductivity. Therefore, the fin should
be at the same temperature as the temperature of the base.
q max = hA f (Tb − T∞ )
Fin Efficiency
(contd…)
For infinite k
T(x)<Tb for heat transfer T(x)=Tb, the heat transfer
to take place is maximum
Tb
x x
Total fin heat transfer qf Ideal heat transfer qmax
Real situation Ideal situation

Fin Efficiency (cont.)
Use an adiabatic rectangular fin as an example:

qf M ta n h m L h P k A c ( T b − T ∞ ) ta n h m L
η = = =
h A f (Tb − T∞ ) h P L (Tb − T∞ )
f
q m ax
ta n h m L ta n h m L
= = ( s e e T a b le 3 .5 f o r η f o f c o m m o n f in s )
hP mL
L
k Ac
T h e f in h e a t tr a n s f e r : q f = η f q m a x = η f h A f ( T b − T ∞ )
Tb − T∞ T − T∞ 1
qf = = b , w h ere Rt, f =
1 /(η f h A f ) Rt, f η f hA f
T h e r m a l r e s is ta n c e f o r a s in g le f in .
1
A s c o m p a r e d to c o n v e c tiv e h e a t tr a n s f e r : R t , b =
h Ab
In o r d e r to h a v e a lo w e r r e s is ta n c e a s th a t is r e q u ir e d to
e n h a n c e h e a t tr a n s f e r : R t , b > R t , f o r A b < η f A f
Overall Fin Efficiency
Overall fin efficiency for an array of fins:
Define terms: Ab: base area exposed to coolant

qf
Af: surface area of a single fin
qb At: total area including base area and total
finned surface, At=Ab+NAf
N: total number of fins
Overall Fin Efficiency (contd…)
qt = qb + Nqf = hAb (Tb − T∞ ) + Nη f hAf (Tb − T∞ )

= h[( At − NAf ) + Nη f Af ](Tb − T∞ ) = h[ At − NAf (1 −η f )](Tb − T∞ )
NAf
= hAt [1 − (1 −η f )](Tb − T∞ ) = ηOhAt (Tb − T∞ )
At
NAf
Define overall fin efficiency: ηO = 1 − (1 −η f )
At
Heat Transfer from a Fin Array
Tb − T∞ 1
qt = hAtηO (Tb − T∞ ) = where Rt ,O =
Rt ,O hAtηO
Compare to heat transfer without fins
1
q = hA(Tb − T∞ ) = h( Ab + NAb, f )(Tb − T∞ ) =
hA
where Ab,f is the base area (unexposed) for the fin
To enhance heat transfer AtηO >> A
That is, to increase the effective area ηO At .
Thermal Resistance Concept
L1 t A=Ab+NAb,f
Rb=t/(kbA)
T1 T1 T2 Tb T∞
T∞
R1=L1/(k1A) Rt ,O = 1 /( hAtηO )
T2 Tb T1 − T∞ T1 − T∞
q= =
∑ R R1 + Rb + Rt ,O
Optical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What phenomena occur when light is shined on a material?
• What determines the characteristic colors of materials?
• Why are some materials transparent and others are
translucent or opaque?
• Where the color comes from in nature?
• Why size matters?
107
Optical Properties
Light has both particulate and wavelike characteristics
– Photon - a quantum unit of light
hc
E = hν =
λ
E = energy of a photon
λ = wavelength of radiation
ν = frequency of radiation
h = Planck’ s constant (6.62 x 10 −34 J ⋅ s)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 108 m/s)
108
Refraction
• Transmitted light distorts electron clouds.
electron
no cloud
transmitted
transmitted + + distorts
light light
• The velocity of light in a material is lower than in a vacuum.

c (velocity of light in vacuum)
n = index of refraction ≡
v (velocity of light in medium)
-- Adding large ions (e.g., lead) to glass Material n

decreases the speed of light in the glass.
-- Light can be “bent” as it passes through a Typical glasses ca. 1.5 -1.7
transparent prism Plastics 1.3 -1.6
PbO (Litharge) 2.67
Diamond 2.41
Selected values from Table 19.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
109
Total Internal Reflectance
n1 sin φ2
n2 > n1 =
φ2 n2 sin φ1
n2 φ1 = incident angle
n1 φ2 = refracted angle
φc = critical angle
φc φc exists when φ2 = 90°
φ1 For φ1 > φc light is internally
reflected
• Fiber optic cables are clad in low n material so that light will
experience total internal reflectance and not escape from the optical
fiber.
110
Example: Diamond in air
• What is the critical angle φc for light passing from diamond
(n1 = 2.41) into air (n2 = 2.41)?
• Solution: At the critical angle, φ1 = φc
and φ2 = 90°
n1 sin φ2
Rearranging the equation =
n2 sin φ1
n2 n2
sin φ1 = sin φc = sin(90°) =
n1 n1
Substitution gives
1
sin φc = φc = 24.5o
2.41
111
Light Interactions with Solids
• Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted: I0 = IT + IA + IR + IS
Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT
Incident: I0
Scattered: IS
• Optical classification of materials:
Transparent Adapted from Fig. 21.10, Callister
Translucent 6e. (Fig. 21.10 is by J. Telford,
with specimen preparation by P.A.
Opaque Lessing.)
single polycrystalline polycrystalline

crystal dense porous
112
Optical Properties of Metals:
Absorption
• Absorption of photons by electron transitions:
Energy of electron
unfilled states
t o n
p ho ΔE = hν required!
e nt h ν
i d
Inc rg y
ene
of filled states
Planck’s constant freq.
of
(6.63 x 10-34 J/s) incident
Adapted from Fig. 19.4(a),
light
• Unfilled electron states are adjacent to filled states
• Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.
113
Light Absorption
The amount of light absorbed by a material is
calculated using Beer’s Law
β = absorption coefficient, cm-1

l = sample thickness, cm
IT′ =I 0′ e −βl IT′ = incident light intensity
I0′ = transmitted light intensity
Rearranging and taking the natural log of both sides

of the equation leads to
⎡ IT′ ⎤
ln⎢ ⎥ = − βl
⎣ I 0′ ⎦
114
Reflection of Light for Metals
• Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.
Energy of electron
IR unfilled states
“conducting” electron
photon emitted Electron transition
from metal
surface
filled states
Adapted from Fig. 19.4(b),

115
Reflection of Light for Metals (cont.)
• Reflectivity = IR /I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95.
• Metal surfaces appear shiny
• Most of absorbed light is reflected at the
same wavelength
• Small fraction of light may be absorbed
• Color of reflected light depends on
wavelength distribution
– Example: The metals copper and gold absorb light
in blue and green => reflected light has gold color
116
Reflectivity of Nonmetals
• For normal incidence and light passing into a solid
having an index of refraction n:
⎛ n −1⎞2
R = reflectivity = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n + 1⎠
• Example: For Diamond n = 2.41

2
⎛ 2.41 − 1 ⎞
R =⎜ ⎟ = 0.17
⎝ 2.41 + 1⎠
∴ 17% of light is reflected
117
Scattering of Light in Polymers
• For highly amorphous and pore-free polymers
– Little or no scattering
– These materials are transparent
• Semicrystalline polymers
– Different indices of refraction for amorphous and
crystalline regions
– Scattering of light at boundaries
– Highly crystalline polymers may be opaque
• Examples:
– Polystyrene (amorphous) – clear and transparent
– Low-density polyethylene milk cartons – opaque
118
Selected Light Absorption in
Semiconductors
Absorption of light of frequency ν by by electron transition
occurs if hν > Egap
Energy of electron
Examples of photon energies:
unfilled states
blue light: hν = 3.1 eV
red light: hν = 1.7 eV
Egap
incident photon
energy hν
filled states Adapted from Fig. 19.5(a),
• If Egap < 1.8 eV, all light absorbed; material is opaque (e.g., Si, GaAs)
• If Egap > 3.1 eV, no light absorption; material is transparent and
colorless (e.g., diamond)
• If 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, partial light absorption; material is colored
119
Computations of Minimum
Wavelength Absorbed
(a) What is the minimum wavelength absorbed by
Ge, for which Eg = 0.67 eV?
Solution:
hc (6.63 x 10−34 J⋅ s)(3 x 108 m/s)
λ Ge (min) = =
E g (Ge) (0.67 eV)(1.60 x 10−19 J/eV)
λ Ge (min) = 1.86 x 10-6 m = 1.86 μm
(b) Redoing this computation for Si which has a band gap

of 1.1 eV
λ Si (min) = 1.13 μm
Note: the presence of donor and/or acceptor states allows for light
absorption at other wavelengths.
120
Color of Nonmetals
• Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:
-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions
• Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg = 2.4 eV
-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted
• Example 2: Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3
-- Sapphire is transparent and
Transmittance (%)
80
colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV) sapphire
70
-- adding Cr2O3 : ruby
• alters the band gap 60
• blue and orange/yellow/green 50
wavelength, λ (= c/ν)(μm)
light is absorbed 40
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
• red light is transmitted Adapted from Fig. 19.9, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
• Result: Ruby is deep (Fig. 19.9 adapted from "The Optical Properties of
Materials" by A. Javan, Scientific American, 1967.)
red in color
121
Luminescence
• Luminescence – reemission of light by a material
– Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at
another (lower) frequency.
– Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
Conduction band • If residence time in trapped state is

relatively long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence
• For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

trapped Eemission -- fluorescence
Eg states
Example: Toys that glow in the dark.
activator Charge toys by exposing them to
level
light. Reemission of light over time—
phosphorescence
Valence band
122
Photoluminescence
Hg atom
UV light
electrode electrode
• Arc between electrodes excites electrons in mercury atoms in
the lamp to higher energy levels.
• As electron falls back into their ground states, UV light is emitted
(e.g., suntan lamp).
• Inside surface of tube lined with material that absorbs UV and
reemits visible light
- For example, Ca10F2P6O24 with 20% of F - replaced by Cl -
• Adjust color by doping with metal cations
Sb3+ blue
Mn2+ orange-red 123
Cathodoluminescence
• Used in cathode-ray tube devices (e.g., TVs, computer monitors)
• Inside of tube is coated with a phosphor material
– Phosphor material bombarded with electrons
– Electrons in phosphor atoms excited to higher state
– Photon (visible light) emitted as electrons drop back into
ground states
– Color of emitted light (i.e., photon wavelength) depends on
composition of phosphor
ZnS (Ag+ & Cl-) blue
(Zn, Cd) S + (Cu++Al3+) green
Y2O2S + 3% Eu red
• Note: light emitted is random in phase & direction

– i.e., is noncoherent
124
Other Applications of Optical
Phenomena
• New materials must be developed to make new &
improved optical devices.
– Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
• More than one color available from a single diode
• Also sources of white light (multicolor)
Fig. 19.12, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

(Reproduced by arrangement with
Silicon Chip magazine.)
125
Other Applications - Solar Cells
• p-n junction: • Operation:
-- incident photon of light produces elec.-hole pair.
P-doped Si -- typical potential of 0.5 V produced across junction
conductance Si -- current increases w/light intensity.
electron creation of
Si P Si hole-electron
light pair
Si - - -
n-type Si
p-n junction -
n-type Si p-type Si +
p-n junction + + +
p-type Si
• Solar powered weather station:
hole Si
Si B Si
Si
B-doped Si polycrystalline Si
Los Alamos High School weather
station (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
126
Other Applications - Optical Fibers
Schematic diagram showing components of a
fiber optic communications system
127
Optical Fibers (cont.)
• fibers have diameters of 125 μm or less

• plastic cladding 60 μm thick is applied to fibers
Fig. 19.20, Callister &

Rethwisch 3e.
128
Optical Fiber Designs
Step-index Optical Fiber

Graded-index Optical Fiber

129
SUMMARY
• Light radiation impinging on a material may be reflected
from, absorbed within, and/or transmitted through
• Light transmission characteristics:
-- transparent, translucent, opaque
• Optical properties of metals:
-- opaque and highly reflective due to electron energy band
structure.
• Optical properties of non-Metals:
-- for Egap < 1.8 eV, absorption of all wavelengths of light radiation
-- for Egap > 3.1 eV, no absorption of visible light radiation
-- for 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, absorption of some range of light
radiation wavelengths
-- color determined by wavelength distribution of transmitted light
• Other important optical applications/devices:
-- luminescence, photoconductivity, light-emitting diodes, solar
cells, lasers, and optical fibers
130
Light in Nature –
Where do they come from?
Light Scattering
•The incident E-field accelerates
charges in the obstacle which radiate
electromagnetic energy in all
directions. This process is called
scattering, thus:
•Scattering = excitation + reradiation
•The excited charges may also

transform their energy into other
forms, like heat. This process is called
absorption. Together the two
processes are called extinction:
True for metals
•Extinction = scattering + absorption
and dielectrics
crystalline regions
• Examples:
133
Types of Scattering in the Atmosphere
• Rayleigh
• Mie
• Geometric
Rayleigh Scattering in Visible Spectrum
• Blue sky
• Red Sunset
• Blue water (from underwater)
Rayleigh Scattering
• Wavelength of light is much larger than

scattering particles
• Blue light ~4000 Angstroms, scattering
particles ~1 Angstrom (1A=10-10 m)
Mie Scattering
• Explains scattering around larger droplets such as Corona
around the sun or moon, Glory and similar phenomena.
Mie Scattering
Rayleigh scattering (d<<λ)
Particles feel homogeneous applied
field Ei. The induced dipole moment
in the particle is:
p = αΕ i
where α is the polarizability of the
scatterer.
Assume the incident field is time

harmonic:
E i = E 0 cos ω0t
The particle (dipole) will radiate at the
same ω as the applied field with
intensity: E
g
pω 2 4
sin γ 2
I s (γ ) =
32π 2 c 3ε 0 r 2
p
(see electrodynamics textbook) Electric field lines of oscillating dipole

Blue light is scattered more than red light
Scattering by small gas molecules in the

atmosphere:
d<< λ: Rayleigh scattering
Geometrical scattering (d>>λ)
For particles very large compared
to λ, the incident plane wave can
be subdivided into a large number
of rays which obey Snell’s law and
Fresnel Equations.
For complex ε, the energy Wabs
absorbed in the sphere depends
on the absorption of the dielectric
and the time the light spends in
the particle (the optical path
length)
Rainbow formation
Metal nanoparticles:
extinction = scattering + absorption
n=1.5 Ienh
20
Au
550nm
At resonance, both scattering and absorption are large
albedo = scattering / extinction = σsca/(σabs+σsca)

Light in Nature –
Animal Colors
• Why are animals different colors?
• Why are some breeds of animals one color
but another breed of the same animal is a
different color?
• What are the benefits of various colored
animals?
Biomimics?
Frogs
• Various colored frogs
• Why are they different
colors?
– Protection?
– Camouflage? – Mating?
– Warning?
Birds- (Top Left to Bottom Right) Peacock, Toucan,
Macaw, Cardinal, Blue jay.
Coral Fish
What Makes Color?
There are three possible reasons for color
1. One reason is pigment. If color is due to pigment, the color

never changes.
2. The colors of beetle and butterfly wings come from the

scattering of light. Light hits the nanostructures on their
scales. These nanostructures are typically smaller than the
wavelengths of visible light (smaller than 400 nanometers, for
example).
3. The third reason for color is the interference of different

wavelengths of light (like oil on water). Thin films are
made of nanoparticles, smaller than 400 nanometers, that produce
iridescent (rainbow-like) colors when light strikes them. Iridescent
colors change when you look at the object from different angles.
What Makes Color?
There are three possible reasons for color:
1. One reason is pigment. If color is due to pigment, the color never

changes.
For example, a bluejay is always blue. Though pigment

isn’t based on nanoscience, the next two examples of ways
to create color are based on nanoscience.
http://acept.la.asu.edu/PiN/rdg/interfere/interfere.shtml
Or Could Color Be Nanoscopic?
These nanostructures
don’t just make me
pretty. They also
keep me clean by
shedding water and
dirt!
2. The colors of beetle and butterfly wings come from the scattering
of light. Light hits the nanostructures on their scales. These
nanostructures are typically smaller than the wavelengths of visible
light (smaller than 400 nanometers, for example).
Nature uses Light
on the Nanoscale
Why Butterflies?
• Butterflies have irridescent colours

formed by photonic crystals.
• But what about the intense black
areas on the wings?
• Wing scales with very low
reflectance (>0.5%)
• Possibilities of emulating them
with other materials.
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 After Fernandes, 2006 Slide # 154
Surface Reflections
• Any interface that involves a change in refractive
index gives rise to surface reflections. Surfaces
like black cardboard and paint, even though they
appear black still reflect about 4%.
• To a simple approximation, these surface
reflections are governed by Fresnel equations.
For air (ni) and chittin (nt):
R= ((nt-ni)/(nt+ni))2 = ((1-1.56)/(1+1.56))2
= 4.8%
• In butterfly scales, you get values as low as 0.4%.
The Role of the Butterfly Wing Scale
• The material the butterfly wing is made from,
chitin, is effectively transparent. Yet when it
adopts certain structures it can cause
interference and diffraction of light rays to
produce a range of colours.
• In the case of black scales the main role of the

upper part of the wing scale appears to be to
collimate the light- to transmit it to an absorbent
membrane beneath, and minimise surface
reflections. It is this part of the Scale I hoped to
investigate.
• Begun investigations with 17 samples and a

range of methods to see what different solutions
there were and which were most effective.
High Resolution Optical
Microscope
Typical Scale Structure
• The arrangement of scales on the wing resembles that of shingles on a roof. In most
species two distinct layers are present- ground and cover scales.
• Typical scale dimensions are of the order 75 micm by 200 micm. (scales come off as a
fine dust). Underside tends to be plain and featureless, while interior and external visible
top surface exhibit interesting microstructure.
Summary
• Scales with the honeycomb structure were on

average significantly less reflective than those
with crossribbing.
• Suggests honeycomb more effective in
minimising surface reflections and collimating
light.
• The microribbing appeared even more effective.
• All scales exhibited extremely low reflectances
Application
• Structures could be scaled for specific
applications. You would create selective surfaces
(since reflection in infra-red region is v. high).
• Basic computer modelling has already confirmed
a peak below 1% for a simple honeycomb
structure.
• Important to use nature as inspiration, not as
blueprints.
• Needs of an individual organism likely to be very
different form our own.
Color Can Be Iridescent, Too!
3.The third reason for color is the interference of different wavelengths
of light (like oil on water). Thin films are made of nanoparticles,
smaller than 400 nanometers, that produce iridescent (rainbow-like)
colors when light strikes them. Iridescent colors change when you look
at the object from different angles.
Bioluminescence Basics
•Bioluminescence in
fireflies is nanoscale. The
glow is caused by the
exciting of electrons by a
firefly’s enzyme.
•When the electrons quiet
down and go back to their
stable state, they give off
light.
•They glow to attract
mates and communicate.
•Angler fish use bioluminescent lures to attract fish.
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/science/84/8414biolum.html
http://www.anglerfish.info/
Squid Lights on a Nanoscale
The Hawaiian bobtail squid uses a two
part process to hide from predators at
night.
Would somebody
turn on the lights, 1. First, it has a light-producing organ on
please? its underside. How does it produce
light? Why, it contains bacteria that
produce luminescent light on the
nanoscale.
2. Secondly, the squid has stacks of silvery
nanoplatelets made of proteins behind
the tissue to reflect the light downward
from the squid. The light prevents it
from casting a shadow when seen from
above or forming a silhouette when seen
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8202/8202notw3.html
from below.
Jellyfish Lights
A jellyfish-type invertebrate, called

a siphonophore, uses red
bioluminescent lures created at the
nanoscale to attract prey.
Doesn’t it seem odd that it would
use red light since red isn’t easily
visible underwater?
http://www.coml.org/medres/high2005/highlightimages.htm
A “Blue Light Special”
• Tiny crustaceans, Ostracods, also known as "seed
shrimp" or "sea fireflies," also use this enzyme to
produce bioluminescence in courtship. The males
produce blue dots in the water, which are used to
attract mates.
A close-up using a scanning electron

microscope
What is the process that produces light?
• Light produced by a
living organism is a
chemical reaction.
• Luciferase catalyzes the

oxydation of luciferin
resulting in the
production of light.
After Monahan, 2007
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 Source: Immersion Slide # 166
Luminescence in
the Deep
-Bioluminescence is light
produced by a chemical
reaction which originates in
an organism.
-Very common in the ocean
Warty Anglerfish with a

luminescent lure; Deep-sea
lizardfish with luminescent eyes
Introduction to Organic Photochemistry
– Light as a Products
1. In most chemical reactions molecules are in their ground electronic
states.
2. In photochemical reactions one or more of the reacting molecules are
promoted by absorption of light (visible to UV) to an electronically
excited state – Light as a chemical reagent
O OH OH
OH hν O
C + C C +
Benzophenone Isopropanol Benzopinacol Acetone

3. In some photochemical processes a molecule is formed which is
already in an electronically excited state. When this molecule returns to
its ground state, light is produced. – Light as a chemical product
NH2 O NH2 O
-
H2O2, OH
NH K3Fe(CN)6 O
+ Light
NH O
O O
Light Sticks: Cyalume 1. Light sticks contains a thin glass vial
Cl
O O
Cl that contains an alkaline (basic)
Cl O C C O Cl
solution of hydrogen peroxide
suspended in a solution of
Cl
Cyalume
Cl O
diphenyloxalate and an organic dye.
O O O O
+ 2. When the inner vial is broken two
O
O C C O O C C O
O
C C O
successive nucleophilic substitution
O O reactions occur to form an unstable 4-
HO-
HO OH O OH + H2O
OH OH
membered ring.
HO-
3. This ring decomposes by a pathway
O O O O
that forms a excited triplet electronic
C C + O
O
C C O
O
C C O
state on the oxygen of one of the two
O O O O O
O
molecules of carbon dioxide produced.
+ H2O
4. Normally, if this electron decayed to
O O reverse [2 + 2] O O* O
the ground state the photon released
+ dye* would be in the UV region. In the
cycloaddition dye
C C C + C C dye + hν (visible light)
O O O O O presence of the dye, however,

photosensitization occurs (triplet to
triplet).
T1 + A(S0) Æ S0 + A(T1)
5. The excited dye molecule undergoes

phosphorescence to give a photon in
the visible region of the spectrum (dye
dependant).
Luciferin (fireflies): Similar to cyalume in the formation and
degradation of a 4-membered ring followed by phosphorescence
O
H
HO HO
S N S
OH
=R
N N
S
Luciferin
ATP
O
O
O O O O
O
H N
N
N - H+ O AMP R
O AMP
O AMP R
R
S
S
S
+ pyrophosphate
O O O
O O
N O N *
O
R
N O
R
N
O AMP
R R
S S
S S
+ AMP
Oxyluciferin + CO2
Resonance Energy Transfer
Non-Radiative
Energy Transfer
• Fluorescence
Resonance Energy
Transfer (FRET)
• Surface Energy
Transfer
Examples of available fluorescent dye and quencher families, almost all of which have been used for
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) measurements. Absorbance and emission maxima
along with spectral regions covered by a particular dye family are highlighted. Tetramethylrhodamine
(TMR), carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA), and carboxy-X-rhodamine (ROX) are all rhodamine-
based dyes. The most common D/A dye combinations are coumarin/fluorescein, fluorescein/rhodamine,
and Cy3.5/Cy5. Popular dye/quencher combinations include rhodamine/Dabcyl and Cy3/QSY9. Major
suppliers are the companies Molecular Probes (fluorescein, rhodamine, AlexaFluor, BODIPY Oregon
Green, Texas Red, and QSY quenchers), Amersham Biosciences (Cy dyes and Cy5Q/Cy7Q quenchers),
AnaSpec (HiLyte Fluors, QXL quenchers), ATTO-TEC (ATTO dyes and quenchers), and Molecular
Biotechnology (DY dyes), Pierce (DyLight 547 and DyLight 647 dyes), Berry and Associates
(BlackBerry), and Biosearch Technologies (Black Hole). FITC=fluorescein isothiocyanate.
Optical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What phenomena occur when light is shined on a material?
• What determines the characteristic colors of materials?
• Why are some materials transparent and others are
translucent or opaque?
• Where the color comes from in nature?
• Why size matters?
173
Optical Properties
Light has both particulate and wavelike characteristics
– Photon - a quantum unit of light
hc
E = hν =
λ
E = energy of a photon
λ = wavelength of radiation
ν = frequency of radiation
h = Planck’ s constant (6.62 x 10 −34 J ⋅ s)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 108 m/s)
174
Refraction
• Transmitted light distorts electron clouds.
electron
no cloud
transmitted
transmitted + + distorts
light light
• The velocity of light in a material is lower than in a vacuum.

c (velocity of light in vacuum)
n = index of refraction ≡
v (velocity of light in medium)
-- Adding large ions (e.g., lead) to glass Material n

decreases the speed of light in the glass.
-- Light can be “bent” as it passes through a Typical glasses ca. 1.5 -1.7
transparent prism Plastics 1.3 -1.6
PbO (Litharge) 2.67
Diamond 2.41
Selected values from Table 19.1,
175
Total Internal Reflectance
n1 sin φ2
n2 > n1 =
φ2 n2 sin φ1
n2 φ1 = incident angle
n1 φ2 = refracted angle
φc = critical angle
φc φc exists when φ2 = 90°
φ1 For φ1 > φc light is internally
reflected
• Fiber optic cables are clad in low n material so that light will
experience total internal reflectance and not escape from the optical
fiber.
176
Example: Diamond in air
• What is the critical angle φc for light passing from diamond
(n1 = 2.41) into air (n2 = 2.41)?
• Solution: At the critical angle, φ1 = φc
and φ2 = 90°
n1 sin φ2
Rearranging the equation =
n2 sin φ1
n2 n2
sin φ1 = sin φc = sin(90°) =
n1 n1
Substitution gives
1
sin φc = φc = 24.5o
2.41
177
Light Interactions with Solids
• Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted: I0 = IT + IA + IR + IS
Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT
Incident: I0
Scattered: IS
• Optical classification of materials:
Transparent Adapted from Fig. 21.10, Callister
Translucent 6e. (Fig. 21.10 is by J. Telford,
with specimen preparation by P.A.
Opaque Lessing.)
single polycrystalline polycrystalline

crystal dense porous
178
Optical Properties of Metals:
Absorption
• Absorption of photons by electron transitions:
Energy of electron
unfilled states
t o n
p ho ΔE = hν required!
e nt h ν
i d
Inc rg y
ene
of filled states
Planck’s constant freq.
of
(6.63 x 10-34 J/s) incident
Adapted from Fig. 19.4(a),
light
• Unfilled electron states are adjacent to filled states
• Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.
179
Light Absorption
The amount of light absorbed by a material is
calculated using Beer’s Law
β = absorption coefficient, cm-1

l = sample thickness, cm
IT′ =I 0′ e −βl IT′ = incident light intensity
I0′ = transmitted light intensity
Rearranging and taking the natural log of both sides

of the equation leads to
⎡ IT′ ⎤
ln⎢ ⎥ = − βl
⎣ I 0′ ⎦
180
Reflection of Light for Metals
• Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.
Energy of electron
IR unfilled states
“conducting” electron
photon emitted Electron transition
from metal
surface
filled states
Adapted from Fig. 19.4(b),

181
Reflection of Light for Metals (cont.)
• Reflectivity = IR /I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95.
• Metal surfaces appear shiny
• Most of absorbed light is reflected at the
same wavelength
• Small fraction of light may be absorbed
• Color of reflected light depends on
wavelength distribution
– Example: The metals copper and gold absorb light
in blue and green => reflected light has gold color
182
Reflectivity of Nonmetals
• For normal incidence and light passing into a solid
having an index of refraction n:
⎛ n −1⎞2
R = reflectivity = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n + 1⎠
• Example: For Diamond n = 2.41

2
⎛ 2.41 − 1 ⎞
R =⎜ ⎟ = 0.17
⎝ 2.41 + 1⎠
∴ 17% of light is reflected
183
crystalline regions
• Examples:
184
Selected Light Absorption in
Semiconductors
Absorption of light of frequency ν by by electron transition
occurs if hν > Egap
Energy of electron
Examples of photon energies:
unfilled states
blue light: hν = 3.1 eV
red light: hν = 1.7 eV
Egap
incident photon
energy hν
filled states Adapted from Fig. 19.5(a),
• If Egap < 1.8 eV, all light absorbed; material is opaque (e.g., Si, GaAs)
• If Egap > 3.1 eV, no light absorption; material is transparent and
colorless (e.g., diamond)
• If 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, partial light absorption; material is colored
185
Computations of Minimum
Wavelength Absorbed
(a) What is the minimum wavelength absorbed by
Ge, for which Eg = 0.67 eV?
Solution:
hc (6.63 x 10−34 J⋅ s)(3 x 108 m/s)
λ Ge (min) = =
E g (Ge) (0.67 eV)(1.60 x 10−19 J/eV)
λ Ge (min) = 1.86 x 10-6 m = 1.86 μm
(b) Redoing this computation for Si which has a band gap

of 1.1 eV
λ Si (min) = 1.13 μm
Note: the presence of donor and/or acceptor states allows for light
absorption at other wavelengths.
186
Color of Nonmetals
• Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:
-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions
• Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg = 2.4 eV
-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted
• Example 2: Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3
-- Sapphire is transparent and
Transmittance (%)
80
colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV) sapphire
70
-- adding Cr2O3 : ruby
• alters the band gap 60
• blue and orange/yellow/green 50
wavelength, λ (= c/ν)(μm)
light is absorbed 40
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
• red light is transmitted Adapted from Fig. 19.9, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
• Result: Ruby is deep (Fig. 19.9 adapted from "The Optical Properties of
Materials" by A. Javan, Scientific American, 1967.)
red in color
187
Luminescence
• Luminescence – reemission of light by a material
– Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at
another (lower) frequency.
– Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
Conduction band • If residence time in trapped state is

relatively long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence
• For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

trapped Eemission -- fluorescence
Eg states
Example: Toys that glow in the dark.
activator Charge toys by exposing them to
level
light. Reemission of light over time—
phosphorescence
Valence band
188
Photoluminescence
Hg atom
UV light
electrode electrode
• Arc between electrodes excites electrons in mercury atoms in
the lamp to higher energy levels.
• As electron falls back into their ground states, UV light is emitted
(e.g., suntan lamp).
• Inside surface of tube lined with material that absorbs UV and
reemits visible light
- For example, Ca10F2P6O24 with 20% of F - replaced by Cl -
• Adjust color by doping with metal cations
Sb3+ blue
Mn2+ orange-red 189
Cathodoluminescence
• Used in cathode-ray tube devices (e.g., TVs, computer monitors)
• Inside of tube is coated with a phosphor material
– Phosphor material bombarded with electrons
– Electrons in phosphor atoms excited to higher state
– Photon (visible light) emitted as electrons drop back into
ground states
– Color of emitted light (i.e., photon wavelength) depends on
composition of phosphor
ZnS (Ag+ & Cl-) blue
(Zn, Cd) S + (Cu++Al3+) green
Y2O2S + 3% Eu red
• Note: light emitted is random in phase & direction

– i.e., is noncoherent
190
Other Applications of Optical
Phenomena
• New materials must be developed to make new &
improved optical devices.
– Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
• More than one color available from a single diode
• Also sources of white light (multicolor)

(Reproduced by arrangement with
Silicon Chip magazine.)
191
Other Applications - Solar Cells
• p-n junction: • Operation:
-- incident photon of light produces elec.-hole pair.
P-doped Si -- typical potential of 0.5 V produced across junction
conductance Si -- current increases w/light intensity.
electron creation of
Si P Si hole-electron
light pair
Si - - -
n-type Si
p-n junction -
n-type Si p-type Si +
p-n junction + + +
p-type Si
• Solar powered weather station:
hole Si
Si B Si
Si
B-doped Si polycrystalline Si
Los Alamos High School weather
station (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
192
Other Applications - Optical Fibers
Schematic diagram showing components of a
fiber optic communications system
193
Optical Fibers (cont.)
• fibers have diameters of 125 μm or less

• plastic cladding 60 μm thick is applied to fibers
Fig. 19.20, Callister &

Rethwisch 3e.
194
Optical Fiber Designs
Step-index Optical Fiber

Graded-index Optical Fiber

195
SUMMARY
• Light radiation impinging on a material may be reflected
from, absorbed within, and/or transmitted through
• Light transmission characteristics:
-- transparent, translucent, opaque
• Optical properties of metals:
-- opaque and highly reflective due to electron energy band
structure.
• Optical properties of non-Metals:
-- for Egap < 1.8 eV, absorption of all wavelengths of light radiation
-- for Egap > 3.1 eV, no absorption of visible light radiation
-- for 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, absorption of some range of light
radiation wavelengths
-- color determined by wavelength distribution of transmitted light
• Other important optical applications/devices:
-- luminescence, photoconductivity, light-emitting diodes, solar
cells, lasers, and optical fibers
196
Color in Nature –
Light Scattering
•The incident E-field accelerates
charges in the obstacle which radiate
electromagnetic energy in all
directions. This process is called
scattering, thus:
•Scattering = excitation + reradiation
•The excited charges may also

transform their energy into other
forms, like heat. This process is called
absorption. Together the two
processes are called extinction:
True for metals
•Extinction = scattering + absorption
and dielectrics
crystalline regions
• Examples:
199
Types of Scattering in the Atmosphere
• Rayleigh
• Mie
• Geometric
Rayleigh Scattering in Visible Spectrum
• Blue sky
• Red Sunset
• Blue water (from underwater)
Rayleigh Scattering
• Wavelength of light is much larger than

scattering particles
• Blue light ~4000 Angstroms, scattering
particles ~1 Angstrom (1A=10-10 m)
Mie Scattering
• Explains scattering around larger droplets such as Corona
around the sun or moon, Glory and similar phenomena.
Mie Scattering
Rayleigh scattering (d<<λ)
Particles feel homogeneous applied
field Ei. The induced dipole moment
in the particle is:
p = αΕ i
where α is the polarizability of the
scatterer.
Assume the incident field is time

harmonic:
E i = E 0 cos ω0t
The particle (dipole) will radiate at the
same ω as the applied field with
intensity: E
g
pω 2 4
sin γ 2
I s (γ ) =
32π 2 c 3ε 0 r 2
p
(see electrodynamics textbook) Electric field lines of oscillating dipole

Blue light is scattered more than red light
Scattering by small gas molecules in the

atmosphere:
d<< λ: Rayleigh scattering
Geometrical scattering (d>>λ)
For particles very large compared
to λ, the incident plane wave can
be subdivided into a large number
of rays which obey Snell’s law and
Fresnel Equations.
For complex ε, the energy Wabs
absorbed in the sphere depends
on the absorption of the dielectric
and the time the light spends in
the particle (the optical path
length)
Rainbow formation
Metal nanoparticles:
extinction = scattering + absorption
n=1.5 Ienh
20
Au
550nm
At resonance, both scattering and absorption are large
albedo = scattering / extinction = σsca/(σabs+σsca)

Color in Nature –
Animal Colors
• Why are animals different colors?
• Why are some breeds of animals one color
but another breed of the same animal is a
different color?
• What are the benefits of various colored
animals?
Biomimics?
Frogs
• Various colored frogs
• Why are they different
colors?
– Protection?
– Camouflage? – Mating?
– Warning?
Birds- (Top Left to Bottom Right) Peacock, Toucan,
Macaw, Cardinal, Blue jay.
Coral Fish
What Makes Color?
There are three possible reasons for color
1. One reason is pigment. If color is due to pigment, the color

never changes.
2. The colors of beetle and butterfly wings come from the

scattering of light. Light hits the nanostructures on their
scales. These nanostructures are typically smaller than the
wavelengths of visible light (smaller than 400 nanometers, for
example).
3. The third reason for color is the interference of different

wavelengths of light (like oil on water). Thin films are
made of nanoparticles, smaller than 400 nanometers, that produce
iridescent (rainbow-like) colors when light strikes them. Iridescent
colors change when you look at the object from different angles.
What Makes Color?
There are three possible reasons for color:
1. One reason is pigment. If color is due to pigment, the color never

changes.
For example, a bluejay is always blue. Though pigment

isn’t based on nanoscience, the next two examples of ways
to create color are based on nanoscience.
http://acept.la.asu.edu/PiN/rdg/interfere/interfere.shtml
Or Could Color Be Nanoscopic?
These nanostructures
don’t just make me
pretty. They also
keep me clean by
shedding water and
dirt!
2. The colors of beetle and butterfly wings come from the scattering
of light. Light hits the nanostructures on their scales. These
nanostructures are typically smaller than the wavelengths of visible
light (smaller than 400 nanometers, for example).
Nature uses Light
on the Nanoscale
Why Butterflies?
• Butterflies have irridescent colours

formed by photonic crystals.
• But what about the intense black
areas on the wings?
• Wing scales with very low
reflectance (>0.5%)
• Possibilities of emulating them
with other materials.
Surface Reflections
• Any interface that involves a change in refractive
index gives rise to surface reflections. Surfaces
like black cardboard and paint, even though they
appear black still reflect about 4%.
• To a simple approximation, these surface
reflections are governed by Fresnel equations.
For air (ni) and chittin (nt):
R= ((nt-ni)/(nt+ni))2 = ((1-1.56)/(1+1.56))2
= 4.8%
• In butterfly scales, you get values as low as 0.4%.
The Role of the Butterfly Wing Scale
• The material the butterfly wing is made from,
chitin, is effectively transparent. Yet when it
adopts certain structures it can cause
interference and diffraction of light rays to
produce a range of colours.
• In the case of black scales the main role of the

upper part of the wing scale appears to be to
collimate the light- to transmit it to an absorbent
membrane beneath, and minimise surface
reflections. It is this part of the Scale I hoped to
investigate.
• Begun investigations with 17 samples and a

range of methods to see what different solutions
there were and which were most effective.
High Resolution Optical
Microscope
Typical Scale Structure
• The arrangement of scales on the wing resembles that of shingles on a roof. In most
species two distinct layers are present- ground and cover scales.
• Typical scale dimensions are of the order 75 micm by 200 micm. (scales come off as a
fine dust). Underside tends to be plain and featureless, while interior and external visible
top surface exhibit interesting microstructure.
Summary
• Scales with the honeycomb structure were on

average significantly less reflective than those
with crossribbing.
• Suggests honeycomb more effective in
minimising surface reflections and collimating
light.
• The microribbing appeared even more effective.
• All scales exhibited extremely low reflectances
Application
• Structures could be scaled for specific
applications. You would create selective surfaces
(since reflection in infra-red region is v. high).
• Basic computer modelling has already confirmed
a peak below 1% for a simple honeycomb
structure.
• Important to use nature as inspiration, not as
blueprints.
• Needs of an individual organism likely to be very
different form our own.
Color Can Be Iridescent, Too!
3.The third reason for color is the interference of different wavelengths
of light (like oil on water). Thin films are made of nanoparticles,
smaller than 400 nanometers, that produce iridescent (rainbow-like)
colors when light strikes them. Iridescent colors change when you look
at the object from different angles.
Bioluminescence Basics
•Bioluminescence in
fireflies is nanoscale. The
glow is caused by the
exciting of electrons by a
firefly’s enzyme.
•When the electrons quiet
down and go back to their
stable state, they give off
light.
•They glow to attract
mates and communicate.
•Angler fish use bioluminescent lures to attract fish.
http://www.anglerfish.info/
Squid Lights on a Nanoscale
The Hawaiian bobtail squid uses a two
part process to hide from predators at
night.
Would somebody
turn on the lights, 1. First, it has a light-producing organ on
please? its underside. How does it produce
light? Why, it contains bacteria that
produce luminescent light on the
nanoscale.
2. Secondly, the squid has stacks of silvery
nanoplatelets made of proteins behind
the tissue to reflect the light downward
from the squid. The light prevents it
from casting a shadow when seen from
above or forming a silhouette when seen
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8202/8202notw3.html
from below.
Jellyfish Lights
A jellyfish-type invertebrate, called

a siphonophore, uses red
bioluminescent lures created at the
nanoscale to attract prey.
Doesn’t it seem odd that it would
use red light since red isn’t easily
visible underwater?
http://www.coml.org/medres/high2005/highlightimages.htm
A “Blue Light Special”
• Tiny crustaceans, Ostracods, also known as "seed
shrimp" or "sea fireflies," also use this enzyme to
produce bioluminescence in courtship. The males
produce blue dots in the water, which are used to
attract mates.
A close-up using a scanning electron

microscope
What is the process that produces light?
• Light produced by a
living organism is a
chemical reaction.
• Luciferase catalyzes the

oxydation of luciferin
resulting in the
production of light.
After Monahan, 2007
Kwok Wai Lem – (KU 3195, Spring 2010) Lecture #20 and #21 Source: Immersion Slide # 232
Luminescence in
the Deep
-Bioluminescence is light
produced by a chemical
reaction which originates in
an organism.
-Very common in the ocean
Warty Anglerfish with a

luminescent lure; Deep-sea
lizardfish with luminescent eyes
Introduction to Organic Photochemistry
– Light as a Products
1. In most chemical reactions molecules are in their ground electronic
states.
2. In photochemical reactions one or more of the reacting molecules are
promoted by absorption of light (visible to UV) to an electronically
excited state – Light as a chemical reagent
O OH OH
OH hν O
C + C C +
Benzophenone Isopropanol Benzopinacol Acetone

3. In some photochemical processes a molecule is formed which is
already in an electronically excited state. When this molecule returns to
its ground state, light is produced. – Light as a chemical product
NH2 O NH2 O
-
H2O2, OH
NH K3Fe(CN)6 O
+ Light
NH O
O O
Light Sticks: Cyalume 1. Light sticks contains a thin glass vial
Cl
O O
Cl that contains an alkaline (basic)
Cl O C C O Cl
solution of hydrogen peroxide
suspended in a solution of
Cl
Cyalume
Cl O
diphenyloxalate and an organic dye.
O O O O
+ 2. When the inner vial is broken two
O
O C C O O C C O
O
C C O
successive nucleophilic substitution
O O reactions occur to form an unstable 4-
HO-
HO OH O OH + H2O
OH OH
membered ring.
HO-
3. This ring decomposes by a pathway
O O O O
that forms a excited triplet electronic
C C + O
O
C C O
O
C C O
state on the oxygen of one of the two
O O O O O
O
molecules of carbon dioxide produced.
+ H2O
4. Normally, if this electron decayed to
O O reverse [2 + 2] O O* O
the ground state the photon released
+ dye* would be in the UV region. In the
cycloaddition dye
C C C + C C dye + hν (visible light)
O O O O O presence of the dye, however,

photosensitization occurs (triplet to
triplet).
T1 + A(S0) Æ S0 + A(T1)
5. The excited dye molecule undergoes

phosphorescence to give a photon in
the visible region of the spectrum (dye
dependant).
Luciferin (fireflies): Similar to cyalume in the formation and
degradation of a 4-membered ring followed by phosphorescence
O
H
HO HO
S N S
OH
=R
N N
S
Luciferin
ATP
O
O
O O O O
O
H N
N
N - H+ O AMP R
O AMP
O AMP R
R
S
S
S
+ pyrophosphate
O O O
O O
N O N *
O
R
N O
R
N
O AMP
R R
S S
S S
+ AMP
Oxyluciferin + CO2
Resonance Energy Transfer
Non-Radiative
Energy Transfer
• Fluorescence
Resonance Energy
Transfer (FRET)
• Surface Energy
Transfer
Examples of available fluorescent dye and quencher families, almost all of which have been used for
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) measurements. Absorbance and emission maxima
along with spectral regions covered by a particular dye family are highlighted. Tetramethylrhodamine
(TMR), carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA), and carboxy-X-rhodamine (ROX) are all rhodamine-
based dyes. The most common D/A dye combinations are coumarin/fluorescein, fluorescein/rhodamine,
and Cy3.5/Cy5. Popular dye/quencher combinations include rhodamine/Dabcyl and Cy3/QSY9. Major
suppliers are the companies Molecular Probes (fluorescein, rhodamine, AlexaFluor, BODIPY Oregon
Green, Texas Red, and QSY quenchers), Amersham Biosciences (Cy dyes and Cy5Q/Cy7Q quenchers),
AnaSpec (HiLyte Fluors, QXL quenchers), ATTO-TEC (ATTO dyes and quenchers), and Molecular
Biotechnology (DY dyes), Pierce (DyLight 547 and DyLight 647 dyes), Berry and Associates
(BlackBerry), and Biosearch Technologies (Black Hole). FITC=fluorescein isothiocyanate.
Materials Engineering (KU 3195)- Next Class
Lecture # Contents
1. Introduction the Need of Materials - Processing Structure Property Relation.
Cost Analysis, Supply and Demand /Dr. Lem's Expectations (Lecture #1)
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding/Project Selection Finalize and
Team Identify (Lecture #2)
3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids
4. Imperfection in Solids
5. Diffusion
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals
7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanism
8. Failure
9. Phase Diagrams
10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of
Mechanical Properties
11. Applications of Processing of metal Alloys
12. Structure and Properties of Ceramics
13. Applications of Processing of Ceramics
Team Project Interim Report
14. Midterm
15. Polymer Structures
16. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers Composites
17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
18. Electrical Properties
19. Thermal Properties
20. Magnetic Properties
21. Optical Properties
22. Design of Materials Using Design for Six Sigma
23. Life Cycle of Materials - Economics, Environmental, and social Issues in
Materials Science and Engineering
24. Project Management and Lean Six Sigma - Applications in Materials
engineering
25. Best Practices/Team Project Final Report Presentation
26. Final Examination

KU 3195 Lecture 20 21 - May 10 And12 (2010)

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KU 3195 Lecture 20 21 - May 10 And12 (2010)

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Materials Engineering (KU 3195)

Lecture #20 and #21

Professor Kwok Wai Lem

Department of Materials Chemistry and Engineering

•Convection coefficient h from ambient air to vehicle top is 6.0 W/m2⋅°C.

• Reading Assignment - Application Brief AB27

1. Briefly describe where does the color in

Professor Lem’s Only 3 Expectations from You

1. Stand up ! - to speak English proficiently and effectively

2. Own it ! – all the materials become your knowledge capital

Class Rep: Kim Su Jin

1:00 PM May 10, 2010

A Key Player in Displays!

Large TFT LCD panel 11-17” Notebook

Large TFT LCD panel 20-50” LCD TV

However, attempts to introduce LED backlights

NEC Display SONY VAIO

High color gamut CCFL has been

Why Why Not

High Color Gamut CCFL

Some believes that Field

Film Cutting Trimmer Reflector film

BLU has the biggest share in

(1) Is there a thermal

(2) If so, can we play?

Current LED Backlight Applications in Displays

Notebook PC Monitor LCD TV

Performance to Cost is the Major CTQ for All Display Players

CCFL EEFL FFL* LED

Item LED+phosphor RGB LED

• Number of LEDs scales dramatically with size,

Low cost thermal solution is critical !!

*Developing *Developing *Developing

Very little low cost thermal solution development activities

Light Guide Plate

Light Source LED

Cost per Cost of TM,

Cooling Technologies Temp, oC

LED # 150 Current Future Can HON

Total Cost $ 347.20

• Computer energy conservation

Heat transfer is energy in transition due to a temperature difference. The three

Conduction through Plane Walls

Integrating Fourier's law

Solidification process of the coating layer during a thermal spray

As described in the previous slide, the cooling process can now be

Identify that as a semi-infinite transient heat transfer problem with a

From the previous equation

Use the following values to calculate: k=120 W/m.K, α=4×10-5 m2/s,

• To solidify 2 mm thickness, it takes 0.43 seconds.

What will be the substrate temperature as it varies in time? The

1600 • At x=1 cm, the temperature

We can also examine the spatial temperature distribution at any given

• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly

where p is the fin perimeter

(3.6.2) qf = hPkAc (Tb − T∞ )

¾ Can express fin effectiveness as a ratio of thermal

Tb P: the fin perimeter

AC is the cross-sectional area

dq conv = h( dAS )(T − T∞ ), where dA S is the surface area of the element

For example: assume the tip is insulated and no heat transfer

The temperature distribution is given by

B Adiabatic cosh m( L − x ) Mθ 0 tanh mL

Developing Developing *Developing

An Aluminum pot is used to boil water as shown below. The

Inside the handle of the stainless steel pot, temperature drops

How do we know the adiabatic tip assumption is good? Try

In some situations, it might be necessary to include the

The correction length can be determined by using the formula:

Thin rectangular fin: Ac=Wt, P=2(W+t)≈2W, since t << W

Cylindrical fin: Ac=(π/4)D2, P= πD, Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(D/4)

Square fin: Ac=W2, P=4W,

The correction length can be determined by using the formula:

Thin rectangular fin: Ac=Wt, P=2(W+t)≈2W, since t << W

Cylindrical fin: Ac=(π/4)D2, P= πD, Lc=L+(Ac/P)=L+(D/4)

Square fin: Ac=W2, P=4W,

Increase the temperature difference (Ts-T∞) between the

Increase the convection coefficient h. This can be

Increase the contact surface area A. Example: a heat sink

To increase εf, the fin’s material should have higher thermal

Conclusion: It is preferred to use thin and closely spaced