MATERIALS AND ENERGY PAPERS

NUCLEAR

Lecturer :

Rani Oktavia, M.Pd

By Group 4 :

1. RAHMA NELLA (17231057)

2. RIRIN YUNIA ( 17231060)

JURUSAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM

FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI PADANG

2019
 FOREWORD

Thank you to Allah SWT, the Almighty God who has given His grace and guidance so
that the preparation of this paper can be completed. This paper was prepared to be submitted
as one of the tasks in the Material and Energy course with the title "COAL".

Thank you to all those who have supported the process of making this paper. Thus this
paper is compiled hopefully useful for the readers.

Padang, 16 April 2019

Writer

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 CHAPTER I

LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Definition of coal

Coal is a rock formed from the decomposition of plant life. It is primarily composed
of carbon, with many other trace elements. Coal's high energy density and extensive reserves
found in nature make it useful as a fuel for electricity generation in coal-fired power plants,
and in some places, heating.

Coal is considered low-cost in that to build a coal fired power plant, extract coal from
the ground and to burn it does not cost a company as much as other fuel processes (because
of the externalities that it ignores). Coal is also plentiful; there is a large reserve globally.
This has lead to the people burning a lot of coal for centuries, which we continue to do today.

Coal formation began several hundred million years ago (check out chronozoom)
under environmental conditions vastly different than the ones present today. Acidic waters
slowed the decay of organic matter and allowed this dead organic matter, mainly plankton, to
accumulate in layers. The old material was then pushed deep into the ground while being
covered with sediment and eventually formed into a crumbly brown material referred to as
peat. This peat contains some of the energy that was generated by photosynthesis when the
plants were alive.

Geological processes buried this peat further, the high pressures and temperatures
caused material to lose much of its hydrogen and oxygen atoms, resulting in a carbon rich
material referred to as coal. Major types of coal include anthracite, lignite, sub-bituminous
and bituminous coal. The type of coal is a function of where it is formed and how far evolved
it is, anthracite and bituminous coal are the most developed types of coal and are therefore
almost entirely composed of carbon.

B. History of coal

Coal has been used as an energy source for nearly 2000 years. For example, coal was
widely used for home heating in early 17th century England. But the Industrial Revolution

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dramatically increased the demand for coal. Specifically, James Watt's improvements to the
steam engine made coal useful for doing work. By the 1830's coal mining was a booming
industry in the eastern United States with coal supplied for industry and steam locomotives
on newly developed rail roads. In 2010 coal accounted for 9.2% of Canada's primary energy
production. Coal in the modern world is the most widely used and abundant fossil fuel. Coal
exhibits a 109 year reserve to production ratio (as of 2012). The total amount of coal reserves
is approximately 1012 tonnes, the United States is home to the largest individual coal reserves.

C. Coal Types

Different coal types are all minerals and rocks made largely of carbon. This fossil fuel
generates ~40% of the world's electricity and about 25% of the world's primary energy.
However, not all coal used is the same; it comes in different quantity levels of carbon—which
dictates the quality of the coal. Higher quality coal produces less smoke, burns longer, and
provides more energy than lower quality coal.

The table below includes the carbon contents, and energy densities of coal. In addition, it
states the moisture content before drying, and the amount of volatile content, after it's dried.

The following is an overview of the different grades of coal, ordered from lowest to highest
quality. Please see their main pages to learn more about each type.

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Peat

Figure 1. Cuttings of peat from a peat bog.

Peat is a soft, crumbly, dark brown substance that is formed from generations of dead
and partially decaying organic matter. Peat is the first step in the formation of coal, and
slowly becomes lignite after pressure and temperature increase as sediment is piled on top of
the partially decaying organic matter. In order to be turned into coal, the peat must be buried
from 4-10 km deep by sediment. Peat exhibits the lowest carbon content (less than 60%) and
has an energy density of 15 MJ/kg

Lignite

Figure 2. Lump of lignite or "brown coal".

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 Lignite or brown coal is brown in colour and the lowest quality of coal. The carbon
content of lignite ranges from 65-70%, therefore, compared to other types of coal it contains
the greatest amount of compounds other than carbon—such as sulfur and mercury. Lignite is
the youngest fossil fuel produced, with an age of approximately 60 million years. Its
relatively short lifespan means it exhibits quite a low energy density at 18 MJ/kg. Lignite's
high moisture content and lower carbon content results in more carbon dioxide emissions
than harder black coals.

Sub-Bituminous

Figure 3. Lump of black lignite or sub-bituminous coal.

Sub-bituminous coal or black lignite is a grey-black or dark brown coal. It ranges

from hard to soft as it represents an intermediate stage between low quality lignite and higher
quality bituminous coal. The carbon content of sub-bituminous coal varies from 70-76%.
Sub-bituminous coals are among the younger coals geologically—approximately 251 million
years old. Therefore, the longer burial time compared to lignite increases it's energy density
ranges from 18-23 MJ/kg. This type of coal is the most commonly used, with 30% of coal
resources being sub-bituminous.

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Bituminous

Figure 4. Lump of bituminous coal.

Bituminous coal is the second highest quality of coal, with a carbon content that
ranges from 76-86%. It is the most abundant type, and one of the longest buried fossil fuels—
with an age of approximately 300 million years old. Therefore, its energy density is relatively
high at 27 MJ/kg. The high carbon and low moisture content of this particular type of coal
makes it ideal in the production of steel and cement, as well as in electricity generation and
coke production.

Anthracite

Figure 5. Lump of anthracite coal.

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 Anthracite is a dark black form of coal and the highest quality coal. It is very hard,
has a low moisture content, and a carbon content of nearly 95%. When burned, anthracite can
reach a very high temperature. In addition, anthracite is usually the oldest type of coal, having
formed from biomass that was buried 350 million years ago. Its prolonged burial time means
it exhibits a very high energy density of 33 MJ/kg—the highest of any type of coal. Since so
much energy is released when burned, this fuel is exceptional at heating up quickly and
burning very hot. Anthracite is used for space heating as it is one of the cleanest types of coal
to burn—producing less smoke than other types. Its clean burning properties allows
anthracite to burn longer than wood, making it appealing to use in home heating stoves.

D. Energy Content
The ultimate energy source of coal is the sun because the energy stored within dead
plant matter is what yields coal. Coal is burned in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. This
increased temperature allows a chemical reaction between the fuel (carbon in the coal) and
the oxygen in the atmosphere to occur which forms Carbon dioxide (CO2). Since coal also
contains hydrogen atoms the combustion will form some water vapour as a product (H2O).
The production of CO2 is leading to climate change, however it is the production of CO 2 that
makes coal such a useful fuel. CO 2 represents the lowest possible energy state of a carbon
atom in Earth's oxygen containing atmosphere, therefore the transition from the fuel (carbon
in coal) and atmospheric oxygen into CO 2 allows for the maximal amount of energy to be
extracted from the fuel. The energy content of coal varies along with its maturity (older is
better), as seen in the table below anthracite has the highest energy content of all the coal
types.

Type of coal Energy content (MJ/Kg)

Anthracite 31 - 36

Bituminous 25 - 35

Sub-bituminous 19 - 30

Lignite 12 - 20

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 E. Coal mining

 Strip mining: This method allows for the extraction of 60% of the worlds coal in the
present time. A thin upper layer of rock (usually just a few 10's of meters) is removed
to expose coal reservoirs 50-100 meters thick. These reservoirs of coal are referred to
as coal seams. One of the world's largest coal seams is in Wyoming, in the Powder
River Basin.
 Mountain top mining: This method is used in the Appalachian mountains of the
eastern United States. The top 300 or so meters of a coal containing mountain is
removed via explosives to expose coal reservoirs 50-100 meters thick. Once the coal
is extracted the excess rubble is deposited in nearby valleys.

Coal mining presents serious health risks to the miners directly involved. These risks
include black lung and coal worker's pneumoconiosis disease, which are caused by long term
exposure to coal dust. Aside from human health effects, coal mining presents serious
consequences for the environment. The burial of streams, alterations to natural water flows,
water pollution, additional erosion, and acid run-offs to surface waters are just some of the
potential effects. In 1977 the United States Surface mining control and reclamation act was
put into action, it mandates that strip mined land must be returned to it`s original biotic
productivity.

F. Emissions
Like all fossil fuels, coal emits carbon dioxide when it is burned. In fact, coal is
responsible for more historical emissions of carbon dioxide than any other fuel. Additionally,
most coal also contains large amounts of other elements, like sulfur, mercury, and sometimes
lithium. Burning coal also causes the formation of both NOx and SOx.

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 CHAPTER 2
DISCUSSION

A. Coal Utilization

1. Power Plant Power Source

Coal has become one of the main fuels in power plants in several countries such as
China, India, Australia, Japan, Germany and several other countries. Coal becomes a fuel that
is converted into heat vapor and becomes a power source for electricity generation. The coal
will be crushed with a grinding machine and turned into fine powder and then burned in a
machine with a steam boiler system.

Steam will be accommodated in a special place and channeled to a turbine containing

a magnetic coil. Furthermore, the fast moving magnetic coil will produce electricity. Even
this process will be repeated twice so it is very economical. The electricity produced reaches
a voltage of around 400 thousand volts.

2. Steel Production Industry

An industry that produces steel depends entirely on the availability of coal resources.
Steel has a very important function in our lives such as various kinds of industrial equipment
made of steel, health products such as health equipment, agricultural equipment,
transportation models and various other products that require steel.

Many crude steel production uses metallurgical coal from coking coal. Steel
production involves carbon and iron. Carbon is needed to heat iron and process it into steel.
Carbon from coal produces high heat which supports coal production. As with the benefits of
copper and the benefits of bauxite, the use of coal in steel production will also cause side
effects.

3. Liquid Fuel

Coal can also be changed in the form of liquid fuel and is very effective in replacing
fuel oil. Basically processing coal into liquid fuel will change coal powder or chunks which
are dissolved in high temperatures. Liquid coal products can be purified by reprocessing and

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can produce fuel oil with better quality than fuel oil obtained directly from oil refineries. The
country that has used this system is Africa. Africa can overcome the shortage of oil resources
by utilizing coal.

4. Cement Production Industry

Coal is one of the main fuels in cement production. Cement is one of the materials for
making construction products such as houses, buildings or other products. Cement is made
from a mixture of calcium carbonate, iron oxide, aluminum oxide and silica. Coal becomes
fuel to process various raw materials and turn them into cement. Coal is proven to be able to
produce high temperatures up to 1500 degrees Celsius.

5. Aluminum Products Industry

Coal is a fuel that supports the aluminum industry. This material is obtained as a by-
product of the iron oxidation process in the steel industry. Coal supports the process of iron
oxidation which produces high heat. Steel produced from processed iron will be separated
according to quality. And then products that do not have certain steel requirements will be
reprocessed into aluminum. Coke gas and heat from coal can separate several steel products
so that they can get aluminum products used for various industries such as agriculture,
kitchen equipment, construction and various other industries.

6. Coal Produces Gas Products

Coal that is still in the ground can also produce gas directly. This process uses an
advanced technology to extract gas produced by pure coal. then the gas products produced
will be processed at the mining site and can become several products such as industrial fuels,
gas power plants, hydrogen gas and diesel products. China, Australia, India, Japan and
Indonesia are countries that use technology methods to change pure coal gas to several
industrial applications.

7. Paper Mill Industry

Coal is also the main fuel for running a paper industry. Paper is made from the main
component in the form of fiber cells from wood. Wood fiber cells can only be obtained from
a complicated process that is able to separate parts of a certain size of fiber. Coal produces
stable heat in a fiber processing machine for the paper raw material industry. So without coal,
maybe some paper products will not be able to be used in daily life.

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8. Chemical Industry

Coal that has gone through various processes can produce a side industry which turns
out to be useful for human life. Coal processed products into an energy source can produce
very fine coal powder products with small scale sizes. This by-product can be used to
produce several other ingredients such as phenol and benzene liquids. This product is
important for some chemical industries.

9. Pharmaceutical Industry

Coal also has a very important role in the pharmaceutical industry. Various kinds of
chemical products produced from side-by-side coal can be the main ingredients in the
production of drugs. Various forms of chemicals have gone through a refining process with
advanced technology so that they can be used as medicines. This industry has passed various
kinds of certifications so it is very safe to support pharmaceutical products.

10. Methanol Material Production

Methanol is one of the liquid fuels which is very important for moving various
industries. The results of methanol are actually obtained from the refining process of coal
which is still in the soil into gas. A by-product in the form of a certain liquid will then be
purified again to be able to make methanol products.

11. Production of Naphthalene

Naphthalene is a kind of special liquid chemical obtained from processed coal. This is
the second result of processing coal in the form of chunks. Coal that has been crushed will
produce a side ingredient in the form of a very fine powder. Then this powder will be purified
by reprocessing so that it can produce naphthalene products.

12. Phenol production

Phenol is one of the fuel oil products obtained from coal processing. Phenol is
produced from coal tar in the form of fine powder. Various chemical industries use phenol
products to run their industries. Phenol can save on the use of chemical compositions which
are usually obtained from pure oil. So the by-products of processed coal strongly support the
industrial process of phenols and other chemical industries.

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13. Benzene production

Benzene is one component of liquid fuel that is very important in driving world
transportation. Benzene is obtained from the reprocessing of coal which can produce fine
powder. The processing of benzene will usually be recycled from coal obtained from mining
or power plants.

14. Ammonia Salt Production

Ammonia salts are produced from a coal processing industry. Steam or gas released
from the oven to accommodate coke produces ammonia salt. This product is important to be a
special material from several chemical industries such as agricultural fertilizers or other
chemical products. So steam coal combustion is very important to produce ammonia salt
products.

15. Production of Nitric Acid

Nitric acid is a component of chemicals in processing industrial chemical products.

Nitric acid is another side product obtained from coal coke oven gas products. Coal that
passes through the combustion process in some industries will produce coal coke material.
This coke money will be converted into nitric acid for the chemical industry.

16. Production of Agricultural Fertilizer Products

Agricultural fertilizer production always requires special gas or special combustion

from coal. Even some types of chemical products used to make agricultural fertilizers are the
by-products of residual combustion of coal. Various side-processed products will be purified
with special equipment so that they can form chemical fertilizer products or materials. Some
important substances such as nitric acid and ammonia salt.

17. Components of Soap Material

Factories that process soap products also need special ingredients obtained from the
side products of coal. This product is obtained from the by-products of processed coal which
has gone through the combustion process, refining to the final product. This process does not
directly produce products specifically for soap. Some of these products are also important for
the production of several solvents and scent binders on soap products.

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18. Components of Aspirin Products

Aspirin is one type of pharmaceutical product that is very important in the medical
world. Various types of drugs that contain aspirin can relieve pain and alleviate various
complaints of disease. In the process of processing aspirin it turns out that it requires several
components obtained from the combustion of coal. The processing of this particular product
is usually carried out by chemical manufacturers and not by pharmaceutical factories.

19. Production of Solvent Substances

Some types of solvents have an important role in the production of soap, chemicals
and pharmaceutical ingredients. The solvent substance was also obtained from coal
processing processes such as gasification or gas extraction directly from coal sources. This
substance is obtained from special vapors produced in the process of taking gas. The solvent
that is used in several industries today can only be obtained from coal processing.

20. Production of Dyes

Synthetic dyes used by several industries such as garments, chemicals and special
dyes for chemical products were also obtained from the results of coal processing. The
coloring agent is obtained from the process of coal which has been ground to a small powder.
This powder product will be reprocessed and mixed with some special color-making
ingredients. The coloring powder used by the production of synthetic dyes and obtained from
coal processing is proven to have a higher level of safety and quality than other component
materials.

21. Plastic Production

Coal has a very important role to play in supporting the plastic industry. Coal is a
special material used for combustion of several components of plastic seeds. Coal fuel has a
special heat so it is very good for supporting products and plastic quality. Some dyes for
plastic are also obtained directly from processed coal products.

B. Coal Formation

Coal is a solid, black, readily combustible fossil fuel that contains a large amount of
carbon-based material - approximately 50% of its weight. The formation of coal takes a
significant amount of time (on the order of a few million years), and the first coal-bearing

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rock units appeared about 290-360 million years ago, at a time known as the Carboniferous or
"coal-bearing" Period. As well, there are extensive coal deposits from the Cretaceous age -
about 65 to 144 million years ago.

The formation of coal begins in areas of swampy wetlands where groundwater is near or
slightly above the topsoil. Because of this, the flora present produces organic matter quickly -
faster in fact than it can be decomposed. In these areas, layers of organic matter are
accumulated and then buried. It is these layers of organic material that then form coal. The
energy in coal initially comes from the Sun, and is energy from sunlight trapped by dead
plants.

C. The Process of Coal

The process that creates coal varies slightly in different areas depending on the plants and
conditions that are present, but the overall process is similar. There are two main phases in
coal formation: peatification and coalification. Bacterial activity is the main process that
creates the peat during peatification. Increasing temperature and pressure from burial are the
main factors in coalification. To form coal, the following steps are followed (Figure
illustrates these steps):

1. Plant matter in mires and wetlands, such as ferns, shrubs, vines, trees, and algae dies
and accumulates on the surface. Initially the organic matter is decomposed by
bacteria, yielding carbon dioxide and methane.
2. The plant matter becomes buried, and are no longer exposed to air. Anaerobic bacteria
then starts to decompose the material. Burial and accumulation can occur for several

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 thousands of years, producing several meters of partially decayed plant matter known
as peat.
3. When this peat is deeply buried, water and other compounds is squeezed out from the
increasing pressure and the lowest quality of coal, lignite, begins for form.
4. Continued burial, resulting in increasing pressures and temperatures, causes this low
quality lignite coal to be transformed into higher quality "black coals". First lignite
becomes sub-bituminous coal, then bituminous coal, and finally the highest quality
anthracite coal. As these transformations occur, the amount of water and other
compounds in the coal decreases and the coal becomes more dense. Along with this
comes a higher carbon concentration.

D. Advantages and Disadvantages of Coal

Advantages of Coal

1) Abundance

Coal is almost universal, can be found in every continent in more than 70 countries, with the
largest reserves in the United States, Russia, China and India.

2) Reliable Energy Sources

Coal-based energy can be produced almost 24 × 7 hours, unlike renewable energy forms such
as wind and solar which are intermittent in nature.

3) Low Investment Capital

The investment capital needed for coal-based plants is relatively low, $ 1-2 / watt in thermal
capacity. For the record, wind energy is slightly higher, while solar energy is even higher.
Coal mining is also cheap enough to be built and open mining provides coal at very low
prices.

4) Low costs

Coal is one of the cheapest forms of energy, making it an option in developing countries such
as India and China. In India it is possible to get cheap coal for only $ 20 / ton, while

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international prices of various types of coal range from $ 100 / ton. As a coal-based
electricity record it can be produced at 2-4c / KwH, making it the cheapest electricity source.

5) High Load Factors

Coal power plants have a very high load factor of more than 80%. They can produce
electricity almost 24/7 and only require a shutdown for periodic maintenance. Coal-based
plants that have been too old or have been closed because environmental problems can still
be used as a backup power producer.

6) Large potential compared to Oil

Coal has considerable energy potential compared to other fuels such as oil and gas. Global
coal reserves are estimated to be around 1 trillion tons, which means that coal can be
consumed at the current usage level for 200 years.

7) Large Industry Based

Coal energy has been present since the beginning of the industrial revolution with the
development of coal-based steam engines. Technology and industrialization in industries and
power plants have been well developed and mature. This enables the rapid deployment of
coal plants in many locations in the world.

8) Coal to Liquid and Coal to Gas

Coal is now seen as a source of transportation fuel because oil is becoming increasingly
scarce and expensive. Liquid coal facilities are being built in India and China even though the
technology is not mature enough and the use of this technology is still questionable for
environmental reasons

Disadvantages of Coal

1) Greenhouse Gas Emissions

One of the biggest disadvantages of coal energy is because coal releases carbon
dioxide which has been sequestered for millions of years under the ground. The use of coal
transfers carbon from the earth to the environment which leads to the effect of global
warming. The Global Agreement has failed to impose costs for this problem, although each
country is trying to overcome it with carbon taxes and trade.

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2) Death in Coal Mining

Coal mining has resulted in thousands of deaths every year since humans discovered
coal. For the record, the death of coal mining occurs not only in countries that do not have
good safety regulations such as China, but also in developed countries such as the United
States and New Zealand.

3) Natural Damage and Landscape Near the Coal Mine

Open coal mining has resulted in habitat and landscape damage. Mining causes
deforestation, and air and water pollution in the surrounding area. Mine fires can occur for
hundreds of years underground which endanger life in the surrounding areas.

4) Transfer of Humans due to the Destruction of Mining Areas

In West Bengal, India, people were forced to flee in large numbers because of the
curvature in the surface area due to underground coal mining, which has created unsafe
places with no warning signs.

5) Emissions from Hazardous Substances such as Sulfur Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide,

Mercury, Selenium, Arsenic, and Acid Rain

Thermal plants emit harmful substances such as mercury and sulfur dioxide which
cause health hazards among the surrounding population and acid rain. Although modern
equipment has reduced the emissions of these harmful substances, these pollutants are still
very dangerous for humans.

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 CHAPTER III

CLOSING

Conclusion

Coal is a rock formed from the decomposition of plant life. Coal has been found for a
long time, namely in the century BC. High coal energy density is found and extensive
reserves found in nature make it useful as fuel for electricity generation in coal-fired power
plants, and in some places, heating.

Other benefits of coal are very much in various fields, such as in the fields of industry,
chemistry and pharmacy. Human dependence on coal is very high.

But even though coal is very much needed for human life, it still has a number of
disadvantages, among others, that it produces gas emissions that are formed due to
incomplete combustion, another disadvantage is pollution of the water and soil environment,
due to the opening of mining and industrial sites that produce waste.

From this explanation, we as human beings on earth who act as caliphs to maintain
and use the earth well must be wise in the use of coal.

Suggestion

Realizing that the author is still far from perfect, in the future the author will be more
focused and detailed in explaining the paper above with more resources that can be accounted
for.

For suggestions can contain criticism or suggestions for writing can also be used to
respond to conclusions from the discussion of the paper described. For the last part of the
paper is a bibliography.

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