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REMOTE SENSING STUDY MATERIAL

BLOCK.1: ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

Unit-1: Fundamentals of Remote Sensing

CONCEPT:

Scientists observe nature, make measurements, and then attempt to accept or reject
hypotheses concerning these phenomena. The data collection may take place directly in the
field of (in-situ or in-place data collection), or at some remote distance from the subject
matter (Remote Sensing).

Remote sensing is a terminology coined recently, for an activity each one of us has
been carrying out since our birth. Reading this book and hearing the sound around you are
remote sensing. But the associated energy in the two processes are different; in the case of
seeing it is light energy, while for hearing it is the sound energy.

A brief history of remote sensing as a governmental activity, a commercial industry,

and an academic field provides the student with a perspective on development of the
technology and emergence of remote sensing applications. Accounts of remote sensing
history generally begin in the 1800's, following the development of photography. Thus
photography may be considered as the first step towards modern remote sensing. Balloons
were the first elevated platforms used for photography in 1858 by the French Gaspard Felix
tournachaon (known as Nadar) to photograph the village of Petil Becetre near Paris. During
the American Civil War, balloons were used to photograph enemy positions. From the Civil
War until the First World War, people experimented with other platforms such as kites and
pigeons. The invention of the aeroplane in 1903, was a great step forward to having a stable
platform for photography. The first aerial photography from a plane was made by Wilbur
Wright in Italy in 1909. Many of the early advancements of remote sensing can be tied to
military applications which continue to drive most of remote sensing technology
development even today. However, after Word War-II, the use of remote sensing in science
and infrastructure extended its reach into many areas of academia and civilian life. The
Sputnik 1 was launched, United States, Explorer 6, in August, 1959, transmitted the first
picture of earth, to be ever taken from a satellite. The recent revolution of geospatial
technology and applications, linked to the explosion of computing and internet access, brings
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remote sensing technology and applications into the everyday lives of most people on the
planet. With the images and illustrations, is designed to cover the meaning embodied in the
concept of "remote sensing", some of the underlying principles, and a survey of the chief
satellite programs that have depended on remote sensors to gather information about the
Earth. Emphasis is placed on the Landsat series of satellites that, starting in 1972, have
provided a continuous record of the Earths land surfaces using the multispectral approach.
The following (Brief history of Remote Sensing) major inventions and discoveries have
paved the way to emerge remote sensing as one of the best tools for evaluation and
management of natural and cultural resources.

Brief History of Remote Sensing

1826 The invention of photography

1850’s Photography from balloons
1873 Theory of electromagnetic energy by J. C. Maxwell
1909 Photography from airplanes
1910’s World War I: aerial reconnaissance
1920’s Development and applications of aerial photography and photogrammetry
1930’s Development of radar in Germany, USA, and UK
1940’s World War II: application of Infrared and microwave regions
1950’s Military Research and Development
1960’s The satellite era: Space race between USA and USSR.
1960 The first meteorological satellite (TIROS-1)
1960’s First use of term “remote sensing” by Evelyn L.Pruitt
1960’s Skylab remote sensing observations from the space
1972 Launch of the first earth resource satellite (Landsat-1)
1970’s Rapid advances in digital image processing
1975 Aryabhata ISRO launched an experimental satellite
1980’s Landsat-4: new generation of Landsat sensors
1986 Launch of French earth observation satellite (SPOT-1)
1980’s Development of hyperspectral sensors
1988 ISRO launched IRS-1A satellite
1990’s Launch of earth resource satellites by national space agencies and commercial
companies
1990 Digital soft copy photogrammetry comes of age
1990 Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) comes of age
1999 IKNOS 2 launched
2001 QuickBird launched
2005 Google Earth seves DigitalGlobe and Landsat TM data
2008 ISRO launched Chandrayaan 1 - Space Mission
2013 Mars Orbiter Mission Spacecraft - Space Mission

OBJECTIVES:
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1. Student understands how the remote sensing evolved to the present level.
2. Acquires knowledge on Electromagnetic Spectrum and its importance in remote
sensing
3. Student understands how the light interact with different objects on the earth surface
4. To know about spectral signature of different objects
5. How to acquire satellite data for monitoring spatio-temporal changes on earth.

Definition:

The technical term "Remote Sensing" was first used in the United States 1960's, and
encompassed photogrammetry, photo-interpretation, photo-geology etc. Since Landsat-1, the
first earth observation satellite was launched in 1972, remote sensing has become widely
used. Remote sensing can be used to measure and monitor important biophysical
characteristics and human activities on Earth.

Remote Sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area,
or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with
the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation (Lillesand, 2004).

Remote Sensing is defined as the science and technology by which the characteristics
of objects of interest can be identified, measured or analyzed the characteristics without direct
contact.

Remote Sensing means sensing of the earth’s surface from space by making use of
the properties of electromagnetic wave emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects,
for the purpose of improving natural resource management, land use and the protection of
the environment (UNO, 1986).

As you read the definition, you are employing remote sensing. Your eyes are acting
as sensors that respond to the light reflected from this page. The “data” your eyes acquire are
impulses corresponding to the amount of light reflected from the dark and light areas on the
page. These data are analyzed, or interpreted, in your mental computer to enable you to
explain the dark areas on the page as a collection of letters forming words. Electromagnetic
energy sensors that are currently being operated from airborne and spaceborne platforms to
assist in inventorying, mapping, and monitoring earth resources.
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A device to detect the electro-magnetic radiation reflected or emitted from an object is

called a "sensor". Cameras or scanners are examples of remote sensors. A vehicle to carry
the sensor is called a "platform". Aircraft or satellites are used as platforms.

SCOPE AND TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING:

Each day we are provided many frames of remote sensing information through our
eyes, which we use to make visual assessments of an object. These scenes provide an
information source about objects from which we judge certain characteristics, e.g., size,
condition, or change. The local TV weather report uses remote sensing of clouds to show the
passage of storms. The application of remote sensing via airborne cameras provided an
answer to a question that would not have been possible through ground surveys. In many
aspects we have progressed rapidly to our current state of knowledge about the utility of
remote sensing.

The science of remote sensing has emerged as one of the most fascinating subjects
over the past four decades. Earth observation from space through various remote sensing
instruments has provided a vantage means of monitoring land surface dynamics, natural
resources management, and the overall state of the environment itself. (Joseph, 2005)

Types of (Active and Passive) Remote Sensing:

Certain sensors, such as radar systems, supply their own source of energy to
illuminate features of interest. These systems are termed “active” systems, in contrast to
“passive” systems that sense naturally available energy. Ex: Active remote sensing: Camera
utilising a flash. The same camera used in sunlight becomes a passive sensor.

Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or
surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by
passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared,
charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy
in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation
that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active
remote sensing (Fig.1).
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Fig.1: Types of Remote Sensing

STAGES IN REMOTE SENSING:

The process of remote sensing involves a number of processes starting from energy
emission from source to data analysis and information extraction. The stages of remote
sensing are described in follows steps:

Energy Source or Illumination (A) - A basic requirement for electromagnetic remote

sensing is an energy source to illuminate or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of
interest. For passive instruments, this is usually the sun; for active instruments, another sensor
element emits pulses of energy.

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
also takes place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor. Inevitably
there is a certain degree of atmospheric scattering of radiation.

Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy has made its way to the target through
the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and
the radiation.

Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, a sensor collects and records the electromagnetic radiation.

Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into usable information (hardcopy or digital).
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Interpretation and Analysis (F) - The processed information is interpreted, visually or

digitally/electronically, to extract useful elements.

Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved by applying
the information that has been extracted from the data about the target in order to better
understand it on a spatial domain. This reveals some new information that assists solving a
particular problem and directs the user to explore more on the phenomena in question (Fig.2).

Fig.2: Elements of a remote sensing system

(Source: Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Fundamentals of Remote Sensing)

UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR):

Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy. Radio waves,
heat, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays are other familiar forms. All this energy is inherently
similar and radiates in accordance with basic wave theory. Fig.3 illustrates this theory
describes electromagnetic energy as travelling in a harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the
“velocity of light” c.
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Fig.3: Electromagnetic wave

The distance from one wave peak to the next is the wavelength λ, and the number of
peaks passing a fixed point in space per unit time is the wave frequency ν. From basic
physics, waves obey the general equation

C=νλ

Since c is essentially a constant (3 x 108 m/sec), frequency ν and wavelength λ for any
given wave are related inversely, and either term can be used to characterise a wave. In
remote sensing it is most common to categorise electromagnetic waves by their wavelength
location within the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig.4).

Fig.4: Electromagnetic spectrum

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Although names such as “ultraviolet” and “microwave” are generally assigned to

regions of the electromagnetic spectrum for convenience, there is no clear cut dividing line
between one nominal spectral region and the next. Divisions of the spectrum have grown
from the various methods for sensing each type of radiation more so than from inherent
differences in the energy characteristics of various wavelengths (Table 1). Also, it should be
noted that the portions of the electromagnetic spectrum used in remote sensing lie along a
continuum characterised by magnitude changes of many powers of 10. Hence the use of
logarithmic plots to depict the electro magnetic spectrum is quite common.

Wavelength regions of electro-magnetic radiation have different names ranging from

ray, X rays, ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR) to radio wave, in order from the
shorter wavelengths. The shorter the wavelength is, the more the electro-magnetic radiation is
characterized as particle motion with more linearity and directivity.

The electro-magnetic radiation regions used in remote sensing are near UV (ultra-
violet) (0.3-0.4 m), visible light (0.4-0.7 m), near shortwave and thermal infrared (0.7-14
m) and microwave (1 mm - 1 m).

Visible light corresponds to the spectral colors. They are, in order from the longer
wavelengths in the visible region, the so called rainbow colors; red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet are located with respect to the wavelength.

Visible - (0.4-0.7 m)

Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 μm

Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 μm
Green: 0.500 - 0.578 μm
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 μm
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 μm
Red: 0.620 - 0.7 μm

Near Infrared (NIR) – 0.7-1.5 μm

Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) – 1.5 – 3 μm

Mid-Wave Infrared (MWIR) – 3 – 8 μm

Thermal Infrared (TIR) – 8-15 μm

Microwaves - 1 mm – 1 meter
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Table 1 shows the names and wavelength region of electro-magnetic radiation. One
has to note that classification of infrared and radio radiation may vary according to the
scientific discipline.

Table 1: Major regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

Region Name Wavelength Comments

Gamma Ray <0.03 Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and not
nanometers available for remote sensing.
X-ray 0.03 to 30 Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and not
nanometers available for remote sensing.
Ultraviolet 0.03 to 0.4 Wavelengths from 0.03 to 0.3 micrometers absorbed by
micrometers ozone in the Earth's atmosphere.
Photographic 0.3 to 0.4 Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged
Ultraviolet micrometers with cameras and sensors.
Visible 0.4 to 0.7 Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged
micrometers with cameras and sensors.
Near and Mid 0.7 to 3.0 Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged
Infrared micrometers with cameras and sensors.
Thermal <0.7 to 3.0 Available for remote sensing the Earth. This wavelength
Infrared micrometers cannot be captured by film cameras. Sensors are used to
image this wavelength band
Micowave or 0.1 to 100 Longer wavelengths of this band can pass through
Radar centimeters clouds, fog, and rain. Images using this band can be
made with sensors that actively emit microwaves.
Radio >100 Not normally used for remote sensing the Earth.
centimeters

Characteristics of Electro-Magnetic Radiation

Electro-magnetic radiation is a carrier of electro-magnetic energy by transmitting the

oscillation of the electro-magnetic field through space or matter. The transmission of electro-
magnetic radiation is derived from the Maxwell equations. Electro-magnetic radiation has the
characteristics of both wave motion and particle motion.

(1) Characteristics as wave motion

Electro-magnetic radiation can be considered as a transverse wave with an electric

field and a magnetic field. A plane wave for an example as shown in Fig.3 has its
electric field and magnetic field in the perpendicular plane to the transmission
direction. The two fields are located at right angles to each other. The wavelength ,
frequency and the velocity have the following relation.
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λ= /ν

Electro-magnetic radiation is transmitted in a vacuum of free space with the velocity

of light c, (3 x 108 m/sec) and in the atmosphere with a reduced but similar velocity to
that in a vacuum. The frequency is expressed as a unit of hertz (Hz), that is the
number of waves which are transmitted in a second.

(2) Characteristics as particle motion

Electro-magnetic can be treated as a photon or a light quantum. The energy E is

expressed as follow.

E=h

where h : Plank's constant, : frequency

The photoelectric effect can be explained by considering the electro-magnetic

radiation as composed of particles. Electro-magnetic radiation has four elements of frequency
(or wavelength), transmission direction, amplitude and plane of polarization. The amplitude
is the magnitude of oscillating electric field. The square of the amplitude is proportional to
the energy transmitted by electro-magnetic radiation. The energy radiated from an object is
called radiant energy. A plane including electric field is called a plane of polarization. When
the plane of polarization forms a uniform plane, it is called linear polarization.

The four elements of electro-magnetic radiation are related to different information

content as shown in Fig.5. Frequency (or wavelength) corresponds to the color of an object in
the visible region which is given by a unique characteristic curve relating the wavelength and
the radiant energy. In the microwave region, information about objects is obtained using the
Doppler shift effect in frequency, that is generated by a relative motion between an object and
a platform. The spatial location and shape of objects are given by the linearity of the
transmission direction, as well as by the amplitude. The plane of polarization is influenced by
the geometric shape of objects in the case of reflection or scattering in the microwave region.
In the case of radar, horizontal polarization and vertical polarization have different responses
on a radar image.
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Fig.5: Information derived from Electromagnetic radiation

Atmospheric windows

The areas of the EM spectrum that are absorbed by atmospheric gases such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone are known as absorption bands. In Figure 6, absorption
bands (shown in brown) are represented by a low transmission value that is associated with a
specific range of wavelengths. Trying to obtain remotely sensed imagery in the absorption
bands is nearly impossible; thus, sensors are generally designed not to record information in
these portions of the spectrum.

In contrast to the absorption bands, there are areas of the EM spectrum where the
atmosphere is transparent (little or no absorption of energy) to specific wavelengths. These
wavelength bands are known as atmospheric "windows" since they allow the energy to easily
pass through the atmosphere to Earth's surface. It is in these windows that sensors are used to
gather information about Earth phenomena.

Most remote sensing instruments on aircraft or space-based platforms operate in one

or more of these windows by making their measurements with detectors tuned to specific
wavelengths that pass through the atmosphere. When a remote sensing instrument has a line-
of-sight with an object that is reflecting sunlight or emitting heat, the instrument collects and
records the radiant energy. While most remote sensing systems are designed to collect
reflected energy, some sensors, especially those on meteorological satellites, directly measure
absorption phenomena, such as those associated with carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases.
The atmosphere is nearly opaque to EM energy in part of the mid-IR and all of the far-IR
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regions. In the microwave region, by contrast, most of this radiation moves through
unimpeded, so radar waves reach the surface.

Fig 6: Atmospheric Windows.

Black Body Radiation

An object radiates unique spectral radiant flux depending on the temperature and
emissivity of the object. This radiation is called thermal radiation because it mainly depends
on temperature. Thermal radiation can be expressed in terms of black body theory.

A black body is matter which absorbs all electro-magnetic energy incident upon it and
does not reflect nor transmit any energy. According to Kirchhoff's law the ratio of the
radiated energy from an object in thermal static equilibrium, to the absorbed energy is
constant and only dependent on the wavelength and the temperature T. A black body shows
the maximum radiation as compared with other matter. Therefore a black body is called a
perfect radiator.

Black body radiation is defined as thermal radiation of a black body, and can be given by
Plank's law as a function of temperature T and wavelength as shown in Fig.7.
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Fig.7: Black body radiation

In remote sensing, a correction for emissivity should be made because normal observed
objects are not black bodies. Emissivity can be defined by the following formula-

Radiant energy of an object

Emissivity = _______________________________________________________
Radiant energy of a black body with the same temp. as the object

Stefan-Boltzmann's law

The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation for remote sensing.
However, all matter at temperatures above absolute zero (0 K or -2730C) continuously emits
electromagnetic radiation. Thus terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation, though it is
of considerably different magnitude and spectral composition than that of the sun. How
much energy any object radiates is, among other things, a function of the surface temperature
of the object. This property is expressed by the Stefan-Boltzmann's law, which states that

M=T4

Where
M= total radiant exitance from the surface of a material, watts (W) m-2
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5,6697 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
T=absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material

This law expresses mathematically the higher the temperature of the radiator, the
greater the total amount of radiation it emits. It is obtained by integrating the spectral
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radiance given by Plank's law, and shows in that the radiant emittance is proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature (T ). This makes it very sensitive to temperature
measurement and change.

Wien's displacement law is obtained by differentiating the spectral radiance, which shows
that the product of wavelength (corresponding to the maximum peak of spectral radiance) and
temperature, is approximately 3,000 (µm K). This law is useful for determining the optimum
wavelength for temperature measurement of objects with a temperature of T. For example,
about 10 m is the best for measurement of objects with a temperature of 300 K.

The dominant wavelength, or wavelength at which a blackbody radiation curve

reaches a maximum, is related to its temperature by Wien's displacement law.

A
λ m= -----
T
Where
λ m= wavelength of maximum spectral radiant exitance, µm
A = 2898 µm K
T = temperature, K

For a blackbody, the wavelength at which the maximum spectral radiant exitance
occurs varies inversely with the blackbody’s absolute temperature. We observe this
phenomenon when a metal body such as a piece of iron is heated. As the object becomes
progressively hotter, it begins to glow and its color changes successively to shorter
wavelengths from dull red, to orange, to yellow and eventually to white.

Energy interactions in the atmosphere

The space photography results from sunlight that passes through the full thickness of
the earth’s atmosphere twice on its journey from source to sensor. On the other hand, an
airborne thermal sensor detects energy emitted directly from objects on the earth, so a single
relatively short atmospheric path length is involved.

REFLECTION, ABSORPTION, EMISSION AND TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY:

Reflection occurs when the incoming light hits a very smooth surface like a mirror and
bounces off, like a mirror.
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Refraction occurs when the incoming light travels through another medium, from air to glass
for example. When this happens the light slows down and changes direction. This change in
direction is dependent on the light’s wavelength so its spectrum of wavelengths are separated
and spread out into a rainbow.

Diffraction occurs when light hits an object that is similar in size to its wavelength. When
light passes through a sufficiently-thin slit it will diffract and spread. If it’s visible light, this
will also create a rainbow (Fig.8).

Absorption occurs when the incoming light hits an object and causes its atoms to vibrate,
converting the energy into heat which is radiated. Anyone with a dark-colored car on a hot
day will experience the effects of adsorption.

Scattering is the unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in the atmosphere. occurs

when the incoming light bounces off an object in many different directions. Rayleigh
scattering is common when radiation interacts with atmospheric molecules and other tiny
particles that are much smaller in diameter than the wavelength of the interacting radiation.
Blue sky is the manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. In the absence of scatter, the sky would
appear black.

Fig.8: Different types Scattering

Transmittance of the Atmosphere

The sunlight's transmission through the atmosphere is affected by absorption and

scattering of atmospheric molecules and aerosols. The following elements will influence the
transmittance of the atmosphere.
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a. Atmospheric molecules (smaller size than wavelength): carbon dioxygen, ozone,

nitrogen gas, and other molecules
b. Aerosols (larger size than wavelength): water drops such as fog and haze, smog, dust
and other particles with a bigger size

Scattering by atmospheric molecules with a smaller size than the wavelength of the
sunlight is called Rayleigh scattering. Because of this manifestation, sky appears blue
otherwise it could be black in color.

The contribution of atmospheric molecules to the optical thickness is almost constant

spatially and with time, although it varies somewhat depending on the season and the latitude.
Scattering by aerosols with larger size than the wavelength of the sunlight is called Mie
scattering. The source of aerosols will be suspended particles such as sea water or dust in the
atmosphere blown from the sea or the ground, urban garbage, industrial smoke, volcanic
ashes etc., which varies to a great extent depending upon the location and the time. In
addition, the optical characteristics and the size distribution also changes with respect to
humidity, temperature and other environmental conditions. This makes it difficult to measure
the effect of aerosol scattering.

A more bothersome phenomenon is nonselective scatter, which comes about when the
diameters of the particles causing scatter are much larger than the wavelengths of the energy
being sensed. Water droplets, for example cause such scatter. They have a diameter in the
range 5 to 100µm and scatter all visible and near to mid-IR wavelengths about equally.
Consequently, this scattering is “nonselective” with respect to wavelength. In the visible
wavelengths, equal quantities of blue, green, and red light are scattered, hence fog and clouds
appear white.

SENSOR DATA OUTPUT

Passive sensors detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from

natural sources, while active sensors detect reflected responses from objects which are
irradiated from artificially generated energy sources, such as radar (Table 2).

Table 2: characteristics of sensors

Optical Visible Reflectance

Near Infrared Reflectance
Thermal Infrared Thermal Radiation
Microwave Passive (Scatterometer)
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Microwave Radiation
Active (SAR, Altimeter)
Backscatter
Laser Active Intensity, Time

The most popular sensors used in remote sensing are the camera, solid state scanner,
such as the CCD (charge coupled device) images, the multi-spectral scanner and in the future
the passive synthetic aperture radar.

Laser sensors have recently begun to be used more frequently for monitoring air
pollution by laser spectrometers and for measurement of distance by laser altimeters. Those
sensors which use lenses in the visible and reflective infrared region, are called optical
sensors.

Data transmission:

Data acquired from satellite platforms need to be electronically transmitted to Earth.

There are three main options for transmitting data acquired by satellites to the surface. The
data can be directly transmitted to Earth if a Ground Receiving Station (GRS) is in the line of
sight of the satellite (A). If this is not the case, the data can be recorded on board the satellite
(B) for transmission to a GRS at a later time. Data can also be relayed to the GRS through the
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) (C), which consists of a series of
communications satellites in geosynchronous orbit (Fig.9).

Fig.9: Data Transmission system

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UNIT-3: SPECTRAL SIGNATURES

SPECTRAL SIGNATURE:

Spectral reflectance is assumed to be different with respect to the type of land cover.
This is the principle that in many cases allows the identification of land covers with remote
sensing by observing the spectral reflectance or spectral radiance from a distance far removed
from the surface.

Figure 10 shows three curves of spectral reflectance for typical land covers;
vegetation, soil and water. As seen in the figure, vegetation has a very high reflectance in the
near infrared region, though there are three low minima due to absorption.

Fig.10: Spectral reflectance of vegetation, water and soil

Soil has rather higher values for almost all spectral regions. Water has almost no
reflectance in the infrared region. Fig. 12 shows two detailed curves of leaf reflectance and
water absorption. Chlorophyll, contained in a leaf, has strong absorption at 0.45 m and 0.67
m, and high reflectance at near infrared (0.7-0.9 m). This results in a small peak at 0.5-0.6
(green color band), which makes vegetation green to the human observer. Near infrared is
very useful for vegetation surveys and mapping because such a steep gradient at 0.7-0.9 m
is produced only by vegetation. Because of the water content in a leaf, there are two
absorption bands at about 1.5 m and 1.9 m. This is also used for surveying vegetation
vigor.
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Fig.11 shows various patterns of spectral reflectance with respect to different rock
types in the short wave infrared (1.3-3.0 m). In order to classify such rock types with
different narrow bands of absorption, a multi-band sensor with a narrow wavelength interval
is to be developed. Imaging spectrometers have been developed for rock type classification
and ocean color mapping.

Fig.11: Spectral reflectance of rocks and minerals

UNIT 4: SENSOR RESOLUTIONS:

RESOLUTIONS:

Spatial Resolution- the capability of the sensor to discriminate the smallest object on the
ground of different sizes; usually specified in terms of linear dimension. As a general rule,
higher the resolution, smaller the object that can be identified (Table 3).

The spatial resolution specifies the pixel size of satellite images covering the earth surface.

Table 3: Spatial resolutions

High spatial resolution 0.6 - 4 m GeoEye-1, WorldView-2, WorldView-

1, QuickBird, IKONOS, FORMOSAT-
2, ALOS, CARTOSAT-1, SPOT-5
Medium spatial 4 - 30 m ASTER, LANDSAT 7, CBERS-2
resolution

Low spatial resolution 30 - > 1000 m LANDSAT1-3, IRS-1A, 1B

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Spectral Resolution - the spectral bandwidth with which the data is collected.

In the first instance, a sensor's spectral resolution specifies the number of spectral
bands in which the sensor can collect reflected radiance. But the number of bands is not the
only important aspect of spectral resolution. The position of bands in the electromagnetic
spectrum is important, too.

High spectral resolution: - 220 bands

Medium spectral resolution: 3 - 15 bands
Low spectral resolution: - 3 bands

Radiometric resolution – the capability of the sensor to discriminate two targets based on its
reflectance/emittance difference; it is measured in terms of the smallest reflectance/emittance
that can be detected. Higher the radiometric resolution, smaller the radiance differences that
can be detected between two targets.

Temporal Resolution- the capability to view the same target, under similar conditions, at
regular intervals.

High temporal resolution: < 24 hours - 3 days

Medium temporal resolution: 4 - 16 days
Low temporal resolution: > 16 days

Space Programme in India

For the past four decades, ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) has launched
more than 70 satellites for various scientific and technological applications like mobile
communications, Direct-to-Home services, meteorological observations, telemedicine, tele-
education, disaster warning, radio networking, search and rescue operations, remote sensing
and scientific studies of the space.

ISRO has established two major space systems, the Indian National Satellite System
(INSAT) series for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services
which is Geo-Stationary Satellites, and Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for
resources monitoring and management which is Earth Observation Satellites. ISRO has
launched many Experimental Satellites which are generally small comparing to INSAT or
IRS, Space Missions to explore the space and Navigation Satellite to provide accurate
position information service to users. Satellites launched by ISRO, India are given in Table
4. Some of the major goals of India’s space programme are to
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1. Conduct national natural resources census

2. Realise large scale cartographic maps for the nation
3. Establish ocean state forecasting system and an operational ocean information service
4. Facilitate improved weather forecasting
5. Support information needs for disaster management system
6. Position a viable spatial information business in the country

Table 4: Satellite launched by India

Satellite Launch date Launch Type of satellite
vehicle
IRNSS-1B 04.04.2014 PSLV-C24 Navigation Satellite
GSAT-14 05.01.2014 GSLV-D5 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Mars Orbiter Mission 05.11.2013 PSLV-C25 Space Mission
Spacecraft
GSAT-7 30.08.2013 Ariane-5 Geo-Stationary Satellite
VA-215
INSAT-3D 26.07.2013 Ariane-5 Geo-
VA-214 Stationary/Meteorological
Satellite
IRNSS-1A 01.07.2013 PSLV-C22 Navigation Satellite
SARAL 25.02.2013 PSLV-C20 Earth Observation Satellite
GSAT-10 29.09.2012 Ariane-5 Geo-Stationary Satellite
VA-209

RISAT-1 26.04.2012 PSLV-C19 Earth Observation Satellite

Jugnu 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18 Experimental / Small
Satellite
SRMSat 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18 Experimental / Small
Satellite
Megha-Tropiques 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18 Earth Observation Satellite
GSAT-12 15.07.2011 PSLV-C17 Geo-Stationary Satellite
GSAT-8 21.05.2011 Ariane-5 Geo-Stationary Satellite
VA-202
RESOURCESAT-2 20.04.2011 PSLV-C16 Earth Observation Satellite
YOUTHSAT 20.04.2011 PSLV-C16 Experimental / Small
Satellite
GSAT-5P 25.12.2010 GSLV-F06 Geo-Stationary Satellite
STUDSAT 12.07.2010 PSLV-C15 Experimental / Small
Satellite
CARTOSAT-2B 12.07.2010 PSLV-C15 Earth Observation Satellite
GSAT-4 15.04.2010 GSLV-D3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Oceansat-2 23.09.2009 PSLV-C14 Earth Observation Satellite
ANUSAT 20.04.2009 PSLV-C12 Experimental / Small
Satellite
RISAT-2 20.04.2009 PSLV-C12 Earth Observation Satellite
 22

Chandrayaan-1 22.10.2008 PSLV-C11 Space Mission

CARTOSAT - 2A 28.04.2008 PSLV-C9 Earth Observation Satellite
IMS-1 28.04.2008 PSLV-C9 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-4B 12.03.2007 Ariane-5ECA Geo-Stationary Satellite
CARTOSAT - 2 10.01.2007 PSLV-C7 Earth Observation Satellite
SRE - 1 10.01.2007 PSLV-C7 Experimental / Small
Satellite
INSAT-4CR 02.09.2007 GSLV-F04 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-4C 10.07.2006 GSLV-F02 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-4A 22.12.2005 Ariane-5GS Geo-Stationary Satellite
HAMSAT 05.05.2005 PSLV-C6 Experimental / Small
Satellite
CARTOSAT-1 05.05.2005 PSLV-C6 Earth Observation Satellite
EDUSAT (GSAT-3) 20.09.2004 GSLV-F01 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Resourcesat-1(IRS-P6) 17.10.2003 PSLV-C5 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-3A 10.04.2003 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-3E 28.09.2003 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
GSAT-2 08.05.2003 GSLV-D2 Geo-Stationary Satellite
KALPANA- 12.09.2002 PSLV-C4 Geo-Stationary Satellite
1(METSAT)
INSAT-3C 24.01.2002 Ariane-42L Geo-Stationary Satellite
H10-3
Technology 22.10.2001 PSLV-C3 Earth Observation Satellite
Experiment Satellite
(TES)
GSAT-1 18.04.2001 GSLV-D1 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-3B 22.03.2000 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
Oceansat(IRS-P4) 26.05.1999 PSLV-C2 Earth Observation Satellite

INSAT-2E 03.04.1999 Ariane-42P Geo-Stationary Satellite

H10-3
INSAT-2DT January 1998 Ariane-44L Geo-Stationary Satellite
H10
IRS-1D 29.09.1997 PSLV-C1 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2D 04.06.1997 Ariane-44L Geo-Stationary Satellite
H10-3
IRS-P3 21.03.1996 PSLV-D3 Earth Observation Satellite
IRS-1C 28.12.1995 Molniya Earth Observation Satellite

INSAT-2C 07.12.1995 Ariane-44L Geo-Stationary Satellite

H10-3
IRS-P2 15.10.1994 PSLV-D2 Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini 04.05.1994 ASLV Space Mission
Satellite Series
(SROSS-C2)
IRS-1E 20.09.1993 PSLV-D1 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2B 23.07.1993 Ariane-44L Geo-Stationary Satellite
H10+
INSAT-2A 10.07.1992 Ariane-44L Geo-Stationary Satellite
 23

H10
Stretched Rohini 20.05.1992 ASLV Space Mission
Satellite Series
(SROSS-C)
IRS-1B 29.08.1991 Vostok Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-1D 12.06.1990 Delta 4925 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-1C 21.07.1988 Ariane-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Stretched Rohini 13.07.1988 ASLV Earth Observation Satellite
Satellite Series
(SROSS-2)
IRS-1A 17.03.1988 Vostok Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini 24.03.1987 ASLV Space Mission
Satellite Series
(SROSS-1)
INSAT-1B 30.08.1983 Shuttle Geo-Stationary Satellite
[PAM-D]
Rohini (RS-D2) 17.04.1983 SLV-3 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-1A 10.04.1982 Delta 3910 Geo-Stationary Satellite
PAM-D
Bhaskara-II 20.11.1981 C-1 Earth Observation Satellite
Intercosmos
Ariane Passenger 19.06.1981 Ariane-1(V-3) Geo-Stationary Satellite
Payload Experiment
(APPLE)
Rohini (RS-D1) 31.05.1981 SLV-3 Earth Observation Satellite
Rohini (RS-1) 18.07.1980 SLV-3 Experimental/Small Satellite
Rohini Technology 10.08.1979 SLV-3 Experimental / Small
Payload (RTP) Satellite
Bhaskara-I 07.06.1979 C-1 Earth Observation Satellite
Intercosmos
Aryabhata 19.04.1975 C-1 Experimental/Small Satellite
Intercosmos
(Source:www.isro.gov.in)

Some of the important applications of Remote Sensing technology are:

1. Environmental assessment and monitoring (urban growth, hazardous waste).

2. Global change detection and monitoring (atmospheric ozone depletion, deforestation,
global warming).
3. Agriculture (crop condition, yield prediction, soil erosion).
4. Nonrenewable resource exploration (minerals, oil, natural gas).
5. Renewable natural resources (wetlands, soils, forests, oceans).
6. Meteorology (atmosphere dynamics, weather prediction).
7. Mapping (topography, land use. Civil engineering).
8. Military surveillance and reconnaissance (strategic policy, tactical assessment).
9. News media (illustrations, analysis).
 24

Advantages of Remote Sensing

The basic advantages of remote sensing are listed below:

1. Relatively cheap and rapid method of acquiring up-to-date information over a large
geographical area.
2. It is the only practical way to obtain data from inaccessible regions, e.g. Antarctica,
Amazonia.
3. At small scales, regional phenomena which are invisible from the ground are clearly
visible (e.g., beyond the mens visibility); for example, faults and other geological
structures.
4. Cheap and rapid method of constructing base maps in the absence of detailed land
surveys.
5. Easy to manipulate with the computer and combine with other geographic coverage’s
in the GIS.

Disadvantages of Remote Sensing

The basic disadvantages of remote sensing are given below:

1. They are not direct samples of the phenomenon, so must be calibrated against reality.
This calibration is never exact; a classification error of 10% is excellent.
2. They must be corrected geometrically and georeferenced in order to be useful as
maps, not only as pictures.
3. Distinct phenomena can be confused if they look the same to the sensor, leading to
classification error. For example, artificial and natural grass in green light.
4. Phenomena which were not meant to be measured can interfere with the image and
must be accounted for.
5. Resolution of satellite imagery is too coarse for detailed mapping and for
distinguishing small contrasting areas.

SUMMING UP

This block covers topics such as scope and types of remote sensing, electromagnetic
radiation, stages in remote sensing, sensor data output, spectral signatures, etc. Student
understands how this remote sensing technology has evolved to the present level and playing
a key role in monitoring and mapping natural and cultural resources. The basic component in
remote sensing is light. The student acquires knowledge about how light is interacting with
the different objects and how it modifies into spectral signature to identify objects remote
sensing. Acquires knowledge about the electromagnetic radiation, different regions in it and
what are the regions are using in remote sensing with its spectral wave lengths. Similarly,
different scattering and black body radiation is given for proper understanding of physics of
remote sensing which in turn its role in remote sensing. So that the student can understand
the passive/active light is the major source for obtaining information through remote sensing
 25

with some constraints. What are the different resolutions that are very important in
understanding satellite data products is given. A gist about its advantages and disadvantages
are also mentioned. In this block starting from basics to present level of satellite technology
with reference to Indian space activities given.

MODEL QUESTIONS:

1. Describe about Electromagnetic spectrum with neat sketch and explain regions useful
in remote sensing.
2. Explain briefly about advantages and disadvantages of remote sensing.
3. Write any two of the following
a) Stages in remote sensing b) Historical development of remote sensing
b) Scattering and absorption.
c) Draw the neat sketch of black body radiation and explain different laws.

REFERENCES:

Remote sensing and image interpretation, Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, W.R. and Chipman, W.J,
2004, 5th edition, Wiley-India, pp.763.

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing (Second Edition), George Joseph, 2005, University Press,
pp.474.

Remote Sensing of the Environment, (Second Edition) John R.Jenson, 2009, Pearson
Education, pp.592.

Remote Sensing Geology (Second Edition), Ravi P.Gupta, 2005, Springer, pp.655.

http://wtlab.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~wataru/lecture/rsgis/rsnote/cp1/cp1-1.htm

http://www.satimagingcorp.com/characterization-of-satellite-remote-sensing-systems.html

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog883kls/node/365

http://www.isprs.org/caravan/documents/Lao_Basic_RS.pdf